quesnay.tableau economique (translation)

7/28/2019 Quesnay.tableau Economique (Translation)

1/17

FRANOIS QUESNAY (1694-1774)

JUNE 1766

ANALYZE FORMULA

ARITHMETIC

ECONOMIC TABLE

DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE

Of an AGRICULTURAL NATION

[The text which follows is that of the edition of Physiocracy, or natural Constitution of theeconomic Government of an agricultural kingdom, published in 1768 by Dupont de Nemours

under the address of Leyde.]

When prosperous agriculture, all other arts flower with it, but when the culture is given up, by some cause that it is, all other work, as well on ground as on sea, vanishes at the same time.

SOCRATE in Xnophon.


2/17


3/17

The nation is reduced to three classes of citizens: the productive class, the class of the owners and the sterile class.

The productive classis that which makes reappear by the culture of the territory the annualrichnesses of the nation, which makes the advances of the expenditure of work of the agriculture,

and which annually pays the incomes of the owners of the grounds. One contains in thedependence of this class all work and all the expenditure which is made there until the sale of the productions to the first hand, it is by this sale that one knows the value of the annualreproduction of the richnesses of the nation.

The class of the ownersincludes/understands the sovereign, the owners of the grounds and thedcimateurs. This class remains by the income or product Net of the culture, which is paid to himannually by the productive class, after this one took, on the reproduction which it makes reappear annually, richnesses necessary to refund its annual advances and to maintain its richnessesexploitation.

The sterile classis made of all the citizens occupied with other services and other work thatthose of the agriculture, and whose expenditure is paid by the productive class and the class of the owners, who themselves draw their incomes from the productive class.

To follow and calculate clearly the reports/ratios of these various classes between them, it isnecessary to be fixed at an unspecified case, because one cannot establish a positive calculationon simple abstractions.

Thus let us suppose a large kingdom whose territory carried to its higher degree of agriculture,would bring back every year a reproduction of the value of five billion,and where the permanentstate of this value would be established on the constant prices which have course between the

mercantile nations, if there is constantly a free competition of trade, and a whole safety of the property of the richnesses of exploitation of agriculture (1).

The economic Tablecontains the three annual classes and their richnesses, and described their trade in the form which follows.

CLASSIFY CLASS CLASSIFIES productive owners sterile ___ ___ ___ Avances Returned annual Advances of this of two billion for this classclassifies, amount with this class, it of of the sum of one two billion (2) expenditure a billion of billion which which produced five purchases with theclass is spent by the class billion, productive and the other sterile one inpurchases of which two billion billion in purchases with the raw materialswith are in product Net classifies sterile. the productive class. or income.

Thus the productive classsells for a billionproductions withowners of the income, and for abillionwith the sterile classwhich buys the raw materials there its works, Ci.. 2 billion.

The billionthat the ownersof the incomespent in purchases with the sterile class,is employed by this class for the subsistence the agents of which it is made up, in purchases productions takenwith the productive class,Ci. . 1 billion.


4/17


5/17

There is no manner of establishing the tax which can provide such a great public revenue,without causing any deterioration in the annual reproduction of the nation (4).

The owners, the sovereign and all the nation have a great interest which the tax is established inentirety on the income of the grounds immediately; because any other form of imposition would

be against the natural order, because it would be prejudicial with the reproduction and the tax,and that the tax would even fall down on the tax. All ici-bas with the natural laws is subjugated:the men are endowed with the intelligence necessary to know them and observe them; but themultiplicity of the objects requires great combinations which form the bottom of an obviousscience strong extent, whose study is essential to avoid the mistakes in practice.

Of the five billiontotal reproduction, the owners of the incomeand the sterile classbought somefor three billionfor their consumption; thus it still remains with the productive classfor twobillionproductions; this class bought moreover for a billionworks to the sterile class,whichmakes him funds annual of three billion,which is consumed by the various occupied agents,with various work of this class which is paid by the annual advances of the culture, and with

various day labourers repairs of the funds of the establishment which are paid by the interestsabout which one will speak.

Thus the annual expenditure of the productive class is three billion,knowledge two billion productions which it retains for its consumption, and a billionworks that it bought with thesterile class.

This three billionwhat is called forms the RESUMPTIONS of the productive classof which twobillionconstitutes the annual advances which are consumed for the direct work of thereproduction of the five billionthat this class makes reappear annually to restore and perpetuatethe expenditure which vanishes by consumption; the other billionis taken by this same class on

its sales for the interests the advances its establishment. One will make feel the need for theseinterests.

1 the funds of the richnesses of exploitation which constitutes the primitive advances is prone toa daily deterioration which requires continual repairs, indispensably necessary so that this fundsimportant remainder in the same state, and does not go gradually towards a total destructionwhich would destroy the culture and consequently the reproduction, and consequently therichnesses of the State, and consequently also the population.

2 the culture is inseparable from several great accidents which sometimes almost entirelydestroy harvest; such are the frost, hail, the corn-cockle, the floods, the mortality of the cattle,

etc, etc If the farmers did not have any funds in reserve, it would follow that after such accidentsthey could not pay the owners and the sovereign, or that they could not provide for theexpenditure of their culture the following year; this last case would be that which would alwaysarrive waited until the sovereign and the owners have the authority to be made pay; and one feelsthe disastrous consequences of a similar destruction of culture which would fall down soon andwithout resource on the owners on the sovereign, the dcimateurs, all the remainder of thenation.


6/17

The interests of the advances of the establishment of the farmers must thus beincluded/understood in their annual recoveries.They are used to face these great accidents andwith the daily maintenance of the richnesses of exploitation who ask to be repaired unceasingly.

It was noticed higher (note 1) that the primitive advanceswere of approximately five times

stronger than the annual advances;on the current assumption where the annual advancesaretwo billion, the primitive advancesare thus often billion, the annual interests of a billionis onlyon the foot of ten percent. If one considers the quantity of expenditure to which they must

provide; if one thinks of the importance of their destination; if one reflects that without them the payment of the tenant farming and the tax would never be ensured, that the regeneration of theexpenditure of the company would die out, that the funds of richnesses of exploitation andconsequently, the culture would disappear, that this devastation would destroy most of mankind,and would return the other to live in the forests; it will be felt that it is necessary much of it thatthe rate of ten percent for the interests of the perishable advancesof the culture is a too strongrate.

We do not say that all the farmers withdraw annually, in addition to their annual advances,ten percent, for the interestsof their primitive advances; but we say that such is one of the principalconditions of a state of prosperity; that all the times that that is not thus at a nation, this nationare in deterioration, and in a progressive year deterioration by year, such as, when its walk isknown, one can announce by calculation the moment of the whole destruction. We say besidesthat funds placed as advantageously for the nation as that of the advances of its culture must byitself bring back Net to the farmers who join to it their work and the use of their intelligence, anannual interest at least as extremely as that which one pays to the lazy shareholders.

The total sum of these interests is spent annually, because the farmers do not leave them idle; because in the intervals where they are not obliged to employ them with the rparations' they do

not fail to make them profitable to increase and to improve their culture without what they couldnot provide for the great accidents. For this reason one counts the interests in the sum of theannual expenditure.

SUMMARY

The total of the five billiondivided initially between the productive classand the class theowners,being spent annually in a regular order which ensures the same annual reproduction

perpetually there is a billionwhich is spent by the ownersin purchases made with the productiveclass,and a billionin purchases made with the sterile class, the productive classwhich sells for three billionproductions with the two other classes returns there two billionfor the payment theincome and in expenditure a billionin purchases which it makes with the sterile class; thus the sterile classreceives two billionwhich it employs with the productive classin purchases for thesubsistence of its agents and the raw materials of its works; and the productive classspends itself annually for two billionproductions, which supplements the expenditure or the overallconsumption of the five billionannual reproduction.


7/17

Such is the regular order of the distribution of the expenditure of the five billionthat the productive classmakes reappear annually by the expenditure of two billionannual advances,included/understood in the total expenditure the five billionannual reproduction.

One at present will offer to the eyes of the reader the arithmetic formula of the distribution of this

expenditure.

With the right-hand side at the head, is the sum of the advances of the productive class, whichwere spent the previous year, to give birth to harvest from the current year. Below this sum is aline which separates it from the column of the sums that this class receives.

With the left, are the sums which receives the sterile class.

In the medium, at the head, is the sum of the incomewhich is divided on the right and on the left,to the two classes, where it is spent.

The division of expenditure is marked by punctuated lines which leave the sum of the incomeand are going down obliquely to the one and with the other class. At the end of these lines is on both sides the sum which the owners of the income spend in purchases with each one as of thethese classes.

The reciprocal trade between the two classes is also marked by punctuated lines which are goingdown obliquely from the one to the other class where the purchases are done; and at the end of each line is the sum that one of the two classes thus reciprocally receives other by the tradewhich they exert between them for their expenditure (5). Lastly, calculation finishes each side bythe total sum of the receipt of each of the two classes. And it is seen that in the case given, whenthe distribution of the expenditure follows the order which one described and detailed above, the

receipt of the productive class, by including/understanding the advances there, is equal to thetotality of the annual reproduction, and who the culture, the richnesses, the population remain inthe same state, without nor deterioration increases. A different case would give, as onementioned above, a different result.

FORMULATE ECONOMIC TABLE

Total reproduction: Five billion

If the owners spent more with the productive class than with thesterile class, to improve their grounds and to increase their incomes, this additional expenditureemployed to work of the

productive class should be looked like an addition in advance of this class.The expenditure of the income is supposed here, in the state of prosprit' to also distribute itself

between the productive class and the sterile class, with the place which the productive classcarries only one third of its expenditure to the sterile class; because the expenditure of the farmer is less available than those of the owner; but the more agriculture languishes, then one mustdevote the expenditure available partly to him to restore it.


8/17

IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS

FIRST OBSERVATION

One should not confuse the expenditure made by the owners with the sterile class,and who are

used for the subsistence of this class,with those that the owners make directly with the productive classby themselves, by their commensaux and by the animals which they nourish; because this expenditure which the owners with the productive classmake can be moreadvantageous with agriculture than those which they do with the sterile class.

Among the owners of the income, there is a great number of it who are extremely rich and whoconsume the productions of the most price; thus the mass of productions which they consume isin proportion much less considerable than that which is consumed in the other classes at low

price. The men who spend the income and who buy so dearly, must thus be also with proportionmuch fewer compared to the sum of their purchases. But their expenditure supports the price of the productions of best quality, which maintains by gradation the handsome price the other

productions, to the advantage of the incomes of the territory.

It is not the same great expenditure as the ownerscan make with the sterile class;and it is whatconstitutes the difference of the ostentation of subsistence and the luxury of decoration. Theeffects of the first are not to fear like those of the other.

That which buys a litre of wine of peas 100 pounds the pay with a farmer who employs them inexpenditure of culture to the advantage of the annual reproduction. That which buys a gold galon100 pounds pays it with a workman who employs a part of it to repurchase at the foreigner theraw material; there is only the other part employed in purchases for its subsistence, which turnsover to the productive class,and this return even is not as advantageous as would have been to it

the direct expenditure of the owner to the productive class;because the workman does not buyfor his subsistence of the productions of high price and thus does not contribute, like makes theowner, to maintain the value and the incomes the good grounds which have the property to

produce invaluable food products. As for what passed in purchases at the foreigner, if it returnsto the productive class,as that arrives indeed, at least partly at the nations where there isreciprocity of trade of productions (6)it is always with the charge of the trade expenses whichcause a reduction there, and prevent this return from being complete.

SECOND OBSERVATION

The expenditure of simple consumption is expenditure which vanishes themselves without

return; they can be maintained only by the productive class,which, as for it, can be sufficed for itself, thus they must, when they are not employed with the reproduction, being not looked like sterileexpenditure and even like vermin, or expenditure of luxury, if they are superfluous and prejudicial with agriculture.

Most of the expenditure of the ownersare at least sterileexpenditure ; one can about it excludeonly those which they do for the conservation and the improvement of their goods and toincrease the culture by it. But as they are of natural right in charge of the care of the control and


9/17

of the expenditure for repairs, their inheritance, they cannot be confused with the part of the population which forms the purely sterile class.

THIRD OBSERVATION

In the state of prosperity of a kingdom whose territory would be carried to its higher possibledegree of culture, freedom and facilitation of trade, and where consequently the income of theownerscould not increase any more those could spend about it half in purchases with the sterileclass.But if the territory completely were not cultivated and were not improved if the waysmissed, if there were rivers to return navigable and channels to be formed for the conveyance of the productions, they should be saved on their expenditure with the sterile class , to increase bythe expenditure necessary their incomes and their pleasures as much as it would be possible.Until they had reached that point, their superfluous expenditure with the sterile classwould beexpenditure of luxury, prejudicial with their opulence and the prosperity of the nation; becauseall that is dsavantageux with agriculture is prejudicial with the nation and the State, and all thatsupports agriculture is advantageous in the State and the nation. It is the need for the expenditure

which the owners alone can make for the increase in their richnesses and the good general of thecompany, which makes that the safety of the land and buildings is an essential condition of thenatural order of the government of the empires.

The feudal policy formerly considered these land and buildings like base of the military force of the lords, but it thought only of the property of the ground; from there so much of habits and somuch of odd laws in the order of the successions of the goods melt, which still remain in spite of the changes arrived in monarchy, while one was if not very attentive with safety property of themovable richnesses necessary for the culture which can only put forward the goods melt. It wasnot seen enough that the true base of the military force of a kingdom is the prosperity even of thenation.

Rome knew to overcome and subjugate many nations, but it did not know to control. It despoiledthe richnesses of the agriculture of the countries subjected to its domination; consequently itsmilitary force disappeared, its conquests which had enriched it were removed to him; and it wasdelivered to itself without defense with the plundering and violences of the enemy.

FOURTH OBSERVATION

In the regular order that we follow here, all the sum of the purchases who are done annually bythe ownersand the sterile class returns annually to the productive class, to pay each year with theowners theincome of two billion, and to pay him with itself the interests its primitive and annual

advances.One could nothing withdraw from this distribution expenditure with the disadvantage of agriculture, nor nothing to withdraw resumptions of the farmer, by some exaction or someobstacles in the trade, which it did not arrive of deterioration in the annual reproduction of therichnesses of the nation and a reduction in population easy to show by calculation. Thus it is bythe order of the distribution of the expenditure, according to whether they return or that they arewithdrawn from theproductive class, according to whether they increase its advances, or that


10/17

they decrease them according to whether they support or that they cause a drop in the price of the productions, that one can calculate the effects of good or bad conduct of a nation.

The sterile classcan spend for the subsistence of its agents only approximately half of the twobillionwhich it receives, because other half are employed in purchases of raw materials for its

works. Thus this class forms only approximately a quarter of the nation.

We observed that on the resumptions of three billion the productive class, there is it a billionfor the interests the primitive and annual advances this class, which is employed continuously withthe repair of these advances, thus it remains with this class only approximately two billionfor theexpenditure its own immediate agents, which consequently are approximately the double of those that the sterile class, but each one with the assistance of the animals of work, given birth tothere a reproduction which can make remain eight men, i.e. its family, which can be supposed of four people and another family of similar number of people belonging to the sterile classor withthe class of the owners.

If one wants to enter a more detailed examination of the distribution of the expenditure of anation, one will find it in rural Philosophychap. 7. It will be seen there that in addition to the five billionwhich forms the portion of the nation here, there is other expenditure: such are thetrade expenses and the food of the animals of work employed with the culture. This expenditureis not included/understood in the distribution of the expenditure represented in the table, and

being added to those they make assemble the total value of the annual reproduction to six billionthree hundred and sixty ten million. But it is to be noticed in this respect the expensescommercial can increase with the disadvantage or decrease with the profit of the nation,according to whether this part is or is not directed contradictorily to the natural order.

FIFTH OBSERVATION

One supposed in the statement of expenditures that one has just exposed, that the nation tradesonly on itself; however, there is kingdom whose territory produces all the richnesses suitable for the pleasure of its inhabitants; so that one needs a foreign trade, by which a nation sells abroad

part of its productions to buy from abroad those which it needs. However, as it cannot buy fromabroad that as far as it sells abroad, the state of its expenditure must always be in conformitywith the reproduction which reappears annually of its territory.

Calculations of this expenditure even can clone being regularly established on the share of thisreproduction, made abstraction of any foreign trade whose details are unspecified, incalculableand useless to seek, it is enough to pay attention that in the state of a free competition of foreign

trade, there is only exchange of value for equal value, without loss nor profit of share or other.As for the expenses of conveyance, the nation and the foreigner pay them on both sides in their sales or their purchases; and they form for the tradesmen funds separate of that of the nation;

because in the trade foreign of the agricultural nations, any trader is foreign relative with theinterests of these nations. Thus an agricultural kingdom and tradesman join together two nationsdistinct one from the other: one forms the part constituent of the company attached to theterritory, which provides the income, and the other is an extrinsic addition which belongs to the


11/17

general republic of the foreign trade, employed and defrayed by the agricultural nations. Theexpenses of this trade, though necessary, must be looked like an expensive expenditure, taken onthe income of the owners of the grounds; thus they must be released from any monopoly and alloverloads which would fall down disastrously on the incomes of the sovereigns and other owners.

In the state of free competition of foreign trade, the prices which have course between themercantile nations, must be the base of the calculation of the richnesses and the annualexpenditure of the nations which have an easy trade and immune (7). The foreign trade is moreor less wide according to the diversity of consumption of the inhabitants, and according towhether the productions of the country are more or less varied. The more the productions of akingdom are varied, the less there are exports and imports, and the more the nation saves on theexpenses the foreign trade which however must always extremely free, be removed from allembarrassments and free from all impositions, because it is only by the communication that itmaintains between the nations, that one can constantly make sure in the domestic trade the best

possible price of the productions of the territory, and the greatest possible income for the

sovereign and the nation.

SIXTH OBSERVATION

One can see the same productions spending several times by the hands of the merchants and thecraftsmen; but it should be paid attention that these repetitions of sales and purchases whichmultiply circulationunprofitably are only transposition of goods, and increase in expenses,without production of richnesses. The account of the productions is reduced clone to their quantity and the prices of their sales of the first hand.

The more these prices are fixed with the natural order, and the higher they are constantly, also

they are advantageous in the exchanges which one makes with the foreigner, more they animateagriculture (8), more they support the value of the various productions of the territory, more theyincrease the incomes of the sovereign and by the owners, also they increase the cash of the nationand the mass of the wages paid for the remuneration due to the work or the use of those who arenot primitive owners of the productions.

The use of these badly distributed wages well or, contributes much to the prosperity or thedegradation of a kingdom, the regularity or the dissolute moral of a nation and to the increase or the reduction in population. The men can be obsessed in the campaigns and be attracted by theluxury and pleasure in the capital, or they can be also widespread in the provinces. In this lastcase they can maintain consumption close to the production; with the place that in the other case,they cannot avoid the great expenditure of cartages which make at low prices fall the productionsin the sales with the first hand and decrease the incomes of the territory the mass of the wagesand the population.

The trade of retailer can extend according to the activity and faculties' from the tradesmen; butthat of an agricultural nation is regulated by the annual reproduction of its territory. The profitsin pure benefit of the rgnicoles tradesmen should not clone not merge with the richnesses of thenation; since those cannot extend annually beyond the flow from the annual reproduction from


12/17


13/17

nation must be with proportion more considerable than that of a rich nation; because it them doesnot remain about it with the one and the other than the sum which they need for their sales andtheir purchases. However at the poor nations one needs much more mediation of 1 money in thetrade; it is necessary to pay there cash, because one can y proud with the promise of almostnobody. But at the rich nations, there are many men known for rich person, and whose written

promise is looked like very sure and guaranteed well by their richnesses, so that all theconsiderable sales are done there with credit, i.e. via valid papers which compensate for themoney and facilitate much the trade. It is thus not by more or less of money that one must judgeopulence of the States; as it is estimated as savings equal to the income of the owners of thegrounds, is much more as sufficient for an agricultural nation where circulation is done regularly,and where the trade is exerted with confidence and a full freedom (10).

As for the widespread universal commercial republic in the various countries, and as for thesmall purely commercial nations which are only parts of this immense republic, and which can

be looked like the capital cities, or, if one wants, like the principal counters, the mass of their monnay money is proportioned with extended from their trade of resale; they increase this mass

as far as they can by their profits and their saving, to increase the funds of their trade; the moneyis their own inheritance; the tradesmen employ it in their purchases only to withdraw it with benefit in their sales. They can thus increase their savings only at the expense of the nations withwhich they trade; it is always holds some between their hands; it does not leave their countersand only circulates to return there with increase; thus this money cannot belong to the richnessesof the agricultural nations always limited to their reproduction, on which they pay the profits of the tradesmen continuously. Those, in some country that that is to say their dwelling, are relatedto various nations by their trade, it is their trade even which is their fatherland and the deposit of their richnesses; they buy and sell where they reside and where they do not reside; the extent of the exercise of the profession does not have given limits and not a particular territory. Our tradesmen are also the tradesmen of the other nations; the tradesmen of the other nations are also

our tradesmen; and all and sundry also trade between them; thus the communication of their trade penetrates and extends everywhere, while aiming always finally towards the money, thatthe trade itself brings and distributes in the nations in accordance with the prices fixed to thenatural order which daily regulates the monetary values of the productions. But the agriculturalnations have another point of view, more useful for them and wider, they should tend only to thegreatest possible reproduction to increase and perpetuate the richnesses suitable for the pleasureof the men; the money is for them only one small intermediate richness which disappears in onemoment without the reproduction.

NOTES

(1) The extent of the territory would be approximately 130 million arpents of grounds of variouqualities; the funds of richnesses of exploitation necessary to hold this territory in good value,would be approximatelytwelve billion, and the population of approximatelythirty million people who could remain with ease, in accordance with their state, of the annual product of five billion.

But one should not forget only everywhere where the population enjoys a peaceful life, it usualincreases beyond the product of the territory, also the force of a State and the number of the


14/17

citizens who make it up, are always assured when they are established on funds of richnesses ofexploitation sufficient for the maintenance with a rich person culture. The conservation of this funds of richness of exploitation must be the main object of the economic government; becausethe incomes of the sovereign and the nation entirely depend on it, as it will be shown by theexposure of the regular order of the distribution of the expenditure paid and maintained by the

annual reproduction. (2) The annual advances consist in the expenditure which is done annually for the work of theculture; these advances must be distinguished from the primitive advances, which form thebottom of the establishment of the culture, and which are worth approximately five times morethan the annual advances.

(3) It is to be noticed that one does not include/understand in this evaluation the tax who rises o said leased. By adding it to this calculation, one will see that the two-seventh which form the share of the sovereign, would give him without degradation approximately 650 million annual tax.

(4) If there were goods melt free of the contribution of the tax it should be only in considerationof some advantages for the good of the State, and then that should be counted like belonging tothe public revenue; also of such exemptions must take place only for good reason.

(5) Each nap which theproductive class and thesterile class receivesuppose une double valeur, parce qu'il y a vente et achat, et par consquent la valeur de ce qui est vendu et la valeur de lasomme qui paye l'achat; mais il n'y a de consommation relle que pour la valeur des cinqmilliards qui forment le total de la recette de la classe productive. Les sommes d'argent qui passent chaque classe s'y distribuent par la circulation d'une somme totale d'argent quirecommence chaque anne la mme circulation. Cette somme d'argent peut tre suppose plus

ou moins grande dans sa totalit, et la circulation plus ou moins rapide; car la rapidit de lacirculation de l'argent peut suppler en grande partie la quantit de la masse d'argent. Dansune anne, par exemple, o, sans qu'il y et de diminution dans la reproduction, il y aurait une grande augmentation du prix des productions, soit par des facilits donnes au commerce ouautrement; il ne serait pas ncessaire qu'il y et augmentation de la masse pcuniaire pour le paiement des achats de ces productions. Cependant il passerait dans les mains des acheteurs et des vendeurs de plus grosses sommes d'argent qui feraient croire la plupart que la massed'argent monnay serait fort augmente dans le royaume. Aussi cette apparence quivalente laralit est-elle fort mystrieuse pour le vulgaire.

(6) Ce qui n'est pas ordinaire dans le commerce des Indes orientales; si ce n'est lorsqu'il se fait par des commerants trangers qui nous vendent ce qu'ils y ont achet, et qui emploient cheznous, en achats de productions, l'argent mme avec lequel nous avons pay leurs marchandisesdes Indes. Mais il n'en est pas de mme lorsque ce commerce se fait par nos commerantsrgnicoles, dont le trafic se borne entre nous et les Indiens orientaux qui ne veulent que del'argent.

(7) C'est--dire exempt de toutes contributions fiscales, seigneuriales, etc., de monopoles,d'appointements d'inspecteurs et d'autres officiers inutiles. Le commerce, comme l'agriculture,


15/17

ne doit avoir d'autre gouvernement que l'ordre naturel. Dans tout acte de commerce, il y a levendeur et l'acheteur qui stipulent contradictoirement et librement leurs intrts; et leursintrts ainsi rgls par eux-mmes, qui en sont seuls juges comptents, se trouvent conformes l'intrt public; toute entremise d'officiers revtus d'autorit, y est trangre, et d'autant plusdangereuse qu'on y doit craindre l'ignorance et des motifs encore plus redoutables. Le monopol

dans le commerce et dans l'agriculture n'a que trop souvent trouv des protecteurs; la plantationdes vignes, la vente des eaux-de-vie de cidre, la libert du commerce des grains, l'entre desmarchandises de main-d'oeuvre trangres, ont t prohibes; les manufactures du royaume ontobtenu des privilges exclusifs au prjudice les unes des autres; on a contraint les entrepreneursdes manufactures employer des matires premires trangres l'exclusion de celles du pays,etc.; de fausses lueurs ont brill dans l'obscurit, et l'ordre naturel a t interverti par desintrts particuliers toujours cachs et toujours sollicitant sous le voile du bien gnral.

(8) L'intrt du cultivateur est le premier ressort de toutes les oprations conomiques et de tousles succs de l'agriculture; plus les productions sont constamment haut prix, plus le retour annuel des reprises des fermiers est assur, plus la culture s'accrot, et plus les terres rapportent

de revenu, tant par le bon prix des productions, que par l'augmentation de la reproductionannuelle; plus la reproduction s'accrot, plus les richesses de la nation se multiplient, et plus la puissance de l'tat augmente.

(9) Il en est de ceux-ci comme de la corde d'un puits et de l'usage qu'on en fait qui ne sont pointla source de l'eau qui est dans le puits; tandis qu'au contraire c'est l'eau qui est dans le puits, jointe la connaissance et au besoin qu'on en a, qui est la cause de l'usage qu'on fait de lacorde. Les hommes clairs ne confondent pas les causes avec les moyens.

(10) On remarque que le pcule d'Angleterre reste fix peu prs cette proportion, qui, dansl'tat prsent de ses richesses, le soutient environ 26 millions sterlings, ou 11 millions de

marcs d'argent. Cette richesse en argent ne doit pas en imposer dans un pays ou le commerce derevente et de voiturage domine, et o il faut distinguer le pcule des commerants de celui de lanation. Ces deux parties n'ont rien de commun; si ce n'est qu'autant que les commerantsveulent bien vendre intrt leur argent la nation qui a fond ses forces militaires sur lesemprunts, ce qui n'est pas une preuve de la puissance relle d'un Etat. Si cette nation s'est trouve expose par ses guerres des besoins pressants, des emprunts excessifs, ce n'tait pas par le dfaut de l'argent, c'tait par les dpenses qui excdaient le revenu public. Plus lesemprunts supplent aux revenus, plus les revenus se trouvent surchargs par les dettes; et lanation se ruinerait, si la source mme des revenus en souffrait un dprissement progressif, quidiminut la reproduction, annuelle des richesses. C'est sous ce point de vue qu'il faut envisager l'tat des nations, c'est car par les revenus du territoire qu'il faut juger de la prosprit et de la puissance relle d'un empire. Le pcule est toujours renaissant dans une nation o les richesses se renouvellent continuellement et sans dprissement.

Pendant prs d'un sicle, c'est--dire, depuis 1444 jusqu' 1525, il y a eu en Europe une grandediminution dans la quantit de l'argent comme on peut en juger par le prix des marchandises ence temps-l; mais cette moindre quantit de pcule tait indiffrente aux nations, parce que lavaleur vnale de cette richesse tait la mme partout, et que, par rapport l'argent, leur tat tait le mme relativement leurs revenus qui taient partout galement mesurs par la valeur


16/17

uniforme de l'argent. Dans ce cas, il vaut mieux, pour la commodit des hommes, que ce soit lavaleur qui supple la masse, que si la masse supplait la valeur.

Il n'est pas douteux que la dcouverte de l'Amrique a procur en Europe une plus grandeabondance d'or et d'argent, cependant leur valeur avait commenc baisser trs sensiblement

par rapport aux marchandises, avant l'arrive de l'or et de l'argent de l'Amrique en Europe. Mais toutes ces varits gnrales ne changent rien l'tat du pcule de chaque nation, qui se proportionne toujours aux revenus des biens-fonds, abstraction faite de celui qui fait partie du fonds du commerce extrieur des ngociants, et qui circule entre les nations, comme celui d'unenation circule entre les provinces du mme royaume

Le pcule de ces ngociants circule aussi entre la mtropole et ses colonies, ordinairement sans y accrotre les richesses de part ni d'autre; quelque fois mme en les diminuant beaucoup, surtout lorsqu'il y a exclusion de la concurrence des commerants de tout pays.

Dans ce cas le monopole accrot le pcule des commerants sur la mtropole et sur les colonies

et diminue celui des colonies et de leur mtropole. Celle-ci nanmoins oublie que les ngociantne lui donnent pas leur argent pour rien, et qu'ils lui revendent au contraire toute sa valeur cet argent qu'ils ont gagn ses dpens. Elle se laisse persuader que comme ses ngociants sont nationaux, c'est elle-mme qui profite du monopole qu'on exerce sur elle et sur ses colonies, et qui diminue leurs richesses et le prix des productions de son propre territoire. Ces ides perverses et absurdes ont caus depuis quelques sicles un grand dsordre en Europe.

Dans le sicle prcdent, sous Louis XIV, le marc d'argent monnay valait 28 livres. Ainsi18.600.000 marcs d'argent valaient alors environ 500 millions. C'tait peu prs l'tat du pcule de la France dans ce temps oit le royaume tait beaucoup plus riche que sur la fin durgne de ce monarque.

En 1716, la refonte gnrale des espces ne monta pas 400 millions; le marc d'argent monnay tait 43 livres 12 sols; ainsi la masse des espces de cette refonte ne montait pas neuf millions de marcs; c'tait plus de moiti moins que dans les refontes gnrales de 1683 et 1693. Cette masse de pcule n'aura pu augmenter par les fabrications annuelles d'espces,qu'autant que le revenu de la nation aura augment. Quelque considrable que soit le total deces fabrications annuelles depuis cette refonte, il aura moins servi augmenter la massed'argent monnay, qu' rparer ce qui en est enlev annuellement par la contrebande, par lesdiverses branches de commerce passif, et par d'autres emplois de l'argent chez l'tranger; car depuis cinquante ans, le total de ces transmissions annuelles bien calcul, se trouverait fort considrable. L'augmentation du numraire qui est fixe depuis longtemps 54 livres, ne prouv pas que la quantit du pcule de la nation ait beaucoup augment; puisqu'augmenter lenumraire c'est tcher de suppler la ralit par la dnomination.

Ces observations, il est vrai, sont peu conformes aux opinions du vulgaire sur la quantitd'argent monnay d'une nation. Le peuple croit que c'est dans l'argent que consiste la richessed'un tat; mais l'argent, comme toutes les autres productions, n'est richesse qu' raison de savaleur vnale, et n'est pas plus difficile acqurir que toute autre marchandises, en le payant par d'autres richesses. Sa quantit dans un tat y est borne son usage, qui, y est rgl par les


17/17

ventes et les achats que fait la nation dans ses dpenses annuelles; et les dpenses annuelles dela nation sont rgles par les revenus. Une nation ne doit donc avoir d'argent monnay qu'raison de ses revenus; une plus grande quantit lui serait inutile; elle en changerait le superfluavec les autres nations, pour d'autres richesses qui lui seraient plus avantageuses ou plus satisfaisantes; car les possesseurs de l'argent, mme les plus conomes, sont toujours attentifs

en retirer quelque profit. Si on trouve le prter dans le pays un haut intrt, c'est urne preuvequ'il n'y est tout au plus que dans la proportion que nous avons observe, puisqu'on en payel'usage ou le besoin si

quesnay.tableau economique (translation)

Documents