Punctuation 1: Comma, Series

• Separate three or more equally ranked words, phrases, or short clauses with commas. Place a comma between each item and before the conjunction and, but, or nor.

Example with words:

Example with phrases:

Example with short clauses:

Comma, Parenthetical

Set off with commas any words that are unnecessary for the grammatical completeness of the sentence and that interrupt its natural flow. A partial listing of these parenthetical expressions are:

Accordingly Indeed

Also Nevertheless

Consequently Of course

Furthermore On the other hand

Hence Perhaps

However Secondly

In addition Therefore

In fact Too

In the meantime Yes

Comma, Parenthetical

Beginning

Middle

End

Comma, Direct Address

Set off with commas nouns used in direct address. Capitalize only proper nouns.

Beginning of a sentence

Middle of a sentence

End of a sentence

Comma, Appositive

An appositive renames or explains the noun that appears directly before it. Set off with commas appositive expressions.

Within a sentence

End of a sentence

Comma, Appositive

When appositive expressions are needed to identify the nouns they rename or explain, omit the commas. Also, omit the commas with one-word appositives.

Indicates which one

One-word appositive

Comma, Appositive

Another appositive form is a college degree that follows directly after the name of an individual. Set off the degree in commas.

Degree abbreviated

Degree written in full

Comma, Dates

Separate combinations of weekday, calendar date, and year with commas. No commas are used, however, with a calendar date expressed alone.

Calendar date—no commas

Calendar date and year—commas

Weekday and calendar date—commas

Weekday, calendar date, and year—commas

Comma, Dates

Expressions of month and year are written without commas.

Without commas

Comma, Addresses

Use commas to set off a state name following the name of a city.

Within a sentence

Commas, Addresses

In the body of a document, spell out and separate with commas the parts of an address.

Name and complete address

Comma, Coordinating Conjunctions

When two complete independent thoughts are joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor), place a comma before the conjunction.

Comma, Independent Adjectives

When two or more independent adjectives modify a noun, separate the adjectives with commas. Reverse the adjectives and insert the word and to test whether or not the adjectives are independent.

Independent adjectives

Adjectives not independent

Comma, Introductory Phrases and Clauses

A sentence appearing in normal order follows a subject-verb-object pattern.

Normal order

However, when a sentence is inverted, it contains an introductory phrase or clause.

Comma, Introductory Phrases and Clauses

Place a comma after an introductory expression that contains any verb form.

Comma, Restrictive Phrases and Clauses

Restrictive phrases and clauses are essential to the meaning of a sentence. If they are removed, the meaning of the sentence would be altered or unclear.

Essential for identification or meaning

Comma, Nonrestrictive Phrases and Clauses

Nonrestrictive phrases and clauses add an additional idea but do not substantially modify the meaning of a sentence. If they are were removed, the meaning of the sentence would not be altered.

Use commas to set off nonrestrictive word groups from the remainder of the sentence.

Additional idea

Comma, Contrasting or Contingent Expressions

Contrasting or contingent expressions should be set off by commas. Come words often used to introduce contrasting expressions are but, never, not, seldom, and yet.

Comma, Clarity

Separate with a comma two identical verbs that appear together in a sentence.

Comma, Clarity

Words repeated for emphasis are separated by a comma.

Comma, Short Quotations

Use a comma to separate from the rest of the sentence a complete sentence set off in quotation marks.

Beginning Quotation

Ending Quotation

Interrupted Quotation

Comma, Short Quotations

No comma is needed when a quotation at the beginning of a sentence ends with a question mark or exclamation mark.