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FAO LIBRARY AN: 320319
IDAF / WP / 39
PURSE SEINE AND ENCIRCLING NET FISHING
OPERATIONS IN SENEGAL, GUINEA, SIERRA LEONE,
GHANA AND BENIN
PAO/ DANIDA NORWAY
July 1991
IDAF/WP/39
July 1991
PURSE SEINE AND ENCIRCLING NET FISHING OPERATIONS
IN SENEGAL, GUINEA, SIERRA LEONE, GHANA AND BENIN
R.J. Beare and P. Tanimomo
Programme de DéveloppementIntégré des Peches Artisanalesen Afrique de l'Ouest - DIPA
Programme for IntegratedDevelopment of ArtisanalFisheries in West Africa -IDAF
GCP/RAF/192/DEN.
With financial assistance from Denmark and in collaborationwith the Republic of Benin, the Fisheries Department of FAO isimplementing in West Africa a programme of small scale fisheriesdevelopment, commonly called the IDAF Project. This programme isbased upon an integrated approach involving production,processing and marketing of fish, and related activities; it alsoinvolves an active participation of the target fishingcommunities.
This report is a working paper and the conclusions andrecommendations are those considered appropriate at the time ofpreparation. The working papers have not necessarily been clearedfor publication by the government(s) concerned nor by FAO. Theymay be modified in the light of further knowledge gained atsubsequent stages of the Project and issued later in otherseries.
The designations employed and the presentation of materialdo not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of FAO ora financing agency concerning the legal status of any country orterritory, city or area, or concerning the determination of itsfrontiers or boundaries.
IDAF ProjectFAO
Boite Postale 1369Cotonou, R. Benin
Telex : 5291 FOODAGRI Tel.: 330925/330624Fax : (229) 313649
Mr. Rod Beare has been engaged in fishing in the UK, and hewas project manager at Shenge, Sierra Leone, in 1987-89. Mr.Pascal Tanimomo is fishing technologist with the model project,Benin.
The consultation was undertaken in April, 1991.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
1 Foreward 1
2 General Introduction 3
3 Summary of findings 4
4 Recommendations 5
5 Definitions 6
6 Purse seining in Senegal 8
7 Encircling netting in Guinea 21
8 Encircling netting in Sierra Leone 31
9 Purse seining in Ghana 41
10 The artisanal purse seine fishery in Benin 5911 Conclusions, observations and comments 62
TABLES1 Pelagic fish production in tons. Senegal 8
2 Number of purse seines in Senegal 9
3 Evolution of the experimental purse in Senegal 124 Total annual landings of sardinellas, Ghana 475 Average size in metres of each type of canoe, Ghana 486 Canoe measurements, Axim Ghana 497 Composition of the Ghana canoe fleet 508 Number of seine nets and fishermen, Benin 59
FIGURESJ. Main commercial target fish 22 Purse seine Dakar 103 Pirogue, Senegal 134 Senegal, Purse seine shooting and hauling 155 Senegal, Shooting the purse, detail 176 Senegal, Hauling the purse, detail 187 Hauling and relaying the net, detail 198 Map of Guinea, seabed conditions 209 Experimental purse seine, Guinea 23
10 Ghana canoe, Guinea, Sierra Leone 2511 Setting the reggae net 2612 Setting the 'encircling gill net 2713 Shooting procedure, encircling net, detail 2814 Hauling procedures, gill and reggae net 2915a Ghana plank canoe, Shenge Sierra Leone 3215b Experimental purse net, Tombo Sierra Leone 3316 Pursing the encircling net, hauling stage 3517 .
" crossing the floatlines 3618a Final stage of hauling the encircling net 3718b End view of hauling to show potential escape area 3919 Map of Ghana coastline 4219a Ghana dugout canoe 4320 Watsa-purse seine 4421 Poli/sieve purse seine 4522 Watsa/poli purse seine 4623 Ghana canoe launching procedures 5124 Shooting the purse seine, Ghana 5225 Hauling the purse line, Ghana 5326 Final hauling procedure detail, Ghana 5427 Typical pattern of competition, Ghana 5828 Purse seine, Benin 60
APPENDICES1 Terms of reference 672 References 683 Comments on the comparative cost and earnings of
purse seine and encircling net operations 704 Examples of encircling nets, Sierra Leone 745 Ghana canoe stability after Gulbrandsen 786 Conversion table R tex 797 Project suggestions 80
FOREA0
The terms of reference Lar the examination of purseseine operations by the artisanal canoe fleets in Senegal,Guinea, Sierra Leone, Ghana and Benin afforded a timelyopportunity to examine the background to the development of thepurse seine fisheries of these countries as well as anopportunity to to draw together other closely related studiesand observations on fishing gear, canoes and methods of operationfrom a variety of West African sources.
Because the use of the purse seine by the artisanalcanoe fleets of West Africa has evolved from both indigenous aswell as external influences and the continued viability of suchoperations depends on so many different factors it was consideredappropriate to incorporate such studies as the investigationscarried out by the FAO Shenge Project SIL/ 82/ 015 into the costand earnings of Ghana Plank canoes:Ring net and fuel efficiencyinvestigations carried out by the Kambia Fisheries DevelopmentProject ( Mac Allister Elliott 1985-1987). It was also consideredrelevant to incorporate research from the Centre de RechercheHalieutique de Boussoura in Çuinea into purse seines in Ce.
1voire as well as the variety of canoe and fishing gear studiescarried out by the IDAF Regional project GCP/RAF/192/DEN in Beninand the Fisheries Research and Utilization Branch of the GhanaianMinistry of Auriculture. All the studies mentioned and many morebesides provide additional insights into the past , present andfuture of artisanal purse seine operations.
Drawing these threads together in the short timeavailable proved to be a difficult exercise and in some areassuch as the cost and earnings of purse seine operations the timeallowed was insufficient for statistically valid comparisons tobe made. Rather the information gathered should be regarded asindicative of the underlying cost and earnings of purse seineoperations in the different countries concerned and care shouldbe exercised with extrapolation. Likewise the dearth of reliableand recent statistical information on the size, composition andcatch effort of the artisanal fleets while not surprising againmakes comparisons and the identification of trends that affectfishing teehniques and viability that much more difficult. Itshould also be kept in mand that many of the countries concerned-are undergoing severe structural readjustment problems and thatresulting currency and commodity fluctuations can invalidate dataalmost overnight.
This report seeks to describe the'purse seining canoes,gear and methods of operation which have evolved and spread fromthe major purse seining traditions of Seftegal,and ghana. It asolooks at the encircling gilì net fisheries of Sierra Leone andGuinea which represent the interface between the Senegalese andGhanaian purse seining traditions. For this and other reasonsinvolvina the pursing of the encircling net it was consideredessential to include a more than aursory descript ion of theoperation of the encircling net fisheries of Sierra Leone andGuinea.
MAIN COMMeeCIAL TAgqerS OF T4-4E PuRsE Se.INEAND a-NC-Mg-L. P4C1 r4a-r Fts+testZtES.
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Sardinella maderensis (Lowe, 1841)
Ethmalosa fimbriata (Bowdich, 1825)
Sardinella aurita Valenciennes, 1847
-
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5
Engraulis encrasicolus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1ç1
2. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The artisanal canoe fisheries or the maritime statesof West Africa play a major role in the supply of protein to bothurban and rural communities contributing towards more than 80%of the total, landings. The greatest part of these landings arerepresented by pelagic species that are caught by various typesof encircling nets of which the purse seines are one of the mostimportant.
Purse seines are designed and constructed to catchpelagic fish such as Sardinella aurita, Sardinella kaderensis andEthmallosa fimbriata (see Fig 1). However, these target fish arealso efficiently exploited by another type of encircling net,which unlike in Senegal and Ghana, are the dominant forms ofcapture among artisanal fishermen in Guinea and Sierra Leone. Thereason for including these other encircling nets is that themanner in which they are used makes them, if conditions arefavourable, operate with the same effect as a purse seine. Notthrough closing the bottomewith a purse line, but through contactwith-the seabed.
The use of purse seine nets is a relatively recentphenomenon in West Africa and is generally accepted to haveevolved seperately and spread from the two most technicallyinovative fisheries of West Africa, Senegal and Ghana.
In Senegal the purse seine was the result of adeliberate attempt from external sources to improve theefficiency of the large Pirogues. Up to this point the largerpirogues used the encircling gill net as the main type of gearfor catching pelagics.
On the other hand the artisanal canoe fishermen ofGhana appear to have adapted their own encircling nets to thepursing principal through the influence of the industial fleetwhich was increasingly using purse nets to exploit offshorepelagic resources in the early 196015.
After the adoption of the purse seine method by theartisanai canoe fishermen its spread along the coast of WestAfrica was assisted by the migratory nature of the artisanalfishermen who took their new technique with them from Senegal tothe north and from Ghana to both east and west. Purse seine netaof similar pattern to the Ghanaian model are in use as far to theeast as the Cameroons and in the past were to be found inoperation as far to the west as Sierra Leone.
At present the purse seine methed is predominantly inuse in Ghana and Senegal while in countries such as Guinea itsuse has been banned and in Sierra Leone it is activelydiscouraged.
3
3 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS.
1. The statistics and research into the specific effects of purseseines and the trend towards smaller mesh sizes are inadequatefor determining their effect on fish stocks and legislativerequirements.
2. The increased use of purse seines has been accompanied bylarger canoes to carry longer, deeper and heavier nets withsmaller mesh. This trend has accompanied the targetting ofjuvenile fish as well as smaller species such as the anchovy.
3. Little technical progress has been made towards....improved crew safety.improved reserve bouyancy and stability.more fuel efficient canoe propulsion.adoption of inboard well mounted outboard engines.improved engine maintenance and handling practices to
improve safety and engine life and minimise fish escape.marketing the large catches from purse seine
canoes.including onboard use of ice and onshorerefrigeration.
Improved navigation ,knotwork and splicing.reducing pressure on the use of the wawa tree in canoe
construction/finding alternatives to existing canoes.i, testing the effectiveness of the purse seine againstother techniques such as the encircling reggae net.
4. Current methods of gear and boat hauling appear appropriateto the need to provide work and tO the social organization of thefishing communities. The purse seine fishermen do not appear toneed the mechanization of hauling procedures-- crews areavailable, willing and able to haul purse nets and beach canoes.5. The purse seine method is not a necessity to the exploitationof pelagics in either Sierra Leone or in Guinea due to shallowwater and the technique of pursing 'fie encircling net with seabedcontact.6. Although current information indicates that purse seining andencircling net operations are viable in all the countries visitedthe total package of canoe engine and net depends on increasinglyexpensive imported and in many cases, subsidized inputs. Anysignificant rise in the price of inputs or elimination ofsubsidies would decrease the viability of this method of fishing.
4
4. 1. CONSERVATION.
5
Assast in the identification of the effects of the useof the purse seine by artisanal fishermen on small and immaturefish stocks with the overall aim of advising all West Africanfasheries departments on mesh size regulation and policy towardspurse seines an the various fisheries concerned, Specificallyassist the Ghanaian Research Bureau an this matter where concernhas already been expressed.
Disperse fishing effort through encouragement of morefuel efficient engines which afford greater fishing range.
e. Encourage improved monitoring of purse seining andencircling net operations to identity the magnitude and effectsof the decrease in mesh size and increased use of this method offishing,
4. 2. TECHNICAL,
Devise improved methods of crew safety in large canoesincluding the employment of locally found balsa type woods (verylight and bouyant) such as musanga circropioides (uMbrellatree).This same wood could be used to improve bouyancy in someinstances.
Demonstrate and introduce artisanal fishermen to the useof diesel outboard engines especially to the large purse seiningand encircling net canoes to improve viability.
Improve mechanic training and facilities in artisanalfishing communities to improve operational reliability and safetyof outboards as well as increasing engine life.
Initiate projects which assist in the improved marketingof f esh fish to aniand markets.
Initiate training in appropriate navigation, knotssplices and stability among the captains of large canoes.
Test the relative effectiveness and costs of the purseseine in comparison with the encircling reggae net. Test anddemonstrate the internal outboard engine well to reducevibration, noise and cavitation to improve engine performanceamong Ghanaian fishing canoes.
finding appropriate replacements for the dugout canoesand pirogues should remain an important aim among aid agenciesand organizations.
4. 3. GENERAL.
New entrants to the use of purse seines and the purseseine fishery should not be encouraged.
The monitoring of the effects of the encircling netfisheries need to be encouraged just as much as the monitoringof the purse seine fisheries.
4. RECOMMENDATIONS.
DEFINITIONS.
6
There appears to be some confusion in the literatureon West African fishing gear concerning the definitionms ofparticular types of encircling nets. This confusion isunderstandable given the large number of people from otherfishing areas and traditions who have from time to time added tothis descriptive work.
To avoid confusion in this report concerning the useof various terms to describe encirclinu nets it was decided toavoid the term "ring" net which to some describes the action ofringing the fish while to others it denotes a particular type ofencircling gear similar to the purse seine.
All the types of gear described in this report aregenerically of the encircling type. The artisanal purse seinebeing of the type which has rings on the bottom through whichruns a continuous rope called the purse line. The action ofhauling the purse rope from one or both ends closes off thebottom of the net by drawing the net together under the fish andprevents their escape.
In Senegal there does not appear to be a problem withthe definition of the purse seine as it follows a single basictype which again appears to follow quite faithfully the designwhich was originally introduced in the late sixties. This hadsmall mesh and a bunt ( an area of relatively smaller andstronger mesh ) for the final concentration of fish at or veryclose to one end of the net.
However, in Ghana there is a more complex situationbecause of the divergent nature of the sources of origin of thetechnique and the increasing need to catch a more diverseselection of fish. In this respect it is proposed to follow thecurrently used official Ghanaian definitions of the three mostcommonly used forms of purse seine, the Watsa (see fig 20 ),thepoli/ sieve (see fig 21 ) and finally, the only intermediate netto be described, the watsa/poli ( see fia 22) which is basicallya watsa net with mesh sizes above 25mm and a bunt of lOmm.Between these three basic types there are many variations whichappear to be based on expediency as well as the dictates ofconscious design.
47.i The Watsa purse seine net.(see fig 20 ).
The Ghanaian watsa purse net is a surrounding net whichoriainally evolved from a net which did not have a pursingmechanism. This net was constructed with 50 - 60 mm mesh nettingfor catching pelagics such as the little tunny ( Euthynusalieteratus ) and. other species of a similar size. With theadaptation of this net to smaller mesh netting, rings and thepurse line, it lost its original characteristic and is currentlyused in the capture of an expanded range of small pelagic fish.These include Sardinella ( see fig i) the european anchovy (
Engraulis encrasicolus ), chub mackerel ( Scomber japonicus )etc.The size of the net varies but is generally in the region of 400to 600 metres in length and 35 to 50 metres deep. The net has aminimum mesh size of 25 mm in the bunt while the rest of the net
7
is constructed of a variety of meshes up to about 50mm in size.It is operated in deeper water than the poli/sieve by a crewvarying from 18 to 25 men from an outboard engined dugout canoe(see fig 19a).52. The Poli/ Seive purse seine net.
Thas purse seine net ( see fig 21 ) is referred to asa sieve because of the fineness of the mesh used in itsconstruction. It is generally about 450 - 540 metres in lengthand 35 - 40 metres in depth. It is constructed of small meshes,with around 10 mm in the bunt while the rest of the net has meshwhich is under 25mm. The legal limit is 25 mm. The bunt, as inthe watsa, can be situated either in the middle or towards oneend. The poli/sieve purse is in extensive use for the capture ofeuropean anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus ) and for juvenileSardinella and small fish like grunt (Brachydeuterus auritus ).5,5 The Watsa/Poli purse seine net.
The other Ghanaian version of the purse seine (see tig22) is intermediate between the watsa and the poli/sieve purseseine. This net is called the Watsa/ poli net, that is a netwhich is essentially a watsa but has a bunt with very. small 10mm mesh. The rest of the net has meshes which are above 25 mm insize. This combination ot netting enables the net to be used inthe fisnery for the very small pelagics such as the anchovy andtherefore increases the versatility of the watsa net and makesit possible to exploit fish during al seasons.
The essential point with regard to the three differenttypes of Ghanaian purse seine is that their versatility has beenincreased through the addition of small mesh netting, thewatsa/poli to catch the anchovy as an alternative to largerpelagics while the poli/sieve was devised to catch anchovy.s-,4t. Encircling Gill net and Reggae net,
In this report the term encircling net will refer tothe nets used mainly in Sierrra Leone and Guinea, but also usedelsewhere. These nets surround the target fish but do not haverings secured to the leadline. Neither do they have a purse ropewhose function is to close off, or purse , the bottom of the net.
There are two main types of encircling nets which arehauled in a manner which in shallow water perform like a purseseine. First there is the encircling gill net which generally hasmesh sizes in the range 45 - 65 mm and a length of between 400o 1,000 metres which is used to surround and gill, the fish. Themain commercial targets for this net are the adult Bonga (
Ethmalosa fimbriata,see fig 1) while its juvenile form awefu is-more iikely to be the target of the encircling reggae net.
The reggae net has a smaller mesh size of around 40mm,is of similar 14.4gth to., and is deployed to catch a wider sizerange of fish thañ the encircling gill-net. It also has thedistinct function of guiding more fish to the final stages ofhauling without gilling them although.: juvenile bonga areoccassionally gilled . This is particularly true if the fish arelarge or medium bonga, the most important commercial target forsuch nets. A final definition of these encircling nets reflectssimilar trends to the purse in the adoption by some fishermen ofa "bunt" of smaller reggae sized mesh in their encircling gillnet. This type of gear is known as"filet mixte"in Guinea wherethis mixing of net is following an identical trend in SierraLeone.
8
(s. PURSE SEINING iN SENEGAL.
Acdording o quarterly z..ta.Tids issued by theDirection des Peches the marine ?:rtisanai fIsheraes of Senegalproduce more t-han 80 '6 of the national catch. Using essentiallyplanked pirogues the arisanal fishermen deploy a wide varietyof fish ny gear ot which purse seines are the most important.
IMPORTANCE OF THE METHOD.
6.1 PELAGIC FISH PRODUCTION
The total fish production landed by purse seines cannot begiven since the method for collecting the statistics were changedin 1986 since when purse seine and beach seine statistics weretaken together and since 1987 there have been no statisticsavailable. However, approximately 90 % of the pelagic specieslanded by the different nets are mainly gaught by purse seinesit is therefore possible to e!F;timate t.he size of the catchattributable to the purse seining method. For this reason onlythe principal target fish for purse seines have been selected toprovide an indication of the level of production which is aresuit of purse seining activities.
These target fish (see'm t ) are Sardineila maderensis,Ethmalosa fimbriata,and mackerel from the regions of Dakaar,Thies, Sa-int-Louis, Ziguinchor, Kaolack and Louga.
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989
Sardinella - 86907.9 102p13.9 138543.7 140074.3 153.949.3
Ethmalosa - 6865.5 8073.6 8035.8 10,160.1 15,063.4
Mackerel - 7039.2 14443.8 17725.6 9124.7 9379.8
Total 96469.6 100812.6 124531.3 164305.1 159359.1 178392.5
Tablel Pelagic fiSh production in tons. Regions of Dakar, Thies,
St. Louis, Ziguinchor, Fatick, Kaolack and Louga.
Source : Fisheries Department, Dakar
These statistics indicate a constant jncrease in fishlandings from 1984 r_o 1989, from tne purSe- seine method.Unfortunately there are no more recent statistics available but
reasonable to suppose that thi3 increasing trend hascontinued tu the present and thaT: there has been a continuedincrease an the numbers of purse seint,fs.
As already mentioned the number cf purse seine nets in
operatIon is impossible to distinguish which is doublyunfortunate rrom the point cut view of the need to monitor thispotentially damaging iorm or fishing and the fact that thestatistics on its use stop at a time in ,R6 when the method wasbecoming a significant contributor to the national catch. Seerable below.
Number ot purse seines
Table 4 : Number of purse seines from 1984 to 1986
* : The nutber includes that of beach seine5
mTable 2. confirms that the nuber or purse seines increased5 from 1984 onwards. according tc local advice the
number ot beach seines in use was also growing and becoming animportant factor in the Lish production of the Senegalesefishery.
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989
Dakar 83 79 153*
Thies 174 180 211*
St. Louis 67 58 62*
Ziguinchor 2 64*
Fatick 23 33 63*
Kaolack 21*
Louga 2 1
Total 347 354 575*
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4,3 BACKGROUND TO THE INTRODUCTION OF PURSE SEINING.
The first trials and demonstrations of a purse seinewere carried out in the "Baie de Goree" in may 1969 to introducepurse seining to the marine artisanal fisheries of Senegal.Despite the small size of the pirogue used in the demonstrations(a m) the results were encouraging with landings of five tons ofbig sardinella in three hauls. These trials which were carriedout by G. Grasset (FAO fishing gear expert) with severalSenegalese fishermen were continued until 1972 in the fishingcentres of M'Bour and Joal.
Further trials were conducted with Senegalese type piroguesof 12 metres length and 2 metres width powered by 20 hp petroloutboard engines. The crews of S - 9 fishermen were selected fromamong the most experienced fishermen in the encircling gill netfishery which, at that time, was the most common fishing methodfor catching pelagic fish before the introduction of purseseines.
The net used in the trials had single 24 mm stretched meshthroughout its 150 metre length and 40 metres depth. The twinesused were 6,660 m/ka (r-tex155 or 210D 6)in the lateral bunt and10,000 m/kg (r-tex 100 or 210D 4) in the body of the net. Ringswere fitted to the leadline of the net every 15 metres and leadsat the rate of 2kg every metre. The basic design of the net usedduring these trials is stilq closeiy. followed by the purseseining pirogues to this day.
These trials also established the basic arrangements forstowing and shooting the purse seine from the pirogue. Hencesetting the pattern of operations still in current use. To setthe purse seine the net is arranged in the middle of the piroguewith the lead line laid foreward (see fig_6) athwartship and thefloatline across the pirogue towards the stern. The purse ringsattached to the leadline are stacked on a pole on the portsidethrough which the purse line is attached to the first wing endto be shot into the water. The other end of the purse line is ledforward to the bow from where it is coiled and guided duringshooting operations (see fig 5).
When a shoal of fish is sighted the pirogue is manoevredinto a suitable position, if competitors allow, and the firstwing end plus purse line and marker bouy are cast into thewater.The net is then shot from the port side and the fishsurrounded.- Pursing starts immediately by hauling the purse lineand only stops when the rings of the net are brought alonside and-the net closed or pursed. Hauling the net and leads then beginsin ,earnest and the fish guided into the lateral bunt where thecatch is brailed into the pirogue.
In may 1972 the last trials of the seine were completed andthe technique considered sufficiently developed for adoption bythe local artisanal fleet (see Tab 3, for details of seinedevelopment). The decision was then taken to allocate a few netsto Senegalese fishermen for use in commercial fishing operations.
During the trials the original net design evolved as shownin Tab 3. Unfortunately the hanging ratio of the original net wasnot available and although the length of the net is shown thereare no comments on the reasons for the relatively short lengthin relation to the depth of the net. Current practice is for thefishermen to employ nets of approximately the same depth but muchlonger. In some cases reaching 500 or raf:ire metres.
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CURRENT PURSE SEINING CANOES,NETS AND METHODS.
Since the introduction of the purse seine in the latesixties and early seventies the most important trend has been theincrease in the size of canoes and the length of nets deployedin this type of fishing. This trend has, however, beenaccompanied by a reduction in mesh size although the style of netand the method of use has changed little from the patternintroduced by Grasset.
THE BOAT.The Senegalese Pirogue has evolved from the dugout canoe and
has a solid beam of wood some 40 - 50 cm thick as a keel uponwhich side planks have been fitted to increase both the size andcarrying capacity of the canoe (see fig 3). These side planks arelinked together by transverse thwarts, cross beams andoccassionally bulkheads which give the hull strength. Strips ofheavy canvas are nailed lengthwise over tarred caulking to stopleakage while at the stern of the canoe an outboard enginemounting bracket is situated amidships over a well cut directlythrough the keel. The length of canoe used in the purse fisheryhas increased since the mid eaghties to an average of some 18-20metres but there are some canoes of this type which nowoccassionally reach 24-26 metres in length. Example measured atDakaar Fig 3 proved to be 24 metres in length.
THE ARTISANAL PURSE SEINE NET.Since the introduction of the purse seine method the length
of the gear has markedly increased. How long the net is dependson the size of the canoe and the purse of the owner. The averagelength of net appears to be in the region of 400 metres and upto 50-60 metres in depth. There is no single model ofconstruction and the fishermen use what is available and matchesthe amount the fisherman can afford to spend.
The two most important factors to consider in relation tothe evolving purse seine method are the mesh size and theposition of the bunt. In 1980 the FAO Catalogue on Fishing GearDesigns shows three different types of seine with 28 mm, 30mm,and 80 mm uniform mesh size. During the Consultants visit almostall the purse nets were of 30 mm stretched mesh size in the bodyof the net and 25 mm in the bunt. The bunt of the net wasinvariably at or very close to one wing end (see fig 2).
THE OPERATION OF THE PURSE SEINE00 Wicliff)The fishing operation is divided into three main stages; the
searching for the shoals of fish, surrounding the fish andfinally hauling and relaying the net (see figs 4-7).
1. Searching for the fish.When a school of fish is detected on the surface its
swimming speed and direction is assessed before. setting the netin relation to the prevailing wind and tide. The captain of thepirogue needing to position the canoe, after shooting the gear,in such a way that it is pushed away from the circle formed bythe net. This is not always possible especially when fishingamong a large and very competitive fleet who will not hesitateto cut in front of the captain who is trying to make up his mindwhat to do.
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2, SURROUNDING THE FISH.The first step in setting the purse around the shoal of fish
is that the first wing end and marker bouy is thrown into the seawith the purse line attached. As the net is shooting over theside of the canoe the purse line is fed into the rings which arestacked on a small stick in the sequence in which they are to beshot (see fig 5). This purse line is attached to the other wingend of the net so a line runs forward to the coil in the bowtogether with another line which is tied to the second wingendbouy. This overide line is occassionally used when the net is notlong enough to entirely close the circle around the shoal (seefig 4). As soon as the first bouy is picked up and the netsecured to the pirogue this line is hauled in as fast as possibleto bring the other wing end to the pirogue.
3. HAULING.Hauling the purse line starts as soon as the two wing ends
of the net are secured to the pirogue. Unusually for such anoperation the pirogue is deliberately heeled over to the portside (the hauling side) as far as possible without allowing waterto enter the pirogue (see fig 6). This procedure creates aworking platform upon which the crew can stand and get a fullpurchase on the purse ropes and netting during the whole haulingoperation. What makes this method possible is the \reshape of thepirogue hull and the flat sides of the hull which areunencumbered by a deck.Note also the potential danger of thisprocedure.
During the hauling operation it was observed that thehauling rate of the purse line on the wing end furthest away fromthe bunt was a lot faster than the end closest to the bunt. Thisprocedure continued throughout the whole operation until therings were all inboard. It should be mentioned that theconcentration of the rings le. closing of the purse. wasaccompanied by a distinct rise in the crews attention to the trimof the vessel as the full_ weight of rings and net was transferredto the beam of the pirogue and especially as the rings werehauled from seabed to gunwale.
Notice also how the purse line"stoppers",erew and cleats onthe starboard gunwale, opposite to the hauling side, couldcontribute very quickly and easily to a capsize (see fig 6).During the whole hauling operation it was observedihowever,thatthe crew adjusted themselves automatically and in unison to thevarious upsetting influences of the hauling operation. This isa factor ( automatic load redistribution) which current stabilityrules do not take into consideration and which could very wellbe the subject of further research.
Once the purse line and rings and leadline are inboard thefloatline is hauled in the same manner until the fish are guidedinto the bunt end of the net. This period is also critical to thestability of the pirogue when the full weight of the catch istransferred to the bunt end of the net. This is especiallydangerous if the fish have no swim bladders and drop asdeadweight as soon as their forward movement is stopped.
As the fish are concentrated in the bunt they are eitherhauled into the canoe in one go or if the catch is large the fishare brought inboard in smaller bights of net or brailed (seefig). Relaying the net is shown in fig 7.
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ENCIRCLING NET FISHING IN GUINEA.
MAIN FEATURES OF THE ARTISANAL FISHERY.
Around 8,000 fishermen using about 2,000 canoes ofwhich approximately one third are motorized are involved in themarine artisanal fisheries of Guinea. They operate from about 90villages where fish are landed and smoked before distribution tolocal and inland markets. The dominant method of fish processingin Guinea, as in Sierra Leone, is dry smoking with various typesof open sided or covered ovens.
More than a third of the fishing activities are centredaround Conakry where some 60% of the national catch is landed .
The greatest part of the landings consist of bonga( Ethmalosafambriata) and to a lesser extent sardinella which are largelycaught by fishermen using Ghana plank canoes and encircling netsof both gill, reggae and "filet mixte" types.
Unfortunately the official statistics do not providesufficient data to be able to separate the catches derived fromvarious forms of fishing gear so it is not possible to get anycredible information on the levels cf fish production which canbe attributed to the encircling net fishery. Neither is itpossdble to give artisanal fish production because nationalstatistics have not been available since 1987. The figs given inthe Source book for inland fisheries of Africa do however givean estimate of 23,808 tons for 1990 and it would be reasonableto infer that a fairly high proportion of the national catch wasderived from ghana plank type canoes enaaged in encircling netfishing operations.
The continental shelf of Guinea (see fig 8)supports oneof the widest and richest shallow fishing grounds in west africa.It extends some 80 miles to seaward and as far as the 50 metrelevel has a very smooth slope (0.06 % Domain 1989). This slopeconsists of various mixtures of sand and clay/mud with theoccassional outcrop of latente rock which form the only seabedobstructions to those encircling nets which are used in contactwith the seabed. At the same time $OM# 10 % of the shelf has adepth of less than 15 metres which makes it ideal for the typeof encircling net fishing which is employed by the majority ofGhana plank canoe fishermen and a significant factor in theirreluctance to adopt the purse seine.
/a?. BACKGROUND TO ENCIRCLING NET OPERATIONS.
The employment of encircling nets in the Guinea bongafishery closely follows the pattern of adoption experienced inSierra Leone . The Ghana plank canoes adopted in Guinea differonly in very minor ways such as the employment by some very largecanoes of metal strengthening to the frames otherwise the typeof canoe employed is the same. This similarity also appliesequally to the style of fishing nets employed (see appendix 4)and to the methods of shooting and hauling the gear (see figs 11to 18). All this reflects the influence of the Ghanaian fishermenwhose apprentices,many of whom belonged to the Temne tribe commonto both countries, adopted and adapted the ghanaian techniques.
22
In fact the fishermen and their families commonly migratedbetween Sierra Leone and Guinea to fish the different seasons orto take advantage of the availability of fuel, netting andoutboard engines as availability changed with the rise and fallof economic prosperity on each side of the border. Anotherinfluence on cross border migration patterns have been theopportunities for credit, gear free gifts etc offered by somedevelopment projects to one side or other of the border.
`7.3 ENCIRCLING GILLNETS IN GUINEA.
The encircling gillnets of guinea are the same as thosein current use in Sierra Leone. They are approximately 400 metresto 1,000 metres in length and from about 35 to 50 metres indepth. the mesh size of the gilling type of encircling nets areusually in the range of 50 to 65 mm with a ligther twine sizethan is found in the Senegalese purse seine fishery. Usually thetwines employed are from R tex 155( 210d 6) to R tex 230(210d 9),but some fishermen employ twines as thin as R tex 75 to 100( 210d3 to 210d 4). In consequence much time is spent on the repair andmaintenance of these nets. The encircling oill nets tend to befairly specific in their target fish and most fishermen in Guineaas well as in Sierra Leone want to catch the large or mediumbonga. These fish are by far the most popular among the fishprocessors and the most easily sold to local and inland markets.On the other hand sardinella has a much more limited appeal thanin Senegal for example and is not a fish which is targetted bythe most prominent fishing communities. Where it is caught bysuch fishermen the sardinella may be regarded as suitable forhome consumption in both guinea and Sierra Leone. On the otherhand there are fisheries in in Sierra Leone which do targetsardinella on a seasonal basis but their catches receive muchlower prices than even the juvenile bonga (awefu).
The encircling gillnet (see figs 12 to 18 and examplesin appendix 4) gills the fish which leads to its distributionalong the net rather than just concentrated in the end sectionof the net. It tends to be used for adult bonga and otherrelatively large pelagics and for this reason is therefore moreacceptable in terms of its effects on the sustainability of thefish resource and allows a high proportion of juvenile and othersmall fish to escape.
However with increased compet tion for the adult bonga,restrictions on hunting range. due to fuel scarcity and highprices the need has arisen for fishermen to be able to catchwhatever is available to them rather than exclusively targettingtheir preferred fish, in this case, bonga. Thisehas led to morefishermen, especially on the fringes of the beSt bonga fishinggrounds, to adopt smaller meshes in the whole of their encirclingnets. This makes it possible to target other small pelagics ofwhich awefu or juvenile bonga is currently the preferred nextbest catch to bonga. These" reggae" nets use smaller mesh thanthe encircling gilinets and are therefore less acceptable interms of sustaining stocks than the encircling gillnet.Intermediate between the reggae and gill encircling nets thereis the development of the" Filet mixten type of encircling net.This net employs " a bunt" or area of smaller mesh either at oneend or as part of a central section and mixes the large and small
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meshes. This development appears to mirror directly the similarprocess in the Ghana fishery where the" watsa" purse seine wasadapted and made more versatile through the incorporation ofsections of smaller mesh netting such as those incorporated inthe" poli/sieve" purse seine. This made it possible to use the"watsa" purse seine for catching a wider selection of differentsized fisn during different seasons as well as being able to usethe net for a greater proportion of the year. This net has becomeknown as the "watsa poli" net.
Another reason for the adoption of smaller meshesaccording to some fishermen was that small mesh netting was allthat was available at the time and the aim was to make the netlonger. Whatever the reasons underlying this trend the combinedeffect of the adoption of smaller meshes in purse seines andencircling nets must cause concern for the sustainability ofpelagic fish stocks and the long term viability of both fishingmethods.
METHODS OF SETTING AND HAULING THE ENCIRCLING NETS.
NET STOWAGE.The encircling net is stowed in the aft section of the
ghana plank canoe and usually forward of the outboard engine. Theoutboard normally being offset to starboard while the net is shotover the port hand side and therefore well clear of the outboardpropeller. The net normally weighs in the region of 1.25 to 1.5tons and is laid with lead and floatline bunched and notseparated as in the Senegalese method of shooting the purse seine(see fig13).SHOOTING THE ENCIRCLING NET.
When a shoal of fish is sighted the engine as oftenstopped and the crew determine which direction and at what speedthe shoal is moving. Once the position has been assessed the netas shot over the side of the canoe with a large buoy attached tothe wing end. This serves as a marker for aiming towards as thenet is closed around the fish. At this stage the crew will oftenuse paddles to set the first part of the net without frighteningthe fish. When confident that the shoal is in the right positionthe outboard is stared and the remainder of the net is set atfull speed.SPREADING THE ENCIRCLING NET.
ha the net shoots out of the net bin one crew memberguides the tast moving net over his forearm towards the stern ofthe canoe where up to four other crew members spread the net,separating the floatline and leadline, as the net "wall" spreadsinto the sea. If a snag occurs during the shooting procedure acrew member often dives overboard to release the leadline whereit has snagged the floatline.
As the net surrounds the fish other crew members lookout for additional sections of the shoal and direct the helmsmanto enclose these fish. Turning to starboard to encompass theseadditional fish causes no problem as the outboard engine issituated on the starboard side and foreward of the setting net.This apparently simple procedure often caused problems to crewusing the inboard diesel powered canoes because of the positionof the propeller at the very stern of the canoe.
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30
CLOSING THE WING ENDS,When the net has been set around the shoal the canoe
slides over the wing end and the crew secure it along thestarboard side. If the net does not meet around the encircledfish there is an override line which is paid out until the canoecrosses the other wing end. This line is then hauled rapidly tobring the two net wing ends together and the first wing end tobe shot is secured to the starboard gunwale and the last wing endis secured along the port side of the canoe. This procedurecauses the two wing ends to overlap and create a double curtainof netting either side of the canoe (see fig 16). Escape is stillpossible at this stage between the two net curtains(see fig 16a)but the crew are normally alert to this and scare the fish backinto the circle by splashing the water.ENCIRCLING GILLNET PROCEDURE.
When the net is closed around the fish there are twotypes of procedure depending on whether the net is in contactwith the bottom or not. If it is in contact the crew pull thewing ends together along the starboard side of the canoe andsecure the overlapping ends together. The canoe is then motoredaround inside the net and the thwarts are drummed to scare thefish into the net where they are gilled. If the net is not incontact with the seabed then the net is secured to the canoe asabove and allowed to drift quietly for a period and the fish arenot deliberately frightened. In this way some fish are gilled butsome may very well escape through the open bottom.ENCIRCLING NETS OPERATING WITH THE EFFECT OF A PURSE SEINE.
During the hauling procedure of allthe types ofencircling nets described here the method usually employed byexperienced crews in Guinea as well as in Sierra Leone is theone where the ends are crossed to form a frontal barrier toescape under the canoe and where the wing ends are kept crossedand the leadline is in contact with the seabed at all stages ofthe hauling procedure. This technique has the effect of pursingthe net while it is in contact with the ground without a purseline to close off the bottom of the net (see figs 16, 17, 18).These figures clearly show that the pursing effect can bemaintained to the very end of the hauling procedure. Naturallythere are circumstances where the purse effect is not maintained,such as on uneven ground or when the weather conditions are notfavourable, but in-the shallow relatively obstruction free watersof both Guinea and Sierra Leone ground contact is usuallyachieved and the encircling net, in effect, behaves like a purseseine.
To summarize the encircling nets vis a vis the purseseines it can be said that for both Guinea and Sierra ieone theencircling nets are appropriate to the shallow water conditionsand to catching the most marketable fish in those countries. Onthe other hand where the depth of water is generally deeper, thecontinental shelf narrower and the competition higher, as in bothGhana and Senegal, the purse seine provides a more versatileapproach to catching pelagics, in both shallow and deeper waters,of those countries and allows fishermen to venture further to seaand thereby help to dispurse fishing effort. However, if bothmethods of fishing continue to adopt smaller mesh to targetsmaller species and juvenile fish, especially in the shallowwater fisheries, the implications for fish stocks could beserious.
31
e. ENCIRCLING NET F SHING IN SIERRA LEONE.
RJ. BACKGROUND.
Sierra Leone is located in a roughly central positiuonbetween Senegal and Ghana. It has a coastline of approximately500 km in length which is characterized by large river estuariesand mangrove swamps. The continental shelf reaches a width of 125kms and presents, alona with the waters off the coast of Guinea,the most extensive area of shallow water along the West Africancoast.
The main target fish of the artisanal canoe fishery ofSierra Leone are pelagic fish which include ethmalosa andsardinella. Of these two main species the bonga is by far themost important commercially and while sardinella is targetted insome areas such as Godrich and Tombo in other areas fishermenwill ignore shoals of Sardinella to catch bonga. The bonga rarelygoes below 20 metres water depth and therefore is well suited tothe main method employed in its capture by encircling nets.
There are three main size groups of bonga. these are
Immature fish (Awefu) which are less than 21 cm long andlargely confined to the estuaries in about 2 - 4 metres ofwater.Adult Bonga having a length ranging between 22 - 32 cm.
Songa with a length above 33 cm. These larger fish areoften found in water of more than 11 metres depth.
Source. Marine fishery resources of Sierra Leone byG.W.Ssentongo.CECAF/ECAF Series 86/34.
The largest aggregations of round sardine are recordedin the northern sector at a depth of 15-20 metres during theperiod March September.
The artisanal fishery.There are about 18,000 artisanal fishermen operating
about 7,000 dugout and planked Ghana type canoes of which about700 are equ-ipped with outboard motors of between 8-40 hp.
The artisanal fishing canoes consist of the followingtypes.
The Kru dugout canoe (less than 6m long) usually oneor two men operating handlines, cast nets or small gillnets. Theyare powered by sail and paddle.
Standard canoes which can be either dugouts or plankedand are larger and longer than Kru canoes with a crew of 3 - 5men.Sail and paddles are the main form of propulsion but manyhave a transom for the fitting of a rudder(for sailing) whiochcan be used to suport an outboard engine.
Ghana type planked canoes( very few old dugouts arestill in evidence)with alength of 12 to 20 metres and largelypropelled by petrol outboards of 25 - 40 hp.are engaged inencirling net operations almost exclusively. Purse seines are notin current use although experimental nets have been demonstratedfrom time to time in the past.
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The fact that purse seine nets can be operated fromGhana plank canoes (see fig 10) without modification is asignificant point when considering the long term need to providean alternative to the Ghana dugout canoe. The Ghana plank canoeevolved in the Sierra Leone area in response to the need to makea vessel of the same size which was able to carry out the samefishing operations as the ghana dugout canoe.
In the absence of the large relatively durable Wawatrees, used to make the Ghana dugout canoe, the requirements ofthe Ghana fishermen and shipyard skills of local boatbuilderswere combined to produce the Ghana plank canoe. This canoe isconstructed with a keel and grown mangrove frames and plankedwith a variety of timbers among which is the pepperstickwhich is very resistant to marine borers. The hull is generallyslimmer than the Ghana dugout canoe and normally has a moregraceful appearance. However, the Ghana plank canoe does not havetLe rigidity and strength of the dugout and would in consequencenot be as suited to landing on heavy surf beaches. It is howevera good seaboat and responds as well if not better than the Ghanacanoe to the steering oar in rough following seas. Thisresponsiveness to the steering oar is essential to preventingbroaching and is assisted by the slightly more pronounced"rocker" than the Ghana dugout canoe.
$.2 EXPERIMENTAL INTRODUCTLON OF THE PURSE SEINE IN SIERRA LEONE.
According to the testimony of a retired ghanaian fishermanin the Shenge area the migrant Ghana fishermen, who had settledin large numbers along the coast of Sierra Leone, tried tointroduce the purse seine technique to the bonga fishery in theperiod leading up to the mid seventies. This attempt was rejectedby the other local fishermen who were afraid of the effect thatthe purse seine catches were having on the prices they receivedfrom their much smaller catches. In addition the other localfishermen were cocerned at the high proportion of immature andsmall fish which were the result of the purse seine efforts.Another concern at the time was that much of the extra fishlanded at that time remained unsold.
What appears to have brought the situation to a head was theconstruction of a very large purse seine for use in the Godricharea to the south of Freetown. The reaction of the localfishermen to the deployment of this gear was so hostile that itsuse was prevented and further attempts to introduce the techniquewere apparently abandoned.
Other attempts to introduce the purse seine in Sierra Leoneinclude demonstrations of the technique in 1985 to the fishermenof Yeliboya Island by the Kambia Fisheries Development Project_Again there was considerable local resistance torthe concept, notof pursing, but to the employment of the very small mesh with itsconsequent threat to the stocks of juvenile fish. The net usedfor demonstration was 370 metres(200 fathoms) in length and 37metres (20 fathoms)in depth with a lateral bunt of 12 mm mesh andthe body of the net consisting of 25 mm mesh.
A further attempt to introduce the purse seine concept wasmade by the GTZ Tombo project in 1987 where a net was constructedfor demonstration purposes to catch both herring and bonga.See(Fig 15). Again this attempt although demonstably successful inthe capture of herring failed to be adopted by local fishermen
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for similar reasons to those expressed by the Yeliboya fishermen.Underlying these attempts to introduce the purse seine there
is another element which is of considerable importance tounderstanding the reasons for this techniques rejection in bothSierra Leone and Guinea. This rejection can at least in part beattributed to the efficiency ot current techniques and the wayin which the encircling gill and reggae style nets are used inthe shallow waters of both countries.
.9.5 PURSING EFFECT OF THE ENCIRCLING NETS IN SHALLOW WATER.
In effect the encircling nets in current use are deployedin such a way that they infact purse through contact with thebottom ,see figs 16 - 18 which show in detail how an encirclingthe net is retrieved and how the net is hauled in such a mannerthat it maintains contact and an effective purse without theaddition of a purse line. That this effect is not always achievedis not in dispute as there are several instances in which theeffect of pursing is not achieved. Such a situation occurs whenthe water is too deep, the weather unfavourable to maintainingthe crossing effect of the ends of the net or the net snags asubmerged obstruction. All such instances will result in thepursing effect not being achieved. However, the frequency withwhich such an effect is achieved makes the current techniqueas effective or nearly so for there to be little real incentivefor the fishermen to adopt the purse seine.
This lack of incentive is reinforced by the aditionalexpense that the purse seine would involve especially if itemployed the heavy twines of the Senegal type seine or thesmaller mesh of the poll/sieve type of nets used in Ghana. Thefact that the most marketable and therefore the main target fishin both Guinea and Sierra leone are bonga and not sardinella meanalso that the currently employed encircling nets are more suitedto this fishery than thei.,2urse seine. When one also considersthat the encirclingPunere generally heavier and more difficultto shoot and haul it becomes apparent that the existing nets areappropriate to the fisheries of both Guinea and Sierra Leone.
Zr.4 CURRENT TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENCIRCLING NETS.
Although the purse seine has not been an attractiveoption for the fishermen of either Guinea or Sierra Leone therehas been a trend in both countries towards the adoption ofsmaller meshes in the encircling nets. Evidence of this trend wasfirst noted during studies of encircling nets among the YeliboyaIsland fleet in 1985 and 1986 (see appendix 4). The adoption ofsmaller mesh was prompted among the Yeliboya fleet by the needto exploit the juvenile bonga in the waters immediately adjacentto Yeliboya island thereby avoiding the danger of arrest inGuinea waters where the main adult bonga fishery was situated.That this trend has continued is somewhat ironic in view of theconcern expressed in the past over the use of small mesh andappears to closely mirror the trends to smaller mesh seen in theSenegalese and Ghanaian artisanal purse seine fisheries.
The encircling gillnets which were consideredappropriate in effect to the purse seines were defined in theopening paragraphs of this report so do not need elaboration.However, the adoption of the reggae and filet mixte, again
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evident in Yeliboya as well as Guinea, is a trend which mayrequire as careful monitoring as the use of the purse seine.
8.5 ENCIRCLING NET CONTROLS.
There is ample evidence that the operations of artisanal purseseines is causing concern among local fishermen as well as amongofficals but so far no concensus about how to deal with itseffects have been devised. That is with the exception of Guineawhich has banned their use and Sierra Leone which has so fardiscouraged their use. This may not be enough as the way in whichthe encircling nets are used in many ways duplicates the effectscf the purse seine and should therefore be the subject of equalcontrol. The trend towards smaller and smaller mesh in theencircling nets may also duplicate the adverse effects of thepurse seine on juvenile fish leading eventually to a convergenceof fishing effort on smaller pelagics and juveniles. Withoutsome form of control over unlimitted access to both purse seinesand encirclina nets there is likely to be a serious depletion ofpelagic fish stocks. This may eventually affect employment in thefisheries concerned and to the supply of cheap nutritional foodto national markets.
ENCIRCLING NET OPERATIONS.
The methods of deploying the encircling nets used inSierra Leone are largely the same as those in current use inGuinea and which were described in the section dealing with thatcountry. For details of shooting and hauling procedures see figs11 to 18.
41
c10 PURSE SEINING IN GHANA.Two main species of sardinella are found in Ghanaian
waters. These are sardinella aurita and sardinella maderensis(seefig 1) which together provided the most important seasonalfisheries for the Ghanaian fishermen. The roundsardinalla(aurita) is the more popular and therefore marketableof the two species and is most abundant between JuLy andSeptember. On the other hand the flat sardinella(Maderensis) iscaught throughout the year.
The sardinellas formed at least 65 % of the Ghanaiantotal catch(Hammond 1962) and Kwei in 1964 noted that the roundsardinella, accounting for over 50 % of yearly landings of marinefish, was the most exploited fish stock in Ghanaian waters in the1960's. Between 1963 and 1971, for example, between 4,000 and36,000 tons of sardinella were landed annually and provided theGhanaian population with an average of 20,000 tons perannum.
In the early 1970's sardinella stocks were thought tohave the greatest potential for exploitation in the whole of theGulf of Guinea(AmAa-Emmien 1973). All appeared satisfactory untilthe 1972 fishing season when there was a glut of both species ofsardinella and some 90,000 tons were landed of which about 94 %was the round sardinella. The consequence of these big landingswas that the price of sardinella crashed and those fishermen whowere not prepared to accept the very low prices on offer dumpedthe fish back into the sea.
After the 1972 glut and market slump the sardinella,and especially the round sardinella aurita, virtually disappearedfrom the catches of the artisanal fishermen. In the two yearsthat followed the sardinella fishery virtually collapsed with theindustry recording the lowest catches in a decade and a half. Allthe additional capital employed in the artisanal fishery to catchsardinella came to nothing. However, in 1976 the trend ofdecreased catches was reversed and by 1978 a substantial recoveryof the sardinella stocks was experienced. This welcome event wasshortlived and catches again dropped in the following four yearsfrom 1979 -1982. It is apparent that since the excessive landingsof sardinella in 1972 the catches, especially of the roundsardinella, have become very variable and unpredictable howeverit should be pointed out that there have been similarly lowcatches prior to 1972 in 1965 and 1968.
The point of recounting the historical trends of thesardinella fishery is that the main technique used for exploiting-the sardinella is the purse seine. Again the variability of thesardinella fishery is shown in Table 6 to be dramatic and liableto cause violent swings in the returns of the fishery. In spiteof this it would appear from recent studies'into the comparativereturns from watsa and poli-sieve purse seines by the Regionalproject IDAF, and informally confirmed during this study, thatthe technique is still viable. However,the concentration on themarginally favourable financial aspects of the purse seinefishery should not detract from the necessity for improvedmonitoring of this technique and the long term effect of suchexploitation on fish stocks. Without some form of control thefishery will become"self regulating" through the overexploitationof the pelagic stocks on which purse seining relies.
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Table 4. Total annual landings metric tons of sardinella byartisanal fleet in Ghana 1980-1988
Until about 1971, the two species were combined in thestatistics.Source. Information Report N° 23 K.A. Koranteng
YearsAurita Maderensis
Total
1963 5 300 5 5001964 22 230 22 2501965 2 350 2 3501966 4 200 4 2001967 25 200 25 2001968 2 500 2 5001969 15 900 15 9001970 14 700 14 7001971 27 492 4 036 31 5281972 72 350 4 575 76 9251973 4 701 10 906 15 6071974 1 409 16 111 17 5201975 J. 930 19 523 21 4531976 12 009 17 962 29 9711977 13 611 14 716 28 3271978 40 257 11 070 51 3271979 9 247 14 249 23 496
1980 19 126 11 310 30 4361981 10 067 12 445 22 5121982 14 655 14 007 28 6621983 36 800 7 667 43 9671984 34 817 10 077 44 8941985 54 072 22 234 76 3061986 45 489 16 633 62 1221987 46 338 25 851 72 1891989 75 852 10 450 86 302
48
c1.1 CANOES OF THE ARTISANAL PURSE SEINE FISHERY.
The canoes used by the Ghanaian artisanal purse seinetishery are exclusively dugout canoes made fron the Wawa tree(Triplochiton scieroxylon). Their size and shape is largelydetermined by the size of the tree from which the canoe is cutand the employment of traditional lines and methods ofconstruction. This creates a very strong and resilient hull whichis given additAional depth through the addition of gunwale planks(see fig 19a). These side planks are nailed virtically to thedugout and in some cases observed polystyrene and petrol glue isused to seal the join between the dugout and the planks of thegunwales. Strength is of particular importance to those canoeswhich are beached on heavy surf beaches where there is a highincidence of broaching to the waves and consequent rolling of thehull on hard sand or even rocky landing sites. The hull has alsoto withstand the daily beaching and launching of the canoe whichcauses another series of stresses to the hull (see fig 23).
c1.2. TREND TOWARDS LARGER CANOES FOR PURSE SEINING.
One significant trend is the increase in the length andsize of the Ghana dugout canoes. This trend appears to be inresponse to the employment of deeper, longer and thereforeheavier purse seine nets by the artisanal purse seine fleet(seetab 7). This trend also appears to be taking place at the verytime that concern is mounting over the decreasing stocks of thevery large wawa trees from which these canoes are made. In factthe long term survival of the surf beach fisheries may depend,to a large extent, on the development of a strategy which willmake more effective use of the remaining large trees, restrictionof their use to where they are really needed as well as thedevelopment and acceptance of alternative surf beach craft. Otheralternative craft will need to be developed for the replacementof the dugouts in current use in the harbours and relatively safehavens of the Ghanaian coastline. One such possibility is theGhana plank canoe typified by those in use in the Guinea andSierra leone encircling net fisheries.
TABLE 5. AVERAGE SIZE IN METRES OF EACH CATEGORY OF CANOEBY REGION.
B S S N L N DGNRegion APW
Volta 12.7 11.1 7.7 8.9 12.3
Greater Accra 14.1 11.9 9.7 9.9 10.7
Central 13.3 11.5 6.6 8.5 8.0
Western 13.6 9.4 7.4 7.8 8.9
APW = Ali/Poli/Watsa LN = Line
BS - Beach Seine DGN - Drift gill net
SN = Set net
4 9
Tables showing the overall figures for dugout ghana canoesdisguises the fact that there are large variations in theirlength. Aiso the grouping of Ali, Watsa and Poli canoes togetherdisguises the growing difference between the smaller Ali canoe(mainly for drift netting)and the larger Poli and Watsa canoeswhich are mainly empioyed in the purse seine fisheries. A recentstudy associated with the FAO/IDAF canoe replacement programmewas carried out to measure Watsa and Poli canoes on variousbeaches and in the majority of cases they were found to be over15 metres in length. Another study on Axim beach showed that manyof the latest canoes to be constructed were continuing the trendtowards bigger vesseis (See tab 8).
Table 6. MEASUREMENTS OF CANOES MADE ON AXIM BEACH.Source : The Ghanaian dugout canoe carving industry -G.T. Sheves
Regular canoe frame surveys have been carried out inGhana since 1969 and from these it is possible to see thecomposition of the canoe fleet over the past twenty years.
Age of canoe Length BeamHull/log
BeamCriminele
Top side Plan-king Height
10 13.9 m 142 cm 176,5 cm 33 cm
4 15 m 190 cm 51 cm
4 16 m 174 cm 46 cm
1 16.6 m 198 cm 250 cm 66 cm
1 17 m 175 cm 191 cm 55 cm
1 17 m 180 218 cm 63.5 cm
New 16 m 157 200 cm 38 cm
50
1989
3685
850
1853
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366
7,872
Table 7. shows a tendency for the number of canoes inAPW category to increase up to 1986 since when the numbers appearto have decreased. This fric4-ekse * 086 is thought by the ghanaianfisheries department to be partly due to the high cost ofinvestment in the inshore trawlers and the lack of spare partsto keep them running. As an alternative the inshore vessel ownersand potential owners invested in canoes. Whatever the reasons forthe increase up to 1986 there was a decline up ro 1989 of some285 c ano e s a) elk.t 45 r.41-1,;;,
There are several reasons underlying this decrease andinclude the possibility that many canoe fishermen migrated toother countries to fish in less competitive fisheries. It is alsopossible that many AWP canoes converted to other forms of fishingsuch as long lining where there has been a marked trend towardslarger vessels to carry out longer trips to more distant fishinggrounds (and therefore did not appear in the AWP category). Thecapacity of the line canoes has also increased due to the needto take more fuel, cool boxes and ice to facilitate theseextended trips.
According to fishermen interviewed during this surveymany were of the opinion that the high cost of fishing inputs wasdiscouraging new, as well as replacement, investment. Others feltthat the low returns from fishing made investment in such craftunattractive and unprofitable to outside entrepreneurs. Thelatest survey shows that the upward trend in the number of canoeshas resumed so there is no certainty about the numbers of canoesin the purse seine fishery except that the method of fishingstill appears to attract new entrants. Whether this is the resultof the economics of the purse seine fishery or whether otherfactors such as status enter into the calculations is difficultto judge. Certainly the man with several canoes is regarded asa wealthy man in spite of the fact that the real economic returnsfrom fishing may not merit such a description.
-rob 4. Souurcik. A 41-4P04- tt. S S.A 144,,:,.. ita...5 o. c. most. F R 1.4 e TeN"fx
Table 7. COMPOSITION OF THE GHANA CANOE FLEET 1969 - 1989
1969 1973 1977 1981 1986Canoe Type
Ali/Poli/Watsa 2315 2244 3005 3359 3969
Beach seine 1587 1081 761 833 797
Set Net 3347 2973 3532 1734 1852
Line 734 767 1174 661 1004
Drift Gill Net 351 450
Total 7,983 7,065 8,472 6,938 8,072
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55
q.3 THE ARIISANAL PURSE SEINE IN GHANA.
The section at tne beginning of this report decribedin sufficient detail the various types of purse seines in currentuse in Ghana to make it unecessary to repeat these definitionshere, see figs 20, 21 and 22 for full technical details of thetnree basic types of artisanai purse seine in use. These are theWatsa, the Poli sieve and the Watsa Poli.
ciA, PURSE SEINE OPERATIONS IN THE GHANAPLEtE'r
The basic.technique of purse seining is the same inGhana as it is in Senegal except that there are differences inthe canoes themselves (see figs 3 & I9a) and the purse seine netswhich are generally slightly lighter than the Senegalese nets andgenerally have a central rather than a lateral bunt.
As in Senegal the net is shot in relation to wind, tideand the behaviour of the shoal. However, it was apparent in thesurf beach fishery of Anchorful that the level of competition tocatch the shoals of anchovy and fast swimming little tunny wasextremely high. At any one time during the trips the surroundingfleet consisted of up to sixty large canoes of which some thirtywere in very close and competitive company. The effects of thiswere that crews were shooting-their gear without regard to wind,tide etc and were obliged due to the concentration of effort toshoot their gear when possible on a first to shoot their gearbasis, it was apparent that only in rare circumstances were thecaptains of the canoes able to position their canoes accordingto ideals for the encircling of a shoal. Hesitation to shoot gearoften meant losing the chance to set the gear at all.
The level of competition meant that when a section ofa shoal rose to the surface the canoes in close proximity shottheir gear in very close company often leading to false sets dueto the uncertainty of who was first to start setting his gear(see fig 23 a for an overall view of a typical days fishing).On other occassions canoes with very long nets would set theirnets around those canoes with smaller nets.
Another difference between the Ghana canoes and theSenegalese canoes was the number of crew who were seen leapinginto the water in Ghana. The fact that this was not observedSenegal prObably reflected the significantly lower water-temperature in that country whereas the water temperature inGhana was much higher. To prevent fish swimming around the endot the net at the beginning of the shooting operation several,usually young crew members; leapt into the water splashing todivert fish towards the encircling net. Others threw stones andrevved up the outboard to stop fish swimming out of the rapidlyclosing net and yet others dived overbOard to undo any snagsbetween the floatline and netting. Although such actions werecommon to this particular fleet other fleets along the coastemploy different tactics in their attempts to catch and preventthe escape of the fish.
4714 HAULING THE PURSE SEINE.
As can be seen in fig 25 the crew are placed in suchaway that they are roughly split into two hauling teams of equalstrength and haul simultaneously on the purse line. This
56
procedure is often accompanied by hauling chants, beating drumsgongs, gestures and almost choreographed hauling actions. Someof the chants should be recorded for posterity before they arelost to progress and changed circumstances. The roughly equalstrength of the purse line hauling teams reflects the positionof the bunt which is often, but by no means always, in a centralposition. When the bunt is in a lateral position the numbers andstrength of the purse line crews reflect the length of line tobe hauled with more crew on the longest wing.
DIFFERENCES.Unlike the Senegalese fishermen the Ghanaians remain
largely seated during the hauling of the purse line whereas theSenegalese adopt a standing stance during the hauling procedure(see figs 6 & 25). This sitting stance is maintained until thepurse rings are secured along the freeboard and then the crewstand to haul in the leadline and wings which i3 relaid ashauling proceeds with the rings. As the wings continue to behauled the fish are guided into the bunt for final transfer tothe canoe by brail or bight of net. When the fish are loaded thenet is relaid in the net bin usually by running it along thethwarts. This is a relatively quick and simple operation.
RELAYING THE NET.Unlike the technique observed in Senegal the net is
relaid with the leadline along the portside and the floatline tostarboard, whereas the Senegalese laid their net with the floatsacross the net bin with the leadline also set across the pirogueforeward of the floatline (see figs 5,6 & 7). Another differenceobserved during the shooting of the net was that the Ghanaianfishermen usually held the purse rings in their hand as the netwas set whereas the Senegalese placed the rings on a pole fromwhich they were shot automatically. In both cases the purse linewas fed manually into the rings as the net was shot away.
INNOVATION IN THE GHANAIAN PURSE SEINE FISHERY.The ghanaian fishery has been the most inovative of all
West African fisheries and the success with which they haveadopted and adapted the pursing technique as well as developinginovative adaptations of gill, drift and lining methods clearlyshows their willingness to accept new ideas when they areconvinced of their effectiveness. The Ghanaian artisanalfishermen were also not slow in adopting petrol outboard engines,cool boxes for the preservation of fish at sea etc. In fact theirapparent reluctance to adopt ideas which have been promoted fromoutside the fishery appears to be more to do with reluctance toadopt untried and, to them, inappropriate ideas, not as is oftenclaimed, the result of innate conservatism.
FUTURE ASSISTANCE TO THE PURSE SEINE FISHERY.The fishermen may therefore respond more positively
to ideas which successfully reduce their costs of operation suchas diesel outboards,less costly net designs,and alternative canoehulls such as those made from modern materials as well as theconsideration of traditional canoes such as the ghana plankcanoe.
In terms of priorities the recent studies of costs andearnings of the purse seine fisheries seem to show that the
57
ghanaian fishery is in the most precarious financial positionignoring social factors) and that in so tar as sensitivity tochanges in the cost of inputs the most important costs are fueland outboard engines, fishing gear and the smallest cost beingassoc'lated with the canoe hull itself. In terms of developmentassistance most effort, if following the most importantpriorities for artisanal fishermen, wouid be directed towardsmore fuel efficient propulsion.
However, it these activities are carried out inisolation of thorough knowledge of the resource base then anydevelopment assistance towards improving the financial viabilityof the purse seine tishery would fail to be sustainable becauseche resource itself may not prove sufficient to sustainadd tional effort.
The end result of such assistance may therefore domore harm to local fishing communities than if they were leftentirely without any help towards improving their viability.After all improving the viability of a declining fishery willmake the level of exploitation even worse than if allowed tocollapse. In this respect consideration could be given toconservation through the removal of all subsidies to fuel, gearand vessels and allowing conservation to arise from economicviabijity. Research into this area may help in those areas whereit is known that there is inadequate knowledge of the resourceand little control of the fishery. One cautionary note should besounded here and that concerns the fact that the artisanai purseseiners are not the only fishermen exploiting the pelagicresources of West Africa and any action to control artisanalpurse seines should also examine the industrial purse seinefishery which this report does not address.
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The coastline of Benin is only 120 kilometres in lengthand by West African standards the marine resources are limitedand the level of fish landings is insufficient to match localdemand. There is no local deep water fleet which can exploitoffshore resources and the local fishing fleet is dominated bythe artisanal canoes which land a high proportion of the nationalcatch. According to the latest statistics the national catchamounted to some 8,252 tons in 1989. The shortfall betweennational production and demand has been met through imports fromEurope and Russia.
Production.Tons.1985 7,832.1986 8,007.1987 9,047.1988 8,153.1989 8,252.
Among the types of fishing gear employed by the marineartisanal fishermen the purse seine is the most significant (seefig 27) and are largely used by migrant Ghanaian fishermen. Thefishery is in consequence almost identical to that in Ghana andthe methods of making and setting the gear are similar.
The number of purse seines in Benin are shown below.
59
10.0 THE ARTISANAL PURSE SEINE FISHERIES OF BENIN.
1984.Oueme Cotonou Atlantique Mono Total.
No of purseseines.
0 10 26 26 62
No of fisher 153 1,350 1,354 4,000-men.
1988.
No of purseseines.
0 24 26 22 72
No of fish _ 223 553 1,281 1,154 3,211-men.
Table IS) .
Up to 2989 table 10 shows that there was no dramaticrise in the numbers of fishermen adopting purse seines in Benin.Unfortunately there are no up to date figures to confirm that theslight increase in numbers is due to local fishermen adopting thepurse seine technique or to migrant fishermen from ghana beingincluded in these figures. As a result it is also difficult toconfirm the impression gained in Benin as well in all the othercountries visited that the number of fishermen adopting purseseines had either peaked or is rising only very slowly. Withoutrecent statistics it is impossible to judge whether thisimpression is correct or not, but if it is correct then it maywell reflect that the use of the technique has reached saturationpoint in relation to the resources of some fisheries as well asnumerous other factors which include the high cost and poor
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61
supplies of the inputs needed to keep a purse sein ng canoe inoperation.
BACKGROUND TO THE PURSE SEINE FISHERY IN BENIN.
The adoption of purse seining in Benin followed closelythe developments which took place in the purse seine fishery ofGhana and its spread to Benin can be attributed to migratoryGhanaian fishermen.
Before the introduction of purse seining localfishermen were using the encirling nets called Watsa (not theWatsa purse seine) and according to some fishermen this net hada bunt. However, it is not clear whether this "bunt" was asection of stronger netting which formed a bag or whether it wasa section of smaller mesh netting to gill smaller fish. Whateverthe case this net was claimed to be very close to the GhanaianWatsa which was later adapted to become the Watsa purse seine.This type of net is still in current use in Ghana and is believedto have been introduced into the Benin fishery in the early1970's.
IN 1989 P.Tanimomo described in detail the type of purseseine net in use by local and migratory fishermen in thecatalogue des engins de peche:maritime artisanale du Benin.This net (see fig 27) is basically the same as the purse seinesin current use in the Ghanaian fisheries although there appearsto 'nave been. a similar trend in Benin as in the other countriesvisited towards the adoption of smaller mesh. In the examplequoted by P.Tanimomo the mesh size in he bunt is recorded as19mm whereas the current everage is nearer lOmm in the bunt. Thistrend towards smaller mesh in the bunt closely follows theGhanaian pattern where the Watsa purse seine has evolved into amore versatile net by the inclusion of a small mesh section andhas in consquence been given a new name, the Watsa poli purseseine (see opening definitions and fig 23). In terms of thecanoes and the techniques of operation the purse seine fleetwhich operates in Benin are similar in all respects to thosetypically found in the Ghanaian purse seine fishery.
62
CoNcLostoms,
U. COMMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS ON ENCIRCLING NET OPERATIONS.
I. There is an increasing trent towards the use of the purseseine in Senegal and Ghana and Benin but not in Guinea where itis banned or Sierra Leone where its use is actively discouraged.
There is an increasing trend towards constructing longer anddeeper purse seines as well as longer encircling nets.
Longer and heavier gear with smaller mesh size has beenaccompanied by an increase in vessel size.
Accompanying 2 & 3 above there appears to be a trend towardsthe targetting of smaller fish, such as anchovy and juvenilesardinella along the Ghana/Benin coast and juvenile bonga inGuinea and Sierra Leone, as the stocks of the larger pelagicsbecome more scarce or the competition to catch them increases.
The adoption of more fuel efficient engines has made noprogress. In fact the past failures seem to have reinforcedresistance in some areas.
The available statistics appear to indicate that the purseseine and-encircling net fisheries are still viable methods offishing, given their current socio/economic organization. Howeverthere are signs that if fuel and in some cases gear subsidieswere withdrawn the effects on the viability of the large canoeswould be serious.
Catch statistics,poor as they are, indicate a rising trendfrom purse seining. How long this trend can be maintained, givencurrent ignorance about stock levels versus purse seining effort,it is impossible to tell.
Use of purse seines in Guinea and Sierra Leone is notwarranted due to the nature of the fishery ( they target mainlyBonga not herring which have a very poor market) and the natureof their extensive continental shelves (shallow water andgenerally muddy/soft sand substrate).Where herring is targetted,as in Godrich, current nets appear effective enough in relationto the stocks available.
The main type of vessel in use for purse seining is thetraditional canoe/pirogue. No successful replacement has been asyet identified.
With respect to the design of purse seine nets Senegal stillfollows the basic pattern introduced by FAO in the;late sixties,in Guinea it is banned, in Sierra Leone its usé resisted whilein Ghana/Benin the net is still evolving with the changing natureof the fishery. These changes have been accompanied by the useof smaller mesh and longer and deeper nets to catch smaller fish.This trend is mirrored in the Encircling net fisheries whereanother trend has been towards smaller mesh as in the reggae andthe incorporation of a small mesh central bunt section, in theencircling gill net referred to as a filet mixte.
63
11, The almost universal use of the external outboard enginemounting bracket by the artisanal canoes ( see fig19 fordescription ot Ghana dugout canoe for detail of bracket ) notonly exposes the engine to excessive amounts of salt water italso leads directly to operator behaviour which frightens awayfish. To avoid cavitation of the propeller, especially whensetting the net around a shoal of fast swimming pelagics, theoperator has to keep raising and lowering the engine revolutionsin a manner which alarms the fish which dive before the purse isclosed and escape. Cavitation is particularly noticeable duringchoppy sea conditions when the waves approach from the beam. Theobvious cure to this problem would be the adoption of the inboardwell which would help with cavitation as well as with outboardprotection. However, there is an almost universal aversion tomaking holes in the dugout hulls for the construction of a well.
The more small mesh incorporated into the purse seinenet and the greater the hanging ratio(ie the more the net isstretched out lengthwise) the more likely it is that the net willsink too slowly to catch the faster swimming large pelagics.Tlisscenario appears to have accompanied the more widespread use ofsmall meshes as the Ghana canoe fleet have been obliged, by fishscarcity, to make their nets in a manner which will enable themto catch a wider variety of different sized fish. In this respectit was observed that many canoes which had encircled good sizeshoals of fish had nothing when the nets were finally hauledexcept the few very small fish upon which they were feeding. Thisoccurred so often to a variety of canoes that the rate of escapewas worth recording for future reference.
It should be remarked that in relation to item 2. abovethe consultants fished in company with a fleet of some sixtyother canoes of which at any one given time some fifteen tothirty canoes were in close and very competitive proximity. Itmay be that the apparent innefficiency of current onerations interms of the faster pelagics is of great importance to theconservation of existing stocks.
The fishermen themselves attributed the high escape rateto the fish becoming clever and learning to avoid the encirclingmanoevre of the purse net and especially those nets which had anabundance of. small mesh. That is those nets which are currentlyillegal in Ghana and come under the general heading of Poli-Sievenets. Another potent reason for the high level of escape appearedto be the high incidence of rotten netting and poor attendanceto repairs.
The expence ot petrol appears to severely limit thehunting range of the artisanal canoes andemay .be an importantfactor leading to the concentration of effort in a too narrowcoastal band. Improved use of more fuel efficient motors may helpto extend range and decrease the localization of fishing effort.
The speed at wnich the purse net was deployed appearedto be markedly slower among those crews observed than the settingof the encircling net ( gilling or reggae type)from the Ghana'plank canoes of Sierra Leone . This can at least in part beattributed to the generally heavier netting of the ghanaian and
64
Senegalese purse seines which seem to cause much more drag thanthe generally 3ighter twines of the encircling net as well as thespreading activity employed among many Sierra Leonean crews (seefja 13).
Several writers on fishing gear appear to be concernedabout the rationale behind the position of the bunt in relationto the rest of the net. In fact among the fishing canoes observedby the consultants the bunts were found laterally as well as ina central position. Some lateral bunts were offset from thecentre while in others such as in Senegal the bunt of the net wasat one end although it was still hauled slowly for a part of thehauling procedure. The reason why the Ghanaian fishermenpositioned their bunt in the middle appears to be associated withthe fact that they haul from both ends simultaneously and notjust from one end as observed in the Senegalese canoes. Thisreduced by one half the time required to close the purse underthe fish and would appear to be a sound reason for situating thebunt in the middle of the net. The fact that the foreward sectionof the hauled net needs to be run aft for relaying in the net hinafter each haul is a simple operation requiring the net to be runover the thwarts to the net bin and taking very little time.
Again in relation to the hauling procedure of the pursenet it would appear that the position of the bunt also affectsthe number of crew hauling from each end of the net. for exampleit was observed that where the bunt was situated to one side morecrew members were set to haul the longest section of purse line,again in unison, until the bunt was reached when the effort wasoccassionaliv redistributed to hauling with equal effort fromboth ends.
In terms of The design of nets in the purse seinefishery it would appear that too much is being attributed to thereasons which lie behind the employment of such a wide range ofmesh sizes in. the construction of the various purse nets. Whatappears to be a much more potent influence on net design is thelack of availability of suitable materials at a cost which isacceptable to the fisherman concerned. Because netting is oftenscarce and expensive the fisherman will often incorporate aseries of different mesh sizes, not because of a conscious designrequirement but because that is all that is available at thetime. As long as the mesh size combinations allow the fishermanto have a reasonable chance of catching the size and range offish that he is after then he will settle on that " design . It
therefore becomes apparent that many of the differences in gearmeshes found in the purse seine tishery do not merit thedescription of a new design but rather represent a range ofcombinations which have evolved from a randOM mixture ofexpediency and the design requirements to catch a particular typeor range of fish. What can be stated is that where the purseseine mesh sizes are very small it is most likely that most ofthe fish caught will be small or immature pelagics. Whereas wherethe mesh sizes are mainly of a large size mainly larger pelagicswill be caught allowing immature fish to escape. In between thesetwo extremes there will be a variety of differing nets dependingas has been mentioned on a mixture of design and expediency.
65
It was noted in Senegal that many pirogues were using twoengines. This trend appeared to be in response to greater traveldistance to seaward away from the immediate assistance of a fleetand need for self help. The cost of these two engines may exceedthat of an inboard diesel.
In many cases it was noticed that petrol outboard engineswere lasting longer. This is a trend which may affect therelative benefits of more fuel efficient engines.
A possible reason why the internal well is not used by Ghanacanoe fishermen for mounting their outboards is that whenbeaching a canoe, especially if the beach is steep, with the bowto the shore and engine well to seawards, any wave approachingthe stern will try to lift the stern upwards. If the purse netweighing approximately 1.5 tons is situated at the stern thecanoe may not lift enough to prevent water rising through thewell and swamping the canoe.
A PPAMeh4-One of the reasons for the,faster fall of the reggae style
net is the fact that the crew spread the net before it hits thewater. It is not certain how significant this difference is butit may be the difference between success and failure to catchfast pelagic,s. The reggae net may also be more effective than thepurse and is'nnpér and lighter than the purse net.K
It was noticed that the umbrella tree (musanga circropioides)was growing in western Ghana. This tree has very high bouyancyand could be used to improve the safety of Ghana canoese
The mixing of petrol and polystyrine chips to make glue hasbecome a common practice for use in the construction of canoesides.
Operating the purse seine technique from dugout canoes leavesthem open to considerable danger especially as the full weightof rings and net 13 drawn together. The method observed inSenegal was particularly dangerous in this respect.
The instability of the Ghana plank and dugout canoes, as well-as the Senegalese pirogues is to a greater or lesser extentcompensated by the automatic movement of the crew who constantlyadjust their position to counter capsizing influences and trimthe canoe to suit the operation of the outboard engine. Thesecrew movements are rarely accompanied by orders and can in a wayhe likened to the unconscous balance of the.experienced rider ofa bicycle.
Major differences were observed in the techniques of thepurse nets and their methods of setting and hauling in theSenegalese and Ghanaian fisheries. The Senegalese methodreflecting FAO influence and the Ghanaian its separatedevelopment from encircling gill nets of the past. The encirclingnet techniques used in Sierra Leone and Guinea also reflect theinfluence of the Ghanaian fishermen.
66
There is still much development work to be done in the mainfishimg communities of all areas visited. The particular needappears to be of the type which is directed at Integrateddevelopment in the fishing communities and paying attention tothe marketing of tresh fish to inland communities.
The problem of questioning fishermen on their financialposition in relation to their fishing operations could beassisted by adopting a common approach to fuel consumption. Forexample, the outboard engines in current use are well known interms of their consumption of petrol and the same is equally trueof many diesel inboard engines and diesel outboards. By takingknown average consumption figures and multiplying them by thehorsepower of the engine concerned a more reliable dailyconsumption figure may be acquired.If for example a fishermanclaims he uses 300 litres of petrol a day with a 40 hp outboardthe known average consumption figure of about 19 lph would meanthat the fisherman would have to cruise for 15.7 hours at fullspeed. Questions to validate such a claim could then follow.
FUEL CONSUMPTION FIGS.
for petrol outboards. 0.45 x hp = litres per hour.for diesel tt
. 0.20 x hp =for diesel inboards . 0.20 x hp =
For other details refer to West North West and communityDevelopment Programme Technical Report on propulsion systems forartisanal fishing canoes.
The relative costs and earnings of purse seine operations inthe countries visited clearly indicate that fuel consumption andthe cost of outboard engines and fishing gear rank far higher inall fisheries visited than the cost of the canoe as a major areaof concern among fishermen. It would therefore appear that interms of development priorities more effort should be directedat fuel saving and efforts to reduce the cost of inputs(not bysubsidies) through design and material changes. A possibleexamination of the reasons for the relatively higher returns (IRRof 50 %) among the encircling net canoes of Sierra Leone than thepurse seine operations in for example in Ghana may provide cluesfor their development.
Finally it can be stated that the current state ofknowledge of the fisheries resource are insufficient for anyreliable projection of the sustainability of the resource andhence the encircling net fisheries. All other considerationsconcerning development of the encircling net fisheries need tobe taken in view of this shortcoming.
GVE/mpc
67
Appendix 1.
Terms of Reference: Consultant (Fishing Technologist)
Under the general supervision of the IDAF Coordinator, theConsultant (Fishing Technologist) will
Work closely with fishermen and governmentextension staff;
Describe the designs of the various purseseines in use;
Describe their operation and the results ofpurse seining;
Assess their costs and returns;
Write a report, and undertake otheractivities if required, in agreement with theDirector, FIO.
Make preliminary project identificationsduring travel for formulation missionsIDAF/FAO.
Duration : 1.2 man-months
Itinerary : Cotonou 2 daysDakar 8 daysConakry 5 daysFreetown 8 daysAccra 7 daysCotonou 5 days
Languages : French/English
Starting date: March 1991
68
Appendix 2
References
Catalogue of small-scale fishing gear of Ghana.B. Anum Doyi, Senior technical officer, Research UtilisationBranch, Fisheries Dept. Tema, Accra.
- Canoes in Ghana ; IDAF/WP/37 O. Gulbrandsen
- Cost and earning and credit studies on Ghanaian CanoeFisheries - E. CallerhoIm Cassel ; IDAF/WP/34
- Commercial fishing methodsan introduction to vessels and gearsJ. C. Sainsbury 1971
- First commercial results of the introduction of purse-seinesin the pirogue - fisheries of SenegalL. Hartsuijker (Assistant expert)
- Report on the 1986 Ghana Canoe Frame surveyK.A. Koranteng & 0.0. Nmashie (1987)
Recueil des données statistiques des péches maritimes auBenin 1984 - 1989Sènouvo A. Prosper et Gbaguidi Aziablé Amélie, PMB/WP/17
The Sardinella (Herring) Fishery in GhanaK.A. Koranteng, Fisheries Department Research andUtilisation Branch Tema, Ghana
- Rapport sur l'emploi des sennes tournantes et coulissantespar les pécheurs piroguiers de la petite c6te (M'bour etJoal) (1972) G. Grasset
Catalogue des engins de péche artisanale du Sénégal:P.A. Seck, technologiste des péches DOPM Dakar
Rapport N° 4/72 Essais - Demonstration Comparatif d'emploid'une senne tournante et coulissante adaptée à la péchepiroguière. Grasset
Rapport 8/70 Essais d'adaptation de la senile tournantecoulissante de la péche artisanale au Sénégal
- The Ghanaian Dug out canoe and the canoe carving industry inGhana IDAF/WP/35. G.T. Sheves
CEASSET 1970
69
- Catalogues des Engins de Péche Artisanales du Bénin.P. Tanimomo, Technologiste des engins de péche, Directiondes Péches. Cotonou, PMB/WP/5
Essais d'adaptation de la senne tournante etcoulissante dans la pé7che artisanale (pirogi'ère)au S6n4galPNUD/FS/FAO Projet 264 SEN 8.flEtude et mise envaleur des ressources en poissons p6lagiques"Rapport No. 8 / 70
Rapport sur les essais des engins de peche nouveaux,effectués pendant la période janvier 1969 avril 1971ibid. Rapport No. 4 / 71
La pche expérimentale effectuée avec une sennetournante et coulissante par la pirogue du projeten mai juin 1971.ibid. Rapport No. 7 / 71
Esfrni uno r ions comparatifs d'emploi d unenI coulisonnte ednptée L';, la p?:che
PEUD/FS/FAO Projet SEN 66 / 508 "Etude et mise enuticnr (LuS ressources en poissons p6lagiques"RappoaA 4 / 72
CPSzTET C. 1972(ò) Fnp:port sur l'emploi des sennes tournantes ctpar los Fq.,:cheurs pirogiZ:rs de la Petite
5' et jcni) juillet,Aoilt,Septembre et, ekr,
1-:.yrt 1 . 5 / 72
CRASSET C. 1971(;,)
GRASSET G. 1971(.0
ET 1972(a)
APPENDIX ?a.
COMMENTS ON THE COMPARATIVE COST AND EARNINGS OF THE PURSESEINE AND ENCIRCLING NET OPERATIONS OF SENEGAL, GUINEA , SIERRALEONE GHANA AND BENIN.
1,Too few interviews and too little time were allowed to dojustice to such a large and complex subJect. It is thereforesuggested that rather than try to read more into the availablestatistics than is justified the work so far carried out is usedas a basis for a future study to cover large canoe operations forthe whole of west africa. The proposed aims of which are set outbelow.
2. It is proposed that the ,objectives of an extended study intothe comparative cost and earnings of the artisanal fishermen needto be overtly of benefit to the fishermen. In this way theexchange of help for confidential information may produce morereliable data of a financial nature than has been the case sofar. In short the need for accurate.information can be sold totne prospective donor. If combined with a more formal interview,rather than under the trees with the rest of the village stickingtheir noses in, results may be improved.
). An attempt has been mane to compare The major costings of thepurse seine operations, which have been made in the currenciesof their respective countries and in US dollars. This would saveiesearchers the effort of getting out :heir calculators everyrime they wished to get a winer international sense of value.
4. The attached summary oi comparative costs and earnings ofpurse seines gives.an overall view of the relative cost andearnings in eaeh of the ,2ountrles visited. Comment is attachedas a summary at the end.
70
71
SUMMARY OF COST AND EARNINGS OF PURSE SEINE OPERATIONS INSENEGAL, GUINEA, SIERRA LEONE, GHANA AND BENIN
TOTAL INVESTMENT COST. LOCAL CURRENCY DOLLARS
SENEGAL. purse 7,320,000 CFA 27,211 $
GUINEA. purseencirc. net. see note
SIERRA LEONE40HP 3,305,000 L 16,525 $
encirc. net 25HP 3,155,000 L 15,775 $
GHANA. purse, watsa 7,200,000 20,342 $purse, poli/sieve 6,900,000 C 19,495 $
BENIN. purse
TOTAL FIXED COST DEPRECIATION
SENEGAL. purse 1,480,285 CFA 5,585 $
GUINEA. purseencirc. net
see note
SIERRA LEONEpurse 40HP 1,101,195 L 5,505 $encirc. net 25HP 1,051,660 L 5,258 $
GHANA. purse. watsa 1,350,000 Q 3,871 $encirc. net 1,460,000 Q 4,187 $
BENIN. purse
TOTAL VARIABLE COSTS
SENEGAL. purse 8,080,320 CFA 30,491 $
GUINEA. purseencirc. net
see note
SIERRA LEONEpurse 40HP 3,013,620 Lencirc. net 251W 3,127,095 L
GHANA. purse. watsa 5,112,000 Cencirc. net 5,361,000 C
BENIN. purse
TOTAL NET PROFIT/LOSS
SENEGAL. purse 1,950,395 7,393 $
GUINEA. purseencirc. net see note
SIERRA LEONEpurse 40H1' 540,440 L 2,702.00$encirc. net 25HP 471,225 L 2,356,00$
GHANA. purse 1,170,000 3,355.00$encirc. net 1,009,000 2,893.00$
BENIN. purse
Notes
Experimental field notes for Canoe purse seine and encirc.net are attached loose. Other held data also attached loose.for keeping IDAF.
The Guinea encircling fishery closely approximates to thatof Sierra Leone.
Experimental experience in Guinea shows considerably moresuccess with the encircling net than with the purse.
72
TOTAL INCOME. LOCAL CURRENCY DOLLARS
SENEGAL. purse 11,520,000 CFA 54,339
GUINEA. purse see noteencirc. net
SIERRA LEONEpurse 40HP 4,655,725 L 23,278 $encirc. net 25H11' 4,049,980 L 23,249 $
GHANA. purse. watsa 7,632,000 21,888 $encirc. net 7,830,000 22,455 $
BENIN. purse
SENEGAL
EXAMPLE OF CREW AND OWNER SHARE SYSTEM
Dakar
Average catch per day (18 m purse seine/pirogue) ---- 40,000CFA per day
Average annual N° of trips 288
Total average earnings per annum 11,520,000 CFA
DIVISION OF EARNINGS - SHARE SYSTEM
The gross earnings are divided into four equal shares. Theyare divided after deduction of daily expenses. This includescrew food (one meal each per day after going to sea) andfuel/oil.
e.g. Daily average earnings 40,000 CFADaily average expenses 20,640 CFANet average earnings per day 19,360 CFA
This is divided into four equal shares as follows
ENGINE
BOAT/GEAR
OWNER
CREW
73
On an average day the owner,engine boat and gear would receive 14CFA. Together with the fuel foodtherefore receive 35,160 CFA , 87.94,840 CFA (4- food in kind) or 12 % in
if he actually owned both,520 CFA and the crew 4,840payment the owner would% of the catch. The crewcash.
APPENDIX 4-EXAMPLES OF ENCIRCLING GILL AND REGGAE NETS USED BY THEFISHERMEN OF YELIBOYA ISLAND --- SIERRA LEONE.
These examples of encircling nets used by the fishermenof yeliboya island can be divided into two main types; the gilltype with larger mesh which gills the.fish and the reggae typewithsmaller mesh which does not gill the fish. There are othertypes but they do not concern us here because they tend to be ofshallowceconstruction and used in very shallow water. Likewisethey are not pursed in the deliberate way of the encircling, gilland reggae nets. The examples which are set out below werecollected during a survey of the encircling nets of the Yeliboyafleet in 1987. At that time the Yeliboya fleet was experiencingsome difficulties with the Guinea authorities due to theirexpeditions into Guinea waters in search of the large bonga . It
should be mentioned that the Yeliboya benga fishery was in facta mainly Guinea fishery whereas in the Sierra Leone waters thejuvenile bonga (awefu) was by far the most common catch.
The reason for recounting this bit of history will nowbecome apparent. Because .the Yeliboya fishermen could notentirely rely on aetting to and from Guinea with the ease of thepast they'had to change the style of their nets to make them moreversatile and catch the juvenile bonga as well as the large bongawhen suitable opportunities arose. The trend was thereforeestablished whereby more fishermen changed from the relativelyspecialized encircling gill net and adopted the smaller mesh ofthe reggae style encircling net. Examples of both these net typesare set our below and serve as examples of a trend which in someways follows the trends in the Senegalese and Ghanaian purse netfisheries.
The main reason for including the encircling nets ofSierra Leone and Guinea ds that in their operation they arepursed through ground contact. In other words the escape of fishthrough the open bottom of the net is prevented because theleadline of the net is in contact with the ground. In consequenceit can be seen that there is no real incentive for the fishermenof either Sierra Leone or Guinea to adopt the much more expensivepurse seines of either the Ghanaian or Senegalese models.
All attempts to encourage the adoption of the purse bythe fieets of Sierra Leone or Guinea have so far failed . Thisincludes the attempt at Yeliboya in 1985 and again at tombo in1987. Attempts by the Ghana fishermen to use their own purseseine nets in the mid 70's also proved a failure not because itdid not catch more fish but because of the opposition of otherlocal fishermen who saw in these nets a threat to fish prices andto the stocks of juvenile fish. There are other.reasons why thepurse concept is not as attractive in theSe areas and thisrevolves around the nature of the sea bed and the large shallowcontinental shelf, much more extensive than in Senegal or Ghana.The use of a purse in the generally shallow waters of Guinea maycause problems if caught in the soft muddy substrate, it may alsosuffer much more damage than the r)ng net when in contact withsharp and very damaging latente rocks. Whereas the ring netleadiine would detatch itself the much stronger purse would haveto be rapped off with consequently much more damage. By allaccounts the ring net is efficient enough.
74
....07,--800g'- 900 Pb 260-300 g/m 88800m 06mm
E 7-1.00
Ends bunched.
868 00 m
Netting bunchedwith no shapingto end of net
75
Vessel name: MA \I SHORTAGE.Vesse[ type GHANA PLANK CA\Net type E Nc.4CLiriç :ir
ReC, CI RE_ .
E=1. 00
14400 4600 Pt_ 070 L40 88800m 06mm
OE
760& mm . 760
60 cm
Whipped with unlaid6Frim rope strands
Ex. AM 9t-e-5 oF RIMq rs4 U5e.C e Ti-tE
Fis.iettrge.r., r- ve-c-t Etc:)*YA (5Ln ND leg-QR -4311E.
Ftoatline and leadhnespliced togeTher.
76
Vessel name: SEA MASTERVessel type : GHANA PLANK CANOENet type : P46-T )
FILET M1VrE
470N 40 mm R155 tex
it-75A 62.m Hi_ R155 t ex
630PD B30 00m
Vessel name: REGGAE STARSVessel type : GHANA PLANK CANOENet type ENCIACLINIqt ni ter
ec.c, F..
E,1 005/rn PI 0701 ¡J) 7/10 00u) 06mmPOOP
711( 43 mm P230 tex 711 k
620
119070 260 300g/m E2072 06mm
Vessel name: ALHAMDUVessel type : GHANA PL ANK CANOENe t t ype : er4cfacumc, marr )
'ReCrq Fi
E 2086/ m L 070L'40 83000m 06mm
1275Pb 740 00m 0 4:mm
E., 1 00
68(4 44mm R 230 t ex 68 4
t,0.723/m PI 070L'0 832 00m 08mm
0 o 00
720
77
Vessel name: BANGADin EVessel type : GHANA PLANK CANOE
Net type : ENC-MCLA Ci ME.T
(CI I La:
0 46hn Pl. 070L/,0 83300m 07mm
64 mm
77 mm
870Pb x 260 300g/m 740 00m Omm
400W
326X
1/m Pb 260 ---.300 g/m 833 00 m 05mm
E046
Vessel name: BULLOM STARSVessel type : GHANA PLANK CANOENet-type eNCIRCioiNg Nat'
'CO Le
E07525/m PL 070L40 96200m 0 6mm
1780 Pbx 260 300g 96200m 0 5mmE075
Vessel name: TAITAMY OPNEF1
Vessel type : GHANA PLANK CANOENet type : c e cc. v,m NI MT
Li-85
/ m 740.00m 0 6mm
700V 60 mm R 155 tex 700V(
500) 56 in in 500
C
o 30
7
30
Doceotyr c_iskimoe
STata. C. ITN(
36 tonnle
0M O 29m
78 tke Fte.406,,,c
WORST STABILI TY CONDITION
Crew of 12 men standing on the thwarts and pullingthe net over the sideAt 30, angle of heel, the rignting moment RM G Z
RM 3600 kg x 0,11m . 400 kgrn The maximum puk from
he net can be 370 kg.before the canoe cap sizesThe crew compensates oy sh,f ting positionAt 40 angle of heel water star, s to come overthe side and stabili,y is lost
15,1m Ghana Canoe
STABILITY
GHA 1
.
ripOF SION NC'
ppvr4Dr
EQUIVALENT VALUES OF R TEX, m/kg, DENIER AND DIAMETEROF TWISTED MULTIFILAMENT YARNS
79
R tex m/kgdeniernumber
twinediameterin mm
50 90 000 210 x 2 0.24
75 13 300 210 x 3 0.30
100 10 000 210 x 4 0.33
155 6 460 210 x 6 0.40
230 4 350 210 x 9 0.50
310 3 230 210 x 12 0.60
390 9 560 210 x 15 0.65
470 2 130 210 x 18 0.73
540 1 850 210 x 21 0.80
620 1 620 210 x 24 0.85
700 1 430 210 x 27 0.92
860 1 160 210 x 33 1.13
1 280 780 210 x 48 1.37
1 570 640 210 x 60 1.43
2 500 400 210 x 96 1.90
USE L-0 ç s OF fetus Ftr4QA CAR.C.R,oPtoatOe_.%
("teleaat.4..fl -rtze Flak trripRfavitAci
5 UctRa31-e-D
SE.LEC....-r LOÇS (S) 1") RBooT IS t-c. 21 tt.3
Is IA tel.
2 OiT 1.-0q IN -HALF /.-E. rseq T-fe t,4 tsE
Me. Log u 14.0eR -1E-H v.1 rzosZT.3 c..votrio .
5 Ccuozor4 9 ia...op G3ITs".11 NI ES
sEcurza s41APED WooDeta PlEcFS I M ow =%STE_R_N
Ate-rriao os co-oeAelSor-oPLell4Peii-cP Vet fite .2 144-m-sc.sq-c- Pew -1 til-R4SI-4 Lei c-1144-L:1 "CI 14 965U T cok14 6a aco 'Can cyt- o "T rp4 intst F woiLK-
4 (....AskileAss C-011-r-4 SE CAJT fkrit o »a0 tOu A-4. Loc.' vSE-co
RS LtFCGIewY.S. Dog-tract o4. c-co Psi z6- rwoot.o -14 oc..1, Ca INECIE- %JAC' 4-1 E. a. IN 14 or w
Feat QA816.4 .14oLoriq,
hppet.400c Vol
SAFETY 5 uggesTigams FoR griwr4c;
APPENDIX -1.
PROJECT SUGGESTIONS.
GHANA DUGOUT CANOES A PROPOSAL TO REPLACE A PROPORTION OFTHESE LARGE CANOES MADE FROM A SINGLE LOG WITH GHANA PLANK CANOESOF THE SIERRA LEONE/ GUINEA VARIETY IN THE MORE SHELTERED AREASOF THE GHANA COASTLINE.
This proposal follows fears that the large Wawa tree, usedto construct the ghana dugout canoe, was becoming more and morescarce and expensive and that no ready alternatives were eitheravailable in ghana or acceptable ro the local fishermen. Thisraised concern about the long term viability of the surf beachfisheries and their communities.
In a report compiled for the IDAF Regional programme by O.Gulbrandsen on canoes in ghana recommendations were put forewardto juild prototype replacement surf beach landing craft fromvarious materials. Following this report which nvolvedrecommendations to replace the craft landing on heavy surfbeaches it was realized that the problem could be tackled byreplacing those canoes which used sate harbours and where theparticular qualities of strength and durability of the ghanaduaout canoe were not in fact needed. Replacing the canoes of thesate harbours and sheltered landing beaches of the ghanacoastline would be an easier, though still difficult task, thantrying to find a suitable and acceptable surf beach landingcraft. If was also hypothesised that if safe haven vessels couldbe replaced by an alternative vessel this could, it regulationswere introduced to confine the use ot Waw,,1 log Ghana dugoutcanoes to surf beaches only go a long way towards making morelogs available to the surf beach fisheries where they were reallyneeded. This would also give more time for alternative beachlanding vessels to be designed and accepted by the fishermen.
This proposal involves the introduction of the Ghana Plankcanoe, as typified in Sierra Leone and Guinea, to the fishermenof certain selected shelterd fish landing sites. Preliminaryinvestigations by the consultants have identified Apam, Tema,Accra, Cape coast, Elmina and Takoradi as places where Ghanaplank canoes of traditional native construction could be used forfishing immediately without Liodification. No doubt other*beachesall along the coast would also be suitable for the Ghana Plankcanoe. Not all fishermen currently using sheltered harbours wouldbe able to transfer to Ghana plank canoes because they maymigrate to surf beaches at different seasons Of the year.
Procedural outline for formulatuion mission.
l. Initiate survey through the Fisheries depart ent toidentify all sheltered beaches in Ghana.
2. Identify at same time the number of fishermen who migrateto surf beaches and/or who do not really need a Ghana dugoutcanoe.
2. The results of this investigation should reveal the scale
80
12
Table 2
EQUIVALENT VALUES OF SINGLE POLYAMIDE MONOFILAMENT
Nominaldiameter
(mm)
tex
Runnagem/kg
Breaking loadin kgf dryunknotted
0.40 155 6 450 7.7
0.45 185 5 400 9.5
0.50 240 4 170 12
0.55 280 3 570 14
0.60 330 3 030 17
0.70 480 2 080 24
0.80 600 1 670 29
0.90 755 1 320 36
1.00 920 1 090 42
1.10 1 110 900 47
1.20 1 320 760 55
1.30 1 540 650 65
1.40 1 790 560 75
1.50 2 060 490 86
1.60 2 330 430 98
1.70 2 630 380 110
1.80 2 960 340 120
1.90 3 290 300 132
2.00 3 640 270 145
2.50 5 630 180 220
81
of the potential number of trees (Wawa) that could be saved asand when these vessels came due for replacement, It would alsogive an idea as to the attractiveness of the Ghana plank canoeand whether it would be worth building a couple of prototypes fortrial among the fishermen.
It should be born in mind that the Ghana plank canoe hasdirect links with the Ghana dugout canoe and the style, gear andfishing methods employed on these vessels is essentially the sameas those currently used by the ghanaian fishermen. This shouldmake the plank canoe the most likely to be acceptable to thefisherten. Even if a small % of fishermen along the coastaccepted the plank canoe it would probably do more to divertdemand from the Wawa tree than other imported ideas.
Once the groundwork and potentials had been establishedit is recommended that a) a team of traditional Sierra LeoneanGhana plank canoe builders be recruited and with an interpreter( say Momodu Keroma from Shenge ) sent to Ghana to build one ortwo traditionally constructed canoes letting the GhanaianBoatbuilders assist.
In addition to the traditional builders it is suggestedthat a boatyard trained Ghana canoe builder ( there is only oneat Kissi Dockyard -- Bola C',ollins who built several inboard andoutboard strenthened Ghana Plank canoes for the Kambia Project,the later failure or these yessels atter excellent initialresults was not due to construction but more to a lack oftraining. His purpose would be to build a much stronger versionof the Ghana plank canoe.
Once built a programme of demonstrations Would beinitiated whereby the fishermen would be allowed to use the boatfor extensive trials at sea
If cheaper to construct than the Ghana dugout canoe andreasonably durable in the Ghanaian context The vessels wouldstand a fair chance of acceptance and go some way towardsachieving the objective.
This propOsal while going some way towards a solutiondoes not and should not be seen as a solution to the wholeproblem. It should be taken up perhaps in conjunction with theproposals made by Gulbrandsen and even associted with thepromotion of more fuel efficient forms of propulsion such as thediesel outboard engines. Of these it would appear that there aretwo acceptable engines, the Yanmar D27 and the Coventry Climax -25 HP which has been observed by the consultant in operation.Both engines would he suitable for the propulsion of Ghana Plankand dugout canoes in the context ot the current level ofdevelopment or the local fisheries,,This neludes the Climax 25HPwnich is an electrical start outboard. The reason for this isthat the technology of the electrical start requires what iscurrently available for the recharginge &f the 12 V vehiclebatteries that many fishermen use to power their huge radia sets.
82
PRozwrSUGGESTIONS. 57AR1 oF Przocia.Amme. A PP tRot (14 -ro
INTEGRATED FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT PROJECT : APAM 044A-tvA).The proposed start to a programme approach to the integrated
development of the ghanaian coastal fishing villages.
APAM is a fishing community of some 5,000-6,000 people onthe edge of a small relatively sheltered bay. From the beachesabout 70-80 canoes engaged an lining, drift netting, purseseining, gill netting and trawling land a considerable amount offish each year. This fish is largely sold fresh to processors andwholesale buyers from inland villages and markets. It has had alittle assistance from the EEC funded trawler rehabilitationprogramme carried out some two years ago. Judging by the largenumber of anoperative traWlers laid up on the beach it wouldappear that the improvements initiated by the EEC failed to besustainable.
In talks with the most promininant local fisherman localproblems were as follows
block ice and access to cold storage was regarded as avital necessity to the future of the local fleet. Block ice wasneeded for vessels to go to sea with to preserve catches on tripsof up to five days and when landed cold storage facilities wereessential to achieve fair prices from the traders. Currentlythere were no storage or icemaking facilities in the community.there was however a local plant which was out of commission andowned by the government.
Fishermen were having to become more and more versatilein the activities in which they were engaged in order to earn a_living. This required more gear types but the credit for suchburchases was not available.
Fishermen were also having to steam further and furtherafield to catch fish. With petrol outboards this trend wasfurther reducing t_heir earnings.
The community itself appeared to be in considerable needof improved Public health practices although it was claimed thatwater supplies were good.
The proposal is tu tackle the problems outlined by thefishermen, and perhaps others identified during a'more prolongedvisit to the area, in an integrated manner. It should deal withthe technical aspects of the evolving fishery as well as someselected social components.
I. Evaluate the real ice and cold store requirement. Eitherrefurbish exsting plant or prepare plans to build a new plantappropriate to the needs uf the community
Introduce an alternative Ghana canoe constructionprogramme to reduce price of boats and replace ghana canoes withplank canoes.
:Start an inboard diesel enaine training programme takinginto account the acccumulated experience of the reasons why other
83
Wes African Inboard programmes have failed. See Appendix S.Start 3 diesel outbodrd engine fmiliarization and
training programme to introduce more fuel efficient forms ofpropulsion to the Ghana canoe fleet.
Start a trawl net making programme to consolidate theefforts of the EEC in the Apam area.
Improve local fish processing methods in terms of rangeof smoking and salting as well as the encouragement of more fuelefficient ovens.
Seek to improve the range of fisheries related incomegenerating activities within the fishing communities to providealternative forms of employment to the youth of the fishingvillages.
lxamine the role a credit programme could play in theprovision of alternative vessels, diesel engines, fishing gear,fish processing methods and various income generating schemes inthe fishing community. This assistance would be aimed at reducingthe use of the watsa tree in ghana canoe constructiion. improvingthe general level of fuel efficiency, increasing the huntingrange of vessels to spread fishing effort over a wider area,assisting access to a wider range of fishing gear to dispersetishing effort away from a few species, and to reduce dependenceon the fishery as the only'source of employment.
Examine whether or not the establishment of a fisheriescooperative type of organization could lead to sustainablesupplies of inputs as well as the operation of the ice plantfacilities.
lO. Identify the areas where the project can play a
catalytic role in the encouragement of other government and nongovernment organizations to help the community to tackle thevarious health and environment problems it faces.
The community concerned appeared to be an ideal target foran integrated approach to the development of the whole community.Other fishing communities along the coast of Ghana may alsoprovide. opportunities for development where other agencies havenot been forthcoming with assistance. It is possible that thesecommunities have been regarded as successful local fishingeconomies in their own right without external assistance andtherefore did not merit aid. However, there are still seriousproblems in many of the villages concened of the type which FAOcan bring its expertise to bear either in technical or socio-technical fields.
Prodra-mme Approach to the development of coasta1 t.isheries.It is aso proposed that the type of Integrated development
outlined above be used as a model for the sequential assistanceto the fishing communities of the Ghana coastal region. Up to nowthe type of assistance Provided has been of a kind typified byIsola-ced technical inputs which appear o have largely misssedthe artisanal fishing communities. To develop this programme amission needs to meet with the fishermen in all the main,3ommunaties of the coastline, identify arcas of underexploitationin terms of fish stocks, identify problems in terms of marketing,processing, techniques, gear etc and devise strategies for theirsolution by credit, maintenance systems, regulations, communitydevelopment ( health and nutrition, public health, training etc).
It is proposed that such an approach will give a morebalanced and structured framework within which to directdevelopment work in the fishing villages of Ghana.
PROJECT SUGGESTIONS.
PROPOSAL FOR TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO THE FISHERMEN OFEQUATORIAL GUINEA IN THE PROPOSED ASSISTANCE IN THE TESTINGEXPERIMENTATION AND ADOPTION OF YANMAR DIESEL OUTBOARD ENGINESIN FISHERIES OPERATIONS.
This TCP project arose out ot discussions at the FisheriesResearch and Utilization branch of the minastry of Agriculturein Tema Ghana. It was said that Ben Anum-Doyi would go toEquatorial Guinea to assast the fishermen with the adoptiontrials ot the D '/.7 outboard. It was quite clear that for thesuccessful trials of this engine the proposed programme wouldneed the support of an experienced mechanic in the field ofdiesel, outboard engines. These engines are not as easy to operateas petrol outboard engines and require particular techniques forsuccessful handling. It was felt that while there was no moresuitable person for the fishing side of operations there was adistinct need tor an experienced mechanic to assist with thetechnical aspects of these.engines.
The Shenge project in Sierrra Leone has the most extensiveoperational experience of the operation of these diesel outboardsin West Africa. In particular Pico Lewis, the project mechanicat Shenge can be regarded as the most experienced mechanic in therepair, maintenance and operation of these engines in WestAfrica. This View has been reinforced after meeting the Japaneseexperts in Guinea who appeared to be well r.-,(ehind Shenge in theiroperational experience with Fishermen and transport boats thanis the case in Shenge. They also seemed to have laoked theexperience of totally dismantling these sophisticated engines.
It as is therefore proposed that Pico Lewis Accompanies BenAnum-Doyi on this mission with the purpose of training localoperators in the handling and maintenance procedures for theseengines. Failure to provide the proper training will almostcertainly lead to failure and perhaps undermine attemptselsewhere to introduce more fuel efficient forms of propulsionto the canoes of West Africa. In this respect the Ruggerinidiesel outboard has by its indiscriminate and unsupported issueto fishermen already done enough damage without adding to it.
The instalation of the D27 in Ghana canoes is another areawhere the expertise of the Shenge project can be drawn upon inorder to ensure a successful outcome of the Technical assistance.
84
PROJECT SUGGESTIONS.
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO THE RESEARCH AND UTIE,IZATION BRANCHORIHE M:NISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, GHANA WITH RESEARCH INTO THEEFFECTS OF SMALL MESH SIZES IN PURSE SEINES AND THEII)ENTIFICAT:ON OF THE MOST APPROPPITE MESH SIZE FOR REGULATINGTHE ART:SANAL FISHERY.
Currently the artisanal purse seine fleet of Ghana employsmesh sizes in the bunr of the various types of net varying fromlOmm in the Poli-Sieve purse to 30-50 mm in the watsa purse net.The official legal limit on the mesh size is 25 mm. Therefore ahigh proportion of the artisanal fleet is employing fishing gear,which in termo of current legislation, is illegal.
In addition to this there is growing official concern andalarm at the trend towards smaller mesh sizes as stocks arereduced and the consequent,need by the fishermen to adopt moreversatile fishing gear increases.
The imposition of the 25 mm mesh regulation was enforcedbefore the current Trend towards fishing the small pelagics hadoccurred. It ia therefore a necessary precondition to newregulations to discover scientifically what the catches are interms of the different species concerned and the the likely longterm effects on the fishery of unregulated increases in the useof small mesh sizes. Following this research it is essential thatnew regulations are determined and recommended to the governmenttor enactment.
It is proposed that contacts are made with the ResearchUtilization Branch and preliminary discussions held in órder toidentify the precise form and financial implications suchassistance could take. In this respect it could be directfinancial assistance for the Institute itself to carry out thework or it could be through the funding of external expertise toassist the Institute with the design and implementation of thisimportant work.
In many ways external assistance may be preferable toentirely local experimentation as the fishermen themselves mayperceive such work and its recommendations as more acceptable ifderived from an external source. The blame for unpopularconsequent legislation may also be diverted to the externalsource giving the Fisheries department a better chance to enforcethe legislation.
Whatever the outcome of the rese rch and consequentrecommendations for purse seine mesh sizes it should be kept inmind that the objective of the proposed ;Technical assistancewould he to help the government decide on a particular regulationwhich will conserve fish stocks and prevent their unregulatedoverexploitation. This would eventually be reflected in asustainable fishery with consequent benefits to the artisanalfishing communities.
Once a regulation has been decided consideration could begiven. to using some form of credit programme to encourage andheip fishermen to adapt their gear to conform with legislativerequirements and to adopt alternative fishing methods.
85
PROJECT SUGGESTIONS.
CANOE MOTORIZATION: A PROPOSAL TO CARRY OUT FAO FIELD TRIALSOF THE RELATIVE MERITS OF DIESEL OUTBOARDS IN THE MOTORIZATIONOF ARTISANAL FISHING CANOES IN SENEGAL.
The Senegalese fishing fleet is heavily engaged in thecapture of all types of fish employing a wide range of fishingtechniques and vessels. Like Ghana the Senegalese fisheries areheavily exploited and largely employ similar vessels and fishinggear as well as using similarly fuel intensive forms of canoepropulsion. In both of these major fish landing countries thereis a need for the canoe fleets to adopt more fuel efficient formsof propulsion.
It is therefore proposed that a major technical programmeinvolving fishing and transport canoes is carried out to provideWest African governments efc with an assessment of the relativeperformance of diesel outboards in these fields. Such a programmeshould test the two most acceptable diesel outboard engines indirect comparison with currently used petrol outboard engines.
The rationale for attempting to yet again encourage the useof more fuel efficient engines is testamony to the eventualbenefits of such adoption. That all attempts to wean fishermenand transport boat owners away from the use of the petroloutboards have so far failed is also testamony to the success ofthis initial transfer of technology.
Benefits of adopting more fuel efficient forms of propulsioninclude the following:
Fuel forms the largest element in the variable costs ofoperating fishing and transport canoes. Reducing fuel consumptionimproves profits, incomes, standards of living etc it also helpsto maintain the viability of artisanal canoe operationsespecially when there is a bad season or the fleets need totravel further afield in their search of fish.
Adopting diesel engines also helps to disperse fishingeffort by increasing the financially viable range of fishingcanoes in their aearch for fish.
The continued viability of the large fishing canoes inSenegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone and Ghana and thereby the viabilityof the purse seine and encircling gill net operations in Senegal,Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Ghana as well as other West .Africancountries with smaller fisheries.
It is proposed that a formulation mission visits Senegal todetermine the site for the proposed trials and a preliminaryattempt made to identify a selection of craft and fishingtechniques which could benefit from the trials and berepresentative enough to relate these trials to the canoefisheries of other interested fisheries in West Africa.
86
87
CANOE MOTORIZATION IN WEST AF1-ZICA.
Aii attempts at the motorization or artasanal canoeswatn more fuel efficient forms of diesel propulsion have so farfailed. This is not because there nave not been some successfulvessels launched but more because none of these vessels have beenkept in working order for the normal period expected from similaroperations elswhere. This has mean that the owner has not hadthe time needed for this more expensive type or propulsion torecoup the full economic benefits in terms of reduced overalloperating costs. In consequnce many who have taken the risk ofinstalling diesel inboard engines have returned to the use of thepetrol outboard engine when for one reason or another the totalpackage has not met operational requirements.
So tar all attempts at Inboard diesel enginemotorization in Ghana plank canoes as well as the small inshoretrawlers introduced into the Ghana fisnery have tailed. Evidenceof this state of affairs is to be seen at Tombo in Sierra Leonewhere at least five inboard Ghana canoes are out of operat ionwithin a short distance of where they were launched and a furtherinboard, built by the Kambia Fisheries Development Project, liesin Kassa dock awaiting major repairs. Along the Gnana coast fromTema in the east to Takoradi in the west there are also manysmall trawlers whose engine breakdowns are only one of a numberof major problems which keep them nign and dry.
To improve the likelihood of successful motorizationthe following notes are an attempt to identify some of thereasons for the consistant failure of attempts to introduce morefuel efficient forms of propulsion to Inc artisanal fleets ofWest Africa.
Solutions to find a fuel efficient canoe.
COnseguent needs for canoe notarisation.
All attempts at diesel nctorisation nust
produce a superior catching paCkage thanthat provided by the 40 hp Yamaha and the25 hp in the staller cene. Failure tonatdh the 40 hp in terms of speed,starting activity, acceleration, andthereby the ability to catdh bonga:wculd
inevitaUy mean failure of the programme..:.0;.,:-\whaterver the superiority of the fuel
econarty.
CRTTERIA FOR THE sualmasm, INIIMETTONAND ADOPTION OF MORE FUEL EFFICENrENGINES.
Should have equal or superior SPEED 4. Should be of equal or superiorto those engines in current use. RUNNING RELIABILITY.
Should have no more VIBRATIONS and 5. Should be capable of being fittedNOISE than currently used engines. into currently used vessels or at
Should have a good or betterSTARTING characteristics.
o c
-d
least by some simple adoatation ofexisting vessels.
14he total package (engine and hull)should be CAPABLE OF CATCHING THEMOST IMPORTANT TARGET SPECIES. In
this rase;\Bonga and Aweiu plus avariety of often less importantspecies.
Should be able to push a HEAVIULADEN VESSEL (20 crew members plus1 1/2 tons of net plus fish)
thorugh the water at speedscomparable to that of the existingoutboard engines.
Should have a PRICE which is
COMPARAME with petrol outboards.
Should ekhibit FUEL SAVINGS whichcan demonstrably recoup the extracost of purchast, by a largely
illiterate clientele.
The propulsion unit should be easilyremoved for safe keeping after each
The SKITLS REQUIRED FOR TRAININGOPERATORS in the use of the
propulsion unit should be eitheralreaCy locally available or can beeasily trained.
The SPARE PARTS NEEDED TO MAINTAINthe propulsion unit should beavailable for purchai4Se in country.
THE SKILFS, TOOLS, AND EQUIPMENTneeded to MAINTAIN all .aspeccts ofthe propulsion unitA should beavailable - locally. (engine/shaftalignmenth.Fopellor repair, engineand geardige repair, engine timing,injector testing7valve adjusting).
Installation of new propulsion unitSHOULD NOT MAKE FISHING OPERATIONMORE DIFFICULT, and if they do thenstrategies for overcoming thosedifficulties should be deviseditefore acceptance.:,--,
88
EAA A (.
laW
89
Should have at least EQUAL-ACCELERATION characteristics.
Should FACILTTArE ADAPTATION oflocal vessles (which fishermentrust) and not be replacement bydifferenct craftry,-- lz TP A L-.;.-r= rLT- NoT rIt.t.-rAyr
The fure which is needed to propelthe unit should be availableloc.allyA r A P t2-JC F ri, r
C,C, TtfiC;r4 ,r
The engine should be able towithstand initial learning behaviourby unit e operators, who shouldexhibitechanical aware.ness not todamage the engine when tighteningscrews, nuts, bdolts, spark plug6s,etc. A very common problem amongmechanically unsophisticatedoperators.
Should be easily removed forsafekeeping, particularly importantduring the rains when a singlenight's rain is sufficient to swampa canoe. 1
ti !1-1 A .1_ t. )
v,) ' re._
Any moterisat ion programme which couldmeett these criteria should besuccessful. In this reapect it shouldnot be forgotten that there has alreadybeen a successful canoe motoOrisation inthe past with the introduction of the 40and 25 hp Yamaha outboard engiriS. Theproblem lies in replacing this form ofpropulsion by a more fuel efficientsystem.
Should not upset traditional ways ofcatching and handling gPar.ukli_es
Kir_ta ft`45 t-4ITHNI fa'SS 004 CF ce).-1 ,S ,
Solutions trying to find problems.
22. Study the behavior of the fiSh andof the fishermen.Tpg,r,pos.A-LI F rQ f
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1 70
TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL COMPARISON BETWEEN VARIOUS MARINE ENGINES
I.
DIESEL OUTBOARD ENGINES, D-OBE
MAX RPM
,CYL. VOLUME
WEIGHT BOATSP
FUEL CONSUMPTION
COST IN US $
BRAND, HP, MODEL
Engine Prop.
cm3 cm3/hp
kg
knots
1/h
1/nm
$/nm
$/1000 h
Ex
CIF
$/hp
factory Freetown
2.
DIESEL INBOARD ENGINES, D-IBE
MAX RPM
CYL. VOLUME
BRAND, HP, MODEL
Engine Prop.
cm3 cm3/hp
Lister, 20, STW2M
2300
760
1270
63.5
Lister, 30, ST3OM
2300
782
1900
63.3
Sabb,
10, GG
1800
900
760
76
Sabb,
30, 2JGR
1900
950
1880
63
Yanmar, 26, 2TDGG
2100
668
1806
69.5
Yanmar, 39, 3TDGG
2100
668 2710
69.5
R-F. 14_14. us
pc..so Cc.
.4s3
e.a
DE
N/C
%-o
vA*-
..sq
WE
IGH
T B
OA
TSP
kg
knots
390
6.5
430
7.6
200
6.5
375
7.5
400
7.2
500
8.5
FUEL
CO
NSU
MPT
ION
CO
ST I
N U
S $
1/h
1/nm
$/nm
$/1000 h
Ex
CIF
$/hp
factory Freetown
40.62
0.21
1312
-9329
466
60.79
0.26
1968
10980
366
20.31
0.10
656
-3051
305
60.80
0.26
1968
-6122
204
50.69
0.21
1508
5593
215
80.94
0.31
2624
-7338
188
trR
(?4
L. 50 G-
°
Coventry
25
5000
1860
742
29.7
91
6.8
50.73
0.24
1640
5523
221
Yanmar
27
4500
2600
808
30
82
75.4
0.73
0.24
1771
3608
133
Yanmar
36
4500
2600 1109
30.8
114
7.5
7.2
0.96
0.31
2362
4590
127
PROJECT SUCGESTIONS.
CANOE AND TRAWLER MOTORIZATION IN WEST AFRICA: INBOARDDIESEL ENGINES.
In visits to Sierra Leone and in particular Ghana it wasparticularly disappointing to see the number of beached inboarddiesel engined fishing boats. These were of two main types, theencircling net ghana plank canoes in Sierra Leone and the inboardengined trawlers to be found at various ports along the Ghanaiancoastline,
So many attempts have been made to introduce the benefitsof the inboard marine diesel to the canoe fleets of West Africathat it is almost embarrassing to suggest that yet anotherattempt be made to introduce this form of propulsion. However,the benefits of success seem to be so marked that a furtherattempt is recommended in the port of Elmina ( or any othersuitable venue in Ghana ). However, it is suggested that thecriteria for suctoess outlined below are taken carefully intoaccount and that all of the skills and training requirementsout lined are incorporated into the proposed venture.
It is proposed that the existing trawler fleet is assistedin rehabilitation and that the accent of the project is aimed atwhat happens after the rehabilitation rather than on thetechnical installation of the propulsion units themselves(although of equal importance to a successful outcome). Theproject should also pay particular attenion fo such areas as theavailability of spare parts on a sustained basis as well asidentifying the availability of the particuiar skills needed bythe engine operator in identifying trouble spots before theyreach a stage which threatens the continued existance of theboat.
92
LISTE DES RAPPORTS DIPA - LIST OF IDAF REPORT
Documents de travail/Working papers
De Graauw, M.A., Etude de préfactibilité technique de l'aménage-
1985
ment d'abris
pour
la péche maritime artisanale au
Benin. Cotonou, Projet DIPA. 55 p., DIPA/WP/1.
Black Michaud, M.J., Mission d'identification des communautés
1985
littorales de pêcheurs artisans
au Benin.
Cotonou,
Projet DIPA, 24 p., DIPA/WP/2.
Gulbrandsen, 0.A., Preliminary account of attempts to introduce
1985
alternative types of
small craft into West Africa.
Cotonou, IDAF Project, 51 p., IDAF/WP/3.
Gulbrandsen, 0.A., Un compte-rendu préliminaire sur les tentati -
1985
ves
d'introduire
des
types
alternatifs
de
petites
embarcations en Afrique de l'Ouest.
Cotonou, Projet
DIPA, 53 p., DIPA/WP/3.
Jorion P.J.M., The influence of socio-economic and cultural
1985
structures on small-scale coastal fisheries development
in Benin. Cotonou, Projet DIPA, 59 p., IDAF/WP/4.
Jorion P.J.M., L'influence des structures socio-économiques sur
1985
le développement des peches artisanales sur les cates
du Benin. Cotonou, Projet DIPA, 59 p., DIPA/WP/4.
Tandberg, A., Preliminary assessment of the nutritional situation
1986
of subsistence fishermen's families. Cotonou, Projet
DIPA, 31 p. IDAF/WP/5.
Wijkstrom, O., Recyclage des personnels peche en gestion et comp-
1986
tabilité. Cotonou, Projet DIPA, 25 p. DIPA/WP/6.
Collart, A., Development planning for small-scale fisheries in
1986
West Africa, practical and socio-economic aspects of
fish production and processing. Cotonou, IDAF Project,
34 p., IDAF/WP/7.
Collart, A., Planification du développement des péches artisana-
1986
les en Afrique de l'Ouest ; production et traitement du
poisson,
ses
aspects matériels,techniques
et
socio-
économiques. Cotonou, Projet DIPA, 67 p. DIPA/WP/7.
Van der Meeren, A.J.L., Socio-economic aspects of integrated fi-
1986
sheries
development
in
rural
fishing
villages.
Cotonou, IDAF Project, 29 p., IDAF/WP/8.
Haling, L.J., et Wijkstrom, O., Les disponibilités en materiel
1986
pour la péche artisanale. Cotonou, Projet DIPA, 47 p.,
DIPA/WP/9.
Akester S.J., Design and trial of sailing rigs for artisanal fi-
1986
sheries of Sierra Leone. Cotonou, IDAF Project, 31p.,
IDAF/WP/10.
Vétillart, R., Rapport detude préliminarie sur l'aménagement d'un
1986
abri
pour
la peche maritime artisanale
Cotonou.
Cotonou, Projet DIPA, 31 p., DIPA/WP/11.
Van Hoof, L., Small-scale fish próductiOn and marketing in Shen-
1986
ge,
Sierra
Leone.
Cotonou,
IDAF
Project,
36
p.,
IDAF/WP/12.
Everett, G.V., An outline of West African small-scale fisheries.
1986
Cotonou, IDAF Project. 32 p., IDAF/WP/13.
Black-Michaud, J., et J. Johnson, Participation communautaire aux
1987
projets intégrés des peches artisanales. En cours de
preparation (DIPA/WP/14).
Anon.,
Report of the second IDAF liaison officers meeting;
1987
Freetown,
Sierra
Leone
(11
-14
November
1986).
Cotonou, IDAF Project, 66 p., IDAF/WP/15.
Anon.,
Compte-rendu de la deuxieme reunion des officiers de
1987
liaison
du
DIPA.
Cotonou,
Projet
DIPA,
27
p.,
DIPA/WP/16.
Campbell, R.J., Report of the preparatory technical meeting on
1987
propulsion in fishing canoes in West Africa (Freetown,
15-18
November
1986).Cotonou,
IDAF
Project,
88
p.,
IDAF/WP/17.
Davy D.B.,Seamanship, Sailing and Motorisation. Cotonou, IDAF
1987
Project, 85 p., IDAF/WP/18.
Anum-Doyi, B., and J. Wood, Observations on fishing methods in
1988
West Africa. Cotonou, IDAF Project, 53 p., IDAF/WP/19.
Anon.,
Report of the third IDAF liaison officers meeting (Co -
1988
tonou, 2 - 4 December 1987). Cotonou, IDAF Project, 88
p., IDAF/WP/20.
Anon.,
Compte-rendu de la troisième reunion des officiers de
1988
liaison du DIPA (2-4 Décembre 1987). Cotonou, Projet
DIPA, 85 p., DIPA/WP/20.
Haakonsen, J.M. (Ed.) Recent developments of the artisanal fishe-
1988
ries
in
Ghana.
Cotonou,
IDAF
Project,
69
p.,
IDAF/WP/21.
Everett, G.V., West African marine artisanal fisheries. Cotonou,
1988
IDAF Project, 41 p., IDAF/WP/22.
Everett, C.V., Les perches maritimes artisanales en Afrique de
1988
l'Ouest. Cotonou, Projet DIPA, 44 p. DIPA/WP/22.
Coackley, A.D.R., Observations on small fishing craft develop-
1989
ments in West Africa. Cotonou,
IDAF Project,
22 p.,
IDAF/WP/23.
Zinsou, J. et W. Wentholt, Guide pratique pour la construction et
1989
l'introduction du
fumoir
"chorkor".
Cotonou,
Projet
DIPA, 33 p., DIPA/WP/24.
Zinsou, J. and W. Wenthoit, A pratical guide to the construction
1989
and introduction of the chorkor smoker. Cotonou, IDAF
Project, 29 p., IDAF/WP/24.
Chauveau, J. P., F. Verdeaux, E. Charles-Dominique et J. M. Haakon-
1989
sen,
Bibliographie sur les communautés de pecheurs
d'Afrique de l'Ouest - Bibliography on the fishing
communities in West-Africa. Cotonou, Projet DIPA - IDAF
Project, 220 p., DIPA-IDAF/WP/25.
Everett, G.V., Small-scale fisheries development issues in West
1989
Africa. Cotonou, IDAF Project, 47 p., IDAF/WP/26.
Everett, G.V., Problemes de développement de la pêche artisanale
1989
en Afrique de l'Ouest.
Cotonou,
Projet DIPA,
49p.,
DIPA/WP/26.
Haakonsen, J.M., et W. Wentholt, La péche lacustre au Gabon. Co-
1989
tonou, Projet DIPA, 36 p., DIPA/WP/27.
Anon.
Report of the ad hoc technical meeting on artisanal fi-
1990
sheries craft,
propulsion, gear and security in the
IDAF region ; Cotonou, 25 - 26 September 1989. Cotonou,
IDAF Project, 111 p., IDAF/WP/28.
Anon.,
Report of the fourth IDAF liaison officers meeting (Da-
1990
kar,
21
- 23 November 1989). Cotonou, IDAF Project,
135 p., IDAF/WP/29.
Anon.,
Compte-rendu de la quatrième reunion des officiers de
1990
liaison
du
DIPA.
Cotonou,
Projet
DIPA,
121
p.,
DIPA/WP/29.
Houndékon, B.R., D.E. Tempelman et IJff A.M., Report of round ta-
1990
ble
meeting
on
women's
activities
and
community
development in artisanal fisheries (projects) in West
Africa.
Cotonou,
IDAF
Project,
12
p.,
+annexes,
IDAF/WP/30.
Houndékon, B.R., D.E. Tempelman et IJff A.M., Rapport du seminal-
1990
re sur les activités féminines et le développement
communautaire dans les projets de péches artisanales
en Afrique de l'Ouest. Cotonou, Projet PIPA, 14 p., +
annexes, DIPA/WP/30.
A.M. IJff, Socio-economic conditions in Nigerian fishing communi-
1990
ties - Based on studies along the Benin and Imo river
estuaries. Cotonou, IDAF Project, 113p., IDAF/WP/31.
Okpanefe, A. Abiodun and J.M. Haakonsen, The fishing commu-
nities of the Benin River estuary area: Results from a
village survey in Bendel State, Nigeria. Cotonou, IDAF
Project, 75 p., IDAF/WP/32.
Anon.,
Compte-rendu du cours "Analyse Quantitative des Aspects
1991
Sélectionnés de Developpement". Cotonou, Projet PIPA,
6 + xlvi p., DIPA/WP/33.
Anon.,
Report of the course on "Quantitative Analysis of Se-
1991
lected
Aspects
of
Fisheries
Development".
Cotonou,
IDAF Project, 6 + xlv p., IDAF/WP/33.
Callerholm Cassel E., Cost and Earnings and Credit Studies on
1991
Ghanaian Canoe Fisheries. Cotonou, IDAF Project, 38 p.,
IDAF/WP/34.
Sheves, G. T., The Ghanaian dug-out canoe and the canoe carving
1991
industry
in Ghana.
Cotonou,
IDAF Project,
109
p.,
IDAF/WP/35.
Haakonsen, J. M. and Chimere Diaw, Fishermen's Migrations in West
1991
Africa. Cotonou, IDAF Project, 293 p., IDAP/WP/36.
Gulbrandsen, 0.A., Canoes in Ghana. Cotonou, IDAF Project, 82 p.,
1991
IDAF/WP/37.
Anon.,
Artisanal Fisheries in West Africa, Report of the Fifth
1991
IDAF Liaison Officers Meeting. Cotonou, IDAF Project,
140 p., IDAF/WP/38.
Anon.,
Les peches Artisanales en Afrique de l'Ouest, Compte-
1991
rendu de la Cinquieme reunion des Officiers de Liaison
du DIPA. Cotonou, Projet DIPA, 122 p., DIPA/WP/38.
Liste des documents de travail du Projet Modele, Benin/
List of working_Tapers of the Model Proect, Benin
Coackley, A.D.R., Report on installation of a diesel inboard me-
1988
tor in a Ghana canoe. Cotonou, Model Project, 7 p. +
annexes, PMB/WP/1 (En).
A.D.R., Installation d'un moteur diesel "inboard" dans
une pirogue ghanéenne. Cotonou, Projet Modele, 9 p. +
annexe, PMB/WP/I (Fr).
H., Etudes technico-économiques des fours améliorées
pour le fumage da poisson en Republique Populaire du
Benin.
Cotonou,
Projet Moda/e,
8p.
+6 tableaux,
PMB/WP/2.
C., et M. Rals, Etude démographique des communautés
cibles du projet Modele Benin. Cotonou, Projet Modèle,
20 p. + 10 annexes, PMB/WP/3.
Jorion, P., Non-monetary distribution of fish
as food in Beninois
1988
small-scale fishing villages and its importance for
auto-consumption.
Cotonou,
Model
Project,
26
p.,
PMB/WP/4.
P. F., Catalogue des engins de péche maritime artisanale
du Benin. Cotonou, Projet Modele, 46 p. + 3 annexes,
PMB/WP/4, PMB/WP/5.
P.F., Rapport de consultation sur la formation des jeu-
nes pecheurs de l'UNICOOPEMA
eLomé. Cotonou, Projet
Modele, 17 p. + 6 annexes, PMB/WP/6.
Atti Mama, C., impacte Socio-économique de la pistePahou-Kpota.
1989
Cotonou, Projet Modèle, 10 p. + 3 annexes, PMB/WP/7.
Ahouanmenou, C., C. Atti-Mama, B. Houndékon, D. Tempelman et D.
1989
Turcotte, Animation, gestion et planification, séance
de travail avec les agents de terrain. Cotonou, Projet
Modèle, 142 p. + annexes, PMB/WP/8.
Atti-Mama, C., D. Turcotte, et W. Wentholt, Evaluation interne
1989
des activités du projet modèle Benin dans le secteur de
Ouidah.
Cotonou,
Projet Modele,
36 p +
7annexes,
PMB/WP/9.
Tempelman, D., The participatory approach inan integrated arti-
1989
sanal
fisheries
project
;structuring
community
development
-womens
activities.
Cotonou,
Model
Project, 43 p. PMB/WP/10.
Coackley,
1988
Zannou, L.
1988
Atti-Mama,
1988
Tanimomo,
1989
Tanimomo,
1989
Landry 3%, Cours d'alphabetisation fonctionnelle en calucul. Co-
1989
tenou, Projet Modele, 59 p. + 3 annexes. PMB/WP/11.
Landry J., D. Tempelman,.Functional literacy, Training Guide for
1989
a numeracy course. Cotonou, Model Project, 55 p. + 3
annexes. PMB/WP/11
Atti-Mama, C., Systemes trRditionnels at modernes d'épargne et de
1990
credit en milieu pécheur au Benin.
Cotonou,
Projet
Modele, 41 p. + annexes, PMB/WP/12.
Sénouvo, P., Statistiques de peches des villages du Projet Modèle
1990
Année 1987. Cotonou, Projet Modele, 33p. PMB/WP/13.
Sheves, G.T., Holler P.T. and Tanimomo P.F., Report on demonstra-
1990
tion
with
echosounders,
cempasses
and
multimono
gillnets
in
Ghana.
Cotonou-,
Model
Project
22p.
PMB/WP/14.
Coackley, A.D.R., and G.T. Sheves, A review of the experimental
1990
introduction of diesel inboard motors to Ghana canoes.
Cotonou, Model Project 41 p,, PMB/WP/15.
IJff, A.M. et D.E. Tempelman, Etude sur les relations entre les
1990
captures
de
poisson
at
l'état
nutritionnel
des
communautés de pécheurs dans la province du Mono, au
Benin. Cotonou, Projet Modèle, 27 p.,
PMB
/WP/
16.
Senouvo, A.P. et Gbaguidi, A.A. Recueil des données statistiques
1991
des peches maritimes au Benin. Période de 1984
a1989.
Cotonou, Projet Modele, 134 p.,
PMB
/WP/
17.
Houndékon, B.R., Initiative locale et developpement: Expérience
1991
des communautés de pecheurs marins du Bénin. Cotonou,
Projet Modèle, 17 p., PMB/WP/18.
Le Gurun, j.F., La section de technique des péches. Cotonou, Pro-
1991
jet Modèle, 43 p., PMB/WP/19.
FAO/Government Cooperativa Programme, Integrated Development of
1990
Small-Scale Fisheries in West Aftica, Model Project
Benin, Project findings and recommendations. FAO, Romo,
FI:GCP/RAF/198/DEN Terminal Report, 34 p.
Programme de Cooperation FAO/Gouvernements, Developpement Intégré
1991
de la peche artisanale en Afrique de l'Ouest, Projet
Modéle Benin, Conclusions et recommandatione du Projet.
FAO, Roma, FIaGCP/RAF/198/DEN Rapport terminal, 40 p.
7
Rapports techniques et des documents choisis/ Selected
list of technical reports and documents
Direction Nationale du Projet Modèle
Ben
in,Mise en place et plan
1985
d'exécution. Cotonou, Projet DIPA, 43., + 3 annexes.
Sheves, G.T. Integrated small-scale fisheries projects: princi-
1985
pies, approaches, .and progress in the context of the
Benin
prototype
project.
,Paper
presented
at
the
workshop
on
Small-scale
Fisheries
Development
and
Management, Lome, 20-29 November 1985, 33 p.
Sheves, G.T. Projets intégrés de péches artisanales
approches
1985
et
evolution
dans
le
contexte
du
projet
pilote.
Document
présenté
àl'atelier
regional
sur
le
développement et l'aménagement des peches artisanales,
Lome, 20-29 Novembre 1985, 36 p.
IDAF Newsletter/Lettre du DIPA,
1, October/Octobre 1985, 4 p.
IDAF newsletter/Lettre du DIPA,
2, January/Janvier 1986, 14 p.
IDAF Newsletter/Lettre du DIPA,
3, June/Juin 1986, 40 p.
IDAF Newsletter/Lettre du DIPA,
4/5, Sept./Dec. 1986, 76 p.
IDAF Newsletter/Lettre du DIPA,
6, September 1987, 58 p.
IDAF Newsletter/Lettre du DIPA,
7, June/Juin 1988, 84 p.
IDAF Newsletter/Lettre du DIPA,
8, June/Juin 1989, 74 p.
IDAF Newsletter/Lettre du DIPA,
9, October/Octobre 1989, 84 p.
IDAF Newsletter/Lattre du DIPA, 10, August/AoOt 1990, 84 p.
IDAF Newsletter/Lettre du DIPA, 11, January/Janvier 1991, 6 p.
IDAF Newsletter/Lettre du DIPA, 12, April/Avril 1991, 8 p.
IDAF Newsletter/Lettre du DIPA, 13, July/Juillet 1991, 6 p.
Paraiso F-X., rapport sur stages de recyclage en identification
1985
des poissons Cotonou, GCP/RAF/192/DEN 24 p.
Collart, A. et M. Guidicelli, Developpement des pécheries mariti-
1984
times et continentales de la pisciculture au Gabon.
Rome, FAO (CCP/RAF/192/DEN) 77 p.
Johnson, J.P. et M.P. Wilkie, pour un développement intégré des
1986
peches artisanales
;du bon usage de participation et
de la planification. Cotonou Projet DIPA,
157 p.
+annexes, Manuel de Terrain N° 1.
Meynall, P.J., J.P. Johnson, and M.P. Wilkie, Guide for planning
1988
monitoring
and
evaluation
in
fisheries
development
units. Cotonou, IDAF Project, 116 p. IDAF Field Manual
N° 2.
