Qualitative Research Design Dr Hilary Engward Learning Outcomes: To develop insight into qualitative research Grounded Theory3 4 Kuhn,1962: a relatively stable and widely accepted set of theories and practices that he termed a paradigm. Two basic paradigms Positivism Interpretivism H Engward research Studies lecture 25 Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Important word to use for LO1 Qualitative Epistemology is the study of the nature of knowledge and justification (Schwandt, 2001, p. 71*) As shorthand, epistemology can be thought of as justification of knowledge. For red refs, see hand-out. a theory and analysis of how research should proceed (Harding, 1987, p. 2) analysis of the assumptions, principles, and procedures in a particular approach to inquiry (Schwandt, 2001, p. 161) methodology provides justification for the methods of a research project. techniques for gathering evidence (Harding, 1987, p. 2) procedures, tools and techniques of research (Schwandt, 2001, p. 158). Methods can be thought of as research action. Methodology justifies method, which produces data and analyses. Knowledge is created from data and analyses. Epistemology modifies methodology and justifies the knowledge produced What is happening in the context what do people do? How do we know? Evidence of what is happening. Trustworthy real to the social world of the participants What else does it mean? Various levels of meaning: To the participants To the researcher To the readership Relationship between paradigms, methodology and data collection: ParadigmMethodologyData collection methods Positivist/quantitativeSurvey Experiment Questionnaires Structured interviews Structured observation Naturalist/Interpretative/ Qualitative PhenomenologyUnstructured interviews Participants reports/accounts EthnographyObservation Informal interviews Field notes Grounded TheoryInterviews Observation Statistics Qualitative content analysis Unstructured interviews Participants reports/accounts Observation Informal interviews Field notes Phenomenology: The nature of the world cannot be fully known. All that can be known are peoples perceptions and interpretations of that world. In its strongest sense, phenomenology asserts that reality is only found in peoples minds, rather than external objects. One of the consequences of this is that reality is not a fixed entity, rather it changes and develops according to experiences and the social context within which they find themselves. Social context is crucial: it is through our social interactions with others (e.g. health professionals, patients) that our understandings and preconceptions about the nature of reality are formed. This is not a one way process it is through interaction with others that social realities are created. Example of Implications:: Benner & Wrubel (1989) - illness as a human experience of loss or dysfunction has a reality all of its own. Rejects the (then) medical model of how we can view illness. What have been the implications of this type of finding to understanding health practice? Phenomenology Descriptive phenomenology Husserl (1859 1938) What do we know as persons? Bracketing, Intuiting, Analyzing, Describing Interpretive phenomenology Martin Heidegger (1889 1976) What is being? No bracketing Hermeneutics Highly Structured structured questions, fixed wording, fixed sequence. Semi-structured focussed questions, outline sequence but may vary Unstructured open questions, conversational approach Semi-structured or unstructured interviews are most common in qualitative research Provide large amounts of relatively unconstrained data Structure varies according to research methodology and amount of focus required to address research questions ETHNOGRAPHY To learn from a cultural group The process of describing a culture/way of life from peoples' point of view. Another name for it is field research. Each person is a reflection of their culture: gestures, symbols, sayings has implicit, tacit meaning for others in that culture. Uses PARTICIPANT-OBSERVATION The process of immersing yourself in the study of people you're not too different from: Aim to attain insiders view of the group under study It is almost always done covertly, Lots of note taking: Involves observation and note taking. Anthropologist Clifford Geertz thick description. For about every half hour of observation, an ethnographic researcher would write notes for about two hours. These notes would contain rich, detailed descriptions of everything that went on. The notes would capture as factual a description of the drama as possible to permit multiple interpretations, and most of all, to later infer cultural meaning. A coding procedure (much like content analysis) would be used later for this. Despite being well established, it is not popular in nursing it is difficult for health professionals to participate in the social world of patients. However health professionals can participate in the world of other health professionals: Porter (1992) looked at the influence of gender on nurses professional relationships with medics by gathering data whilst working as a staff nurse on an intensive care ward, and so able to immerse into the occupational social world of the ICU nurse. This method is used where there is a need to go beyond what people say. Researcher may observe as An outsider unacknowledged by observees An outsider acknowledged by observees A participant (participant observation) This affects the nature of the observation This also raised ethical considerations Observations may be: Highly Structured fixed categories, often tick-box, produces numerical counts Semi-structured focussed observations, broad categories, data recorded in field notes Unstructured general observations, many aspects recorded, data recorded in field notes May be collected by; Detailed written notes- during and after event Audio recording (of thoughts, description, of setting) Video recording (of setting, of behaviour) Although there is less chance in observed data that people will tell you what you want to hear There is some evidence that observation alone may change how people behave Hawthorne effect CASE STUDY One person you want to generalise to others of that type. Social Work and Clinical Psychology have embraced the value of a single-subject (sample size N=1) or case study approach. Almost all case studies involve unstructured interview The idea is to find a subject so typical that he/she seems to reflect others. Descriptive qualitative research Advantages: Avoids methodology Researcher has freedom to construct research process Focus on results Disadvantages: No guidelines Can lack internal coherence Lack of information on process The goal of content analysis is to provide knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon under study (Downe- Wamboldt, 1992, p. 314). to examine data for the purpose of classifying large amounts of text into categories (Weber, 1990). For refs, refer to green reference the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns. focuses on the characteristics of language as communication with attention to the content or contextual meaning of the text (Budd, Thorp, & Donohew, 1967; Lindkvist, 1981; McTavish & Pirro, 1990; Tesch, 1990). Text data might be in verbal, print, or electronic form and might have been obtained from narrative responses, open- ended survey questions, interviews, focus groups, observations, or print media such as articles, books, or manuals (Kondracki &Wellman, 2002). Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss (1967): The development of theory from data which has been methodically collected from real life setting Ideally suited to investigation of topics of which little is known about. Concurrent collection of data, organisation and analysis. 4. Action research Kurt Lewin 1940s Participatory Non-participatory Data from small numbers of people is collected simultaneously Large amounts of data quickly Interaction generates lively debate Group management and recording data accurately can be a problem. QualitativeTerms Question formation: - Explore - Perceptions Credibility of findings: - Trustworthiness - Applicability Terms to avoid Inappropriate/debateable terms - Prove - Hypothesis - Bias - Validity - Reliability - Generalizability Half group will be ethnographers, and half phenomenologists. Ethnogrophers pen and paper, go an be a participant observer in the canteen. Make lots of notes about what you observe. Be patient and concise. Phenomenologists: Construct an interview schedule about being a student and working (unstructured or semi). Interview a colleague. Make notes about the interview. is not an exact process But it does illuminate/provide a picture of a social reality at a time for a sample (dont underestimate the power of sample) All you can do is present a snapshot You aim to make this as credible/intelligible as possible to yourself, to other researchers and to the participants (tell the story) There will always be limitations, irrespective of paradigm/methodology/method of data collection References Carey, M., The social work dissertation: using small-scale qualitative methodology. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Denzin, N., Lincoln, Y., The Sage handbook of qualitative research. 3 rd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Glaser, B. & Strauss, A., 1967 [Reprinted 2006]. The discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. New Brunswick: AldineTransaction. References Heath, H. & Cowley, S., Developing a grounded theory approach: a comparison of Glaser and Strauss. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 41 (2), pp Silverman, D., Doing qualitative research: a practical handbook. 3 rd ed. London: Sage. Strauss, A. & Corbin, J., Basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. 2 nd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Descriptive qualitative research Avis, M., Do we need methodological theory to do qualitative research? Qualitative Health Research 13, 7, Hsiu-Fang, H., and Shannon, s., Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis, Qualitative Health Research 15: 1277 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Methodology concerns questions about the manner in which knowledge about what exists can be gained. Frames of the Qualitative Research Methodology Phenomenology Ethnography Grounded Theory Action Research Case Study Qualitative Dsecriptive Approach* Method Coding Thematic Analysis Content Analysis Conversation Analysis Interviews and focus group data is usually recorded Audio Video Written And then transcribed i.e. converted to type- before analysis Do you have access to the setting? Will you need to find a gatekeeper? Will you need special permission to access the setting? Security clearance for prisons, government departments etc R&D permission for NHS sites Letters of introduction to view certain archives The setting may or may not be relevant to the data you intend to collect. If it is relevant then data regarding the setting may be collected in a number of ways. [Consider when setting may be relevant] Ethics Analysis Access Expense Time More on thisw later. How do I hope to analyse the data? What implications does this have for how I collect and store it? Data analysis Common terms domains, taxonomic, units, themes, codes, theories Descriptive - Burnard Ethnography - Spradley Phenomenology Colaizzi, Giorgi, Van Manen Grounded theory Glaser and Strauss or Strauss and Corbin what_to_code.phpwhat_to_code.php The process of combing the data for themes, ideas and categories Lets start coding! What have we found? What are our preliminary concussions? How reliable, trustworthy are they?