range measurement and habitat suitability map of norway ... · range measurement and habitat...
TRANSCRIPT
Range Measurement and Habitat Suitability Map of Norway Rat In The Highly Developed
Urban Environment
Dauda Taofik O12
Shahrul Anuar Mohd S1 Liyana K
1 and Wan Mohd Muhiyuddin Wan Ibrahim
3
1School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia Pulau Penang 11800 Malaysia
2Institute of Agricultural Research and Training Obafemi Awolowo University PMB 5029 Ibadan
Nigeria
3School of Humanities Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800 Pulau Pinang
Corresponding author ndash taofikdaudusmmy
Running head Ratsrsquo RangeHabitat Suitability Map
Abstrak Kajian kesesuaian habitat (KS) sangat diperlukan apabila habitat haiwan telah
diubahsuai atau haiwan berhijrah ke habitat yang sangat berbeza daripada habitat asli mereka
Kajian ini dijalankan untuk menaksir KS dan mengabungkan system maklumat geografi untuk
Rattus norvegicus di kawasan perbandaran yang sangat membangun Menggunakan data
daripada Pasar Campbell dan Berek Polisdi George Town Malaysia kawasan rayau (kaedah
Minimum Convex Polygon-MCP 100 95 MCP and 95 Harmonic Mean) dianggarkan
Kawasan rayau tikus jantan di Pasar Campbell mencapai asimptot pada 96 isyarat radio dengan
sedikit peningkatan (kawasan rayau = 13352m2 titik pusat = 2939m
2) Tikus betina mencapai
asimptot pada 62 isyarat radio (kawasan rayau = 1338m2 titik pusat = 917m
2) Di Pasar
Campbell tikus jantan muncul pada jam 1900 setiap hari manakala betina muncul pada jam 2000
tetapi di Berek Polis masa kebiasaan kemunculan untuk jantan pada jam 2000 dan betina pada
jam 2200 Carta raster Rattus norvegicus menunjukkan titik tumpuan tikus boleh dikategorikan
kepada 4 zon (pasar rumah kedai kediaman dan kawasan tumpuan awam) Carta raster yang
diseragamkan memisahkan kawasan utama titik tumpuan tikus aalah di pasar dengan frekuensi
tikus tertinggi iaitu 225 Semua analisis kesesuaian habitat ternasuk kawasan dibangunkan
kawasan tong sampah sumber air dan tapak semulajadi dalam kajian ini mempamerkan corak
struktur (peningkatan atau penurunan monotonik) kesesuaian habitat
Kata kunci asimptot algoritma isyarat raster monotonik perangkap
Abstract Habitat suitability (HS) study is essential when animalsrsquo habitat has been altered or
animals migrate to an habitat different from their natural habitat This study was carried out to
assess HS and integrate geographic information system of such for Rattus norvegicus in highly
developed urban environment Using data from both Campbell Market and Police Quarter of
George Town Malaysia home range (through 100 Minimum Convex Polygon-MCP 100 95
MCP and 95 Harmonic Mean) were estimated Home range for male rats at Campbell market
reached an asymptote of 96 radio fixes and with a slight increase (home range = 13352m2 core
area = 2939m2) Female rats reached asymptote at 62 radio fixes (home range = 1338m
2 core
area = 917m2) At Campbell market male rats emerged 1900 hours every day while female
emerged at 2000 hours but at Police quarter the most common time of emergence for male is
2000 hours and for female is 2200 Raster charts of the rattus showed that rats hots spots can be
grouped into 4 zones (market shop houses settlement general places) The standardized raster
chart isolated the major rallying points of the rats (hot spots) as the market with the highest ratsrsquo
frequencies of 255 All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water
source and nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern (monotonic
increase or decrease) of habitat suitability
Keywords Asymptote algorithm fixes raster monotonic Trap
Introduction
Rodent control have been occasioned by their increasing population which had consequently led
to vast increase in their economic importance (Traweger and Slotta-Backmayr 2005) They have
however been proved useful in laboratory model for physiology and genetic studies (Wang et al
2011) Globally the current and prominent strategy of rodents control and management is the use
of Trap and rodenticides (Trawerger et al 2006 VanAdrichem et al 2013) These strategies had
been on use for decades (Belmain et al 2013 Bell et al 2011 VanAdrichem et al 2013) hence
they are gradually becoming ineffective because rodents are developing ways round these
strategies (Roomaney et al 2012) There is therefore a growing need for an all encompassing or
integrated rodents control strategy like been advocated round the globe (Frantz 1988 Frantz and
Davis 1991 Spragins 2002) Preliminary survey of rats population in the urban center clearly
established a stable rat population in distinctive colonies which do not mingle with other colonies
as obtained in cities round the world (Patergnani et al 2010 Wood 2006 Yasuma and Andau
1999) Normally home range and movement of city rats are smaller than in their natural habitat but
can provide useful information for the all encompassing approach to rodents control strategy The
suitable habitat conditions in the city where the rats can get all the resources needed made the
rats not to linger far from their nestsource Modification in the urban landscape also restrict ratsrsquo
movements to different places (Dickman and Doncaster 1987) These works and preliminary
survey notwithstanding few or non of them have integrated the application of Geographical
Information System (GIS) into home range studies of rat Knowledge regarding the home range of
this commensal rat in the urban area is necessary as it enhance our expertise in the control and
management of the population as well as provide basis for integrative pest management
The aim of using GIS is to gain information concerning the potential distribution of R
norvegicus within the zone (developed urban environment) and relative to their spatial positions In
addition GIS will help to ease the researcherrsquos effort in searching analyzing and presenting the
data map Thus GIS provides powerful automated tools for integrated rodent control strategy and
can enhance better understanding about the ecology of this animal in developed urban
environment The objective of this study was therefore to measure the movement and the home
range size of Rattus norvegicus in the Campbell market and human settlement of the developed
urban environment and to establish a GIS distribution map of Rattus norvegicus in relation to the
different habitat This study also aim at developing an integrated habitat suitability mapping using
the GIS (Geographical Information System)
METHODOLOGY
This study was conducted in Georgetown of Malaysia using both Campbell market (Site 1) and the
Police quarters (Site 2) Campbell market built in 1947 is a wet market for chicken duck fish
pork as well as others aquatic species and it covers an area of 5000m2
Activity in the market
usually commence as early as 600 am to 700 am when the market become busier with human
activities Police quarter on the other hand was built in 1986 and it covers an area of 20000 m2
The police quarters compose of four blocks in the housing area with facilities like a lsquosuraursquo (small
mosque) kindergarten and a badminton court Using Kenward (2001) method home range
measurement of the rats and rat activities (in terms of time of leaving nest and returning) were
captured for two months (March to April 2008) including six days of intensive radio-tracking during
which the mean movements of the rats were recorded for every one hour (2 -4 ratstracking)
These 2 months were found (through preliminary study) to be the most suitable or activities peak
period of the animals The accuracy of the entire transmitter for the study area using TR-4 to
ensure frequency and range accuracy was boosted with Yagi-antenna at a distance of 150m
(Figure 1) All rats tagged were of good health before and after the experiment (with respect to
body and agility) and their body size ranged between 267 - 350g Mean distance and pattern of 2-4
ratssex were monitored using the the radio tracking aforementioned
Data analysis for home range study of Rattus norvegicus was divided into two parts -
home range determination and activities movement map Movement remain one of the main
activities of rats and provide the basis for the fractal activity of rats (Hsieh et al 2014) Movement
was thus the variable of interest in our study and were compared between gender as well as
locations (using the mean of the sex of the rats followed) The GIS coordinates of the 2 locations
(Campbell market and Police quarters) were obtained using GPS (GARMIN - 60CSX) and the
cumulative area curve was plotted using the Ecological Solution Software (Biotas Version 20)
100 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 100) 95 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 95) and
the 95 Harmonic Mean (HM95) were used to estimate the home range in this study
Meanwhile to estimate the core area two of these methods - 50 Harmonic Mean (HM50) and
50 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 50) were employed The total distance of a ratrsquos
movement detected everyday was measured based on the linear distance of the radio fixes at
every alternate hour using the Ecological Software Solutions (Biotas Version 20) The daily
movement rate for each individual was obtained by the division of the daily distance moved each
day by the total active period for that individual rat Differences between sexes and the site for total
active period were statistically compared using Mann- Whitney U test The development of the
suitability map of Rattus norvegicus was executed using data from both questionnaire and
secondary data from Mapping and Survey Department (JUPEM) of the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment Malaysia and Penang Municipal Council George Town Malaysia
The essence of these secondary data was to have asses to the original Penang map on which the
rat home range and suitability can be superimposed The data gathered were used to update the
existing one and were digitized into the computer compatible format using Arc-GIS 93 software of
Geographical Information System (GIS) An algorithm for suitability map development was written
(Figure 2)
RESULTS
Radio-tracking of Rattus norvegicus and Cumulative area curve
Generally the mean body size of the male rats was 305g while that of females was 315g with a
total of 786rats encountered during the study The home range curves of adult male (MA 37) at
Campbell market reached an asymptote of 96 radio fixes with a frail increase while for adult female
(FA 28) the asymptote was reached after the minimum of 62 radio fixes was reached also with a
slight increase (Figure 3A amp B) These curves generally reached visible asymptotic limit after 90
radio fixes (approximately 98 radio fixes for MA 37 and 94 radio fixes for FA 28 - Figure 3) At
police quarter and for adult male (MA 3) the curve appears to reach an asymptote after the
minimum number of 51 radio fixes while for adult females the minimum number of radio fixes was
47 (Figure 3C ampD) Both curves progressively increased and a clear asymptotic limit was reached
at 92 radio fixes for MA 3 and 112 radio fixes for FA 9
The implication of the closeness of the minimum number of radio fixes (47 and 51radio fixes)
was that the movement of the rats were usually from the same starting points They however
usually depart at different distance from the source until a point where their further movement
cannot yield a meetingintersection point Also it could be established that there exist differences
in the home range distances covered at each of the sites based on the differences in the number
of radio pixels covered at each site
Home Ranges and Home Range Pattern
The ratsrsquo detection analysis in both location showed that the rats had not moved much from the
nests and only came out in search of food The rodents headed towards similar ways and do not
change their route much for the days that followed and thus the use of MCP 100 was a suitable
approach to estimate the width of the home range area At Campbell market adult males (MA 37
MA 38 and MA 39) had an average home range size of 13352 m2 and mean core area estimation
size of 2939 m2 while adult females (FA 28) had mean home range of 1338 m
2 and mean core
area estimation size of 917 m2(Table 1) The graphical distribution of home range and core area
for MA 37 and FA 28 showed that no home range overlap between MA37 and FA28 in site 1 was
obtained (Figure 3 AampB) At Police quarters adult male (MA 3) had a home range estimation size
of 27111 m2 and mean core area estimation size of 166 m
2 Adult females (FA 9) had mean home
range estimation size of 119 m2 and a very small core area estimation (010 m
2) The graphical
distribution of home range and core area for MA 3 and FA 9 were presented in Figure 4 C amp D
Also there was no overlapping of home range between MA3 and FA 9 in Site 2 (Figure 3 AampB)
Male rats in both sites had a larger home range and core area than their female counterparts
(Table 1)
Generally the mean home range size of rats at Site 2 was 4809 larger than that of rats at
Site 1 14151 m2 (range = 119-27111 m
2) In contrast to the core area size Campbell market was
5669 and it is larger than adult individual at police quarters which was 1928 m2 (range
917-2939 m2 -
Table 1) Home range pattern followed by male rats in Campbell market differ
markedly from that of female rats in the same markets and even from the male rats from the Police
quarters (Figure 4A-D) The home range map showed that the male rats movement pattern
followed a 4-unequal sided structurersquos pattern (Figure 4A) while that of the female followed a
rhombus structure pattern (Figure 4B) However similarity in the home range pattern was
observed in both male and female rats at police quarters The home range pattern (Figure 4C and
D) followed a triangular structure pattern The implication of this is that home range pattern may or
may not follow the same pattern depending on the site
Raster Layers of Habitat Variables for Habitat Suitability
Raster charts of the rattus showed that rats hots spots can be grouped into 4 zones - market
shops settlement and general places while the standardized raster chart identified the major
rallying points of the rats (hot spots) as the market because the highest ratsrsquo frequencies (255) was
obtained at the pink (Figure 5AampB) Meanwhile the non standardized raster charts (Figure 5AampB)
showed that build up points at the market place was the least unlike other places where there
existed many build up points The implication of this result was that the higher the number of build
up points the lesser the ratsrsquo population and it indicated monotonic decrease of the rattus habitat
quality Also the raster charts delineated habitat quality of rat of the study area into 3 - inner city
area mixed settlement area and commercial area The inner city area was said to have the least
size in comparison to both mixed settlement and commercial area The standardized raster chart
however showed that the least sized settlement returned the highest number of rattus (Figure 5C
amp D) This also indicated monotonic decrease like it was obtained in the build up case The raster
charts of the rattus distance to the water ways showed that the further the distance of waterways
the higher the habitat quality thus showing monotonically increasing and positive relationship The
purple coloration shows more suitability for rats habitat (Figure 6AampB) From these results it is
essential to note that habitat quality could be hinged on factors such as water ways build up points
and type of settlement In additions these factors either affects the suitability directly or inversely
(that is positively or negatively)
ActivityMovement Parameters and Habitat Suitability Map of Rattus norvegicus
The Rattus norvegicus emergence from their nests (marking the beginning of activity) was
generally between 1900 hours to 2200 hours At Campbell market the most common time of
emergence for male rats was 1900 hours while for female rats it was 2000 hours (Table 2) At
Police quarter however the most common time of emergence for male was 2000 hours and for
female is 2200 This implied a marked differences in the time of emergence of R norvegicus from
the nest between sexes as well as between sites The animal at Police quarter seems to enter the
nest (as the end of activities) earlier than the rats at Campbell market At Police quarter most
common time of entrywithdrawal for male and female rats proved to be the same (0400 hours)
unlike in Campbell market where the female returnedwithdrawn to the nest earlier than the male
The female returned to the nest at 0600 hours while male returned to the nest at 0700 hours
(Table 2) The mean total daily distance of movement taken by adult rats at Site 2 was 816 more
than that of Site 1 (Table 2) There was no significant difference when total daily distance were
compared between Campbell market and Police quarter (U = 65 pgt005 Mann-Whitney U-Test)
Mean total length of daily active period for rats at Police quarters was 355 hours longer than
Campbell market (Table 3) Statistical analysis shows that when the total length of daily active
period for adult individuals were compared between both sites the difference was not significant
However the total length of daily active period of female rats from Campbell market was
significantly longer compared to female rats at Police quarters (U = 25 p lt 005) As for males
there were no significantly difference when comparing between Campbell market and Police
quarters (U= 14 pgt005) Total length of daily active periods within both sexes (male and female)
at each site were not significantly different either (at Site 1 U = 6 pgt005 and at Site 2 U=55 p gt
005 ) It is apparent from these results that differences existed in term of activity period of the rats
within the sex and sites and male rats have higher home range than the female counterpart
From the suitability map the distribution of R norvegicus shows a patchy pattern (Figure
7) and using a cut-off method the map can be delineated into three categories - high (075 ndash 1)
medium (035 - 074) and low (006 - 034) quality habitat The habitat suitability map showed that
most of the habitat (gt 23) are suitable for rattus because they fall within highly suitable
region(Figure 7)
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Rats home range pattern based on results of this research differs in term of sex as well as sites
and can be hinged on differences of activities or role of each of the sexes It can also been
connected with differences in the availability of key resources such as food burrows vegetation
and others in each of the sites (Dickmann and Doncaster 1987 Davies et al 2013) Lack of home
range overlaps as established in this study may be due to the fact that rattusrsquo burrows do not
normally overlap This conform with non overlapping ranging in Microtus breweri established else
where (Zwicker 1989) Similarly home range pattern may or may not be different according to this
study because the similarity or otherwise would be based on the landscape connectivity
Landscape connectivity (Wang et al 2008) has been found to affect the brown rats dispersal
around houses in Amsterdam Landscape connectivity of the 2 locations (Campbell market and
Police quarter) differs At Campbell market burrowing might be easy for the rats while at the Police
quarter such act are restricted due to the fact that the whole area have been tarred This also
conform with Van Adrichem et al (2013) and Yabe (1979) that established that availability of the
green area and food were some of the factors that govern rats population density in and around
houses in Amsterdam
All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water source and
nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern of habitat suitability for the
raster chart These habitat threshold are similar to habitat factors identify for rodents in urban
habitat (Spraging 2002) However it is worthy of note that while some of these threshold produce
monotonic increment others produced monotonic decrease for the habitat suitability This is not
unconnected with the fact that while some of the threshold factors enhance the rats habitat others
inhibit the habitat In addition it had been found that sewage serves as a suitable habitat for rattus
(Channon et al 2000) contrary to the findings in this study This contradiction might be hinged on
the difference in the sewage system Sewage that always or partially free to provide habitat for
rodents can be suitable for rodents but sewage that always contains enormous water and other
waste in large quantity (like in the study area) would definitely be avoided by rats (Harper et al
2005 Kolawole et al 2009) Meanwhile less rats were also trapped in the sewage as reported by
Trawegger et al (2006) Similarly the observed differences in the activities period of the rats in
term of sex and site as found in this study could be linked to differences in social roles of the 2
sexes as well as difference in the habitat factors of each of the sites It had been established that
food availability weather condition and predator are some of the factors that can influence the
movement and some other activities of rats (Carlini et al 1972) Also it is important to note that
activities at the 2 sites are markedly different because they are 2 non similar settlements
This study in conclusion have been able to produce habitat suitability map of a highly
urbanized area This can be used in the rodents control program since the use of habitat structure
would provide a pragmatic and integrative approach to rodents control and can supplement old rat
control methods It is equally adoptable for any urbanized area with similar characteristics with the
study area otherwise the algorithm established in the study can be used to established a new
habitat suitability for such different urban area This study therefore provide basic foundation for
further study of ratsrsquo management and control Lastly ratsrsquo movement pattern (5-sided and
Triangular structure pattern) was established in this study and can be used in the control of rodent
in the area as well as similar structured areas It is therefore recommended that this habitat
suitability map be used along with other rodents control to ensure integrated pest management
strategies for better efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support provided by the the School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
field work facilitation the TWAS- USM Postdoctoral Fellowship provided to Dauda TO and
Ministry of Higher Education Grant and RUI-Grant from Universiti Sains Malaysia for SAMS are
hereby appreciated by the authors
REFERENCES
Bell E Boyle D Floyd K Garner-Richard P Swann B Luxmoore R Patterson A and R Thomson
(2011) The ground based eradication of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Isle of
Canna Inner Hebrides Scotland in Vietch CR Clout MN and Town DR (eds) Island
Invasives eradication and Management Gland Switzerland IUCN 269 - 274
Belmain S Chakman N Sarker N J Saker S Kamal N and Sarker S (2013) Prospects for
Ecologically - based Management of Rodent Population Outbreaks Can we mitigate 50
years Cyclic Famine in South Asia In Huitu O and Henttonen H (eds) 9th European
Vertebrate Pest Management Conference held between 22nd
September - 26th
September 2013 68 - 73
Carlini E A Hamaoui A and Regina M W M (1972) Factor influencing aggressiveness
elicited Marihuana in Food deprived rats British Journal of Pharmacol 44(4) 794ndash804
Channon D Cole M and Cole L (2000) A long - term study of Rattus norvegicus in the London
Borough of Enfield using baiting returns as an indicator of sewer population levels
Epidemiol Infect 125 441 - 445
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
tikus tertinggi iaitu 225 Semua analisis kesesuaian habitat ternasuk kawasan dibangunkan
kawasan tong sampah sumber air dan tapak semulajadi dalam kajian ini mempamerkan corak
struktur (peningkatan atau penurunan monotonik) kesesuaian habitat
Kata kunci asimptot algoritma isyarat raster monotonik perangkap
Abstract Habitat suitability (HS) study is essential when animalsrsquo habitat has been altered or
animals migrate to an habitat different from their natural habitat This study was carried out to
assess HS and integrate geographic information system of such for Rattus norvegicus in highly
developed urban environment Using data from both Campbell Market and Police Quarter of
George Town Malaysia home range (through 100 Minimum Convex Polygon-MCP 100 95
MCP and 95 Harmonic Mean) were estimated Home range for male rats at Campbell market
reached an asymptote of 96 radio fixes and with a slight increase (home range = 13352m2 core
area = 2939m2) Female rats reached asymptote at 62 radio fixes (home range = 1338m
2 core
area = 917m2) At Campbell market male rats emerged 1900 hours every day while female
emerged at 2000 hours but at Police quarter the most common time of emergence for male is
2000 hours and for female is 2200 Raster charts of the rattus showed that rats hots spots can be
grouped into 4 zones (market shop houses settlement general places) The standardized raster
chart isolated the major rallying points of the rats (hot spots) as the market with the highest ratsrsquo
frequencies of 255 All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water
source and nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern (monotonic
increase or decrease) of habitat suitability
Keywords Asymptote algorithm fixes raster monotonic Trap
Introduction
Rodent control have been occasioned by their increasing population which had consequently led
to vast increase in their economic importance (Traweger and Slotta-Backmayr 2005) They have
however been proved useful in laboratory model for physiology and genetic studies (Wang et al
2011) Globally the current and prominent strategy of rodents control and management is the use
of Trap and rodenticides (Trawerger et al 2006 VanAdrichem et al 2013) These strategies had
been on use for decades (Belmain et al 2013 Bell et al 2011 VanAdrichem et al 2013) hence
they are gradually becoming ineffective because rodents are developing ways round these
strategies (Roomaney et al 2012) There is therefore a growing need for an all encompassing or
integrated rodents control strategy like been advocated round the globe (Frantz 1988 Frantz and
Davis 1991 Spragins 2002) Preliminary survey of rats population in the urban center clearly
established a stable rat population in distinctive colonies which do not mingle with other colonies
as obtained in cities round the world (Patergnani et al 2010 Wood 2006 Yasuma and Andau
1999) Normally home range and movement of city rats are smaller than in their natural habitat but
can provide useful information for the all encompassing approach to rodents control strategy The
suitable habitat conditions in the city where the rats can get all the resources needed made the
rats not to linger far from their nestsource Modification in the urban landscape also restrict ratsrsquo
movements to different places (Dickman and Doncaster 1987) These works and preliminary
survey notwithstanding few or non of them have integrated the application of Geographical
Information System (GIS) into home range studies of rat Knowledge regarding the home range of
this commensal rat in the urban area is necessary as it enhance our expertise in the control and
management of the population as well as provide basis for integrative pest management
The aim of using GIS is to gain information concerning the potential distribution of R
norvegicus within the zone (developed urban environment) and relative to their spatial positions In
addition GIS will help to ease the researcherrsquos effort in searching analyzing and presenting the
data map Thus GIS provides powerful automated tools for integrated rodent control strategy and
can enhance better understanding about the ecology of this animal in developed urban
environment The objective of this study was therefore to measure the movement and the home
range size of Rattus norvegicus in the Campbell market and human settlement of the developed
urban environment and to establish a GIS distribution map of Rattus norvegicus in relation to the
different habitat This study also aim at developing an integrated habitat suitability mapping using
the GIS (Geographical Information System)
METHODOLOGY
This study was conducted in Georgetown of Malaysia using both Campbell market (Site 1) and the
Police quarters (Site 2) Campbell market built in 1947 is a wet market for chicken duck fish
pork as well as others aquatic species and it covers an area of 5000m2
Activity in the market
usually commence as early as 600 am to 700 am when the market become busier with human
activities Police quarter on the other hand was built in 1986 and it covers an area of 20000 m2
The police quarters compose of four blocks in the housing area with facilities like a lsquosuraursquo (small
mosque) kindergarten and a badminton court Using Kenward (2001) method home range
measurement of the rats and rat activities (in terms of time of leaving nest and returning) were
captured for two months (March to April 2008) including six days of intensive radio-tracking during
which the mean movements of the rats were recorded for every one hour (2 -4 ratstracking)
These 2 months were found (through preliminary study) to be the most suitable or activities peak
period of the animals The accuracy of the entire transmitter for the study area using TR-4 to
ensure frequency and range accuracy was boosted with Yagi-antenna at a distance of 150m
(Figure 1) All rats tagged were of good health before and after the experiment (with respect to
body and agility) and their body size ranged between 267 - 350g Mean distance and pattern of 2-4
ratssex were monitored using the the radio tracking aforementioned
Data analysis for home range study of Rattus norvegicus was divided into two parts -
home range determination and activities movement map Movement remain one of the main
activities of rats and provide the basis for the fractal activity of rats (Hsieh et al 2014) Movement
was thus the variable of interest in our study and were compared between gender as well as
locations (using the mean of the sex of the rats followed) The GIS coordinates of the 2 locations
(Campbell market and Police quarters) were obtained using GPS (GARMIN - 60CSX) and the
cumulative area curve was plotted using the Ecological Solution Software (Biotas Version 20)
100 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 100) 95 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 95) and
the 95 Harmonic Mean (HM95) were used to estimate the home range in this study
Meanwhile to estimate the core area two of these methods - 50 Harmonic Mean (HM50) and
50 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 50) were employed The total distance of a ratrsquos
movement detected everyday was measured based on the linear distance of the radio fixes at
every alternate hour using the Ecological Software Solutions (Biotas Version 20) The daily
movement rate for each individual was obtained by the division of the daily distance moved each
day by the total active period for that individual rat Differences between sexes and the site for total
active period were statistically compared using Mann- Whitney U test The development of the
suitability map of Rattus norvegicus was executed using data from both questionnaire and
secondary data from Mapping and Survey Department (JUPEM) of the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment Malaysia and Penang Municipal Council George Town Malaysia
The essence of these secondary data was to have asses to the original Penang map on which the
rat home range and suitability can be superimposed The data gathered were used to update the
existing one and were digitized into the computer compatible format using Arc-GIS 93 software of
Geographical Information System (GIS) An algorithm for suitability map development was written
(Figure 2)
RESULTS
Radio-tracking of Rattus norvegicus and Cumulative area curve
Generally the mean body size of the male rats was 305g while that of females was 315g with a
total of 786rats encountered during the study The home range curves of adult male (MA 37) at
Campbell market reached an asymptote of 96 radio fixes with a frail increase while for adult female
(FA 28) the asymptote was reached after the minimum of 62 radio fixes was reached also with a
slight increase (Figure 3A amp B) These curves generally reached visible asymptotic limit after 90
radio fixes (approximately 98 radio fixes for MA 37 and 94 radio fixes for FA 28 - Figure 3) At
police quarter and for adult male (MA 3) the curve appears to reach an asymptote after the
minimum number of 51 radio fixes while for adult females the minimum number of radio fixes was
47 (Figure 3C ampD) Both curves progressively increased and a clear asymptotic limit was reached
at 92 radio fixes for MA 3 and 112 radio fixes for FA 9
The implication of the closeness of the minimum number of radio fixes (47 and 51radio fixes)
was that the movement of the rats were usually from the same starting points They however
usually depart at different distance from the source until a point where their further movement
cannot yield a meetingintersection point Also it could be established that there exist differences
in the home range distances covered at each of the sites based on the differences in the number
of radio pixels covered at each site
Home Ranges and Home Range Pattern
The ratsrsquo detection analysis in both location showed that the rats had not moved much from the
nests and only came out in search of food The rodents headed towards similar ways and do not
change their route much for the days that followed and thus the use of MCP 100 was a suitable
approach to estimate the width of the home range area At Campbell market adult males (MA 37
MA 38 and MA 39) had an average home range size of 13352 m2 and mean core area estimation
size of 2939 m2 while adult females (FA 28) had mean home range of 1338 m
2 and mean core
area estimation size of 917 m2(Table 1) The graphical distribution of home range and core area
for MA 37 and FA 28 showed that no home range overlap between MA37 and FA28 in site 1 was
obtained (Figure 3 AampB) At Police quarters adult male (MA 3) had a home range estimation size
of 27111 m2 and mean core area estimation size of 166 m
2 Adult females (FA 9) had mean home
range estimation size of 119 m2 and a very small core area estimation (010 m
2) The graphical
distribution of home range and core area for MA 3 and FA 9 were presented in Figure 4 C amp D
Also there was no overlapping of home range between MA3 and FA 9 in Site 2 (Figure 3 AampB)
Male rats in both sites had a larger home range and core area than their female counterparts
(Table 1)
Generally the mean home range size of rats at Site 2 was 4809 larger than that of rats at
Site 1 14151 m2 (range = 119-27111 m
2) In contrast to the core area size Campbell market was
5669 and it is larger than adult individual at police quarters which was 1928 m2 (range
917-2939 m2 -
Table 1) Home range pattern followed by male rats in Campbell market differ
markedly from that of female rats in the same markets and even from the male rats from the Police
quarters (Figure 4A-D) The home range map showed that the male rats movement pattern
followed a 4-unequal sided structurersquos pattern (Figure 4A) while that of the female followed a
rhombus structure pattern (Figure 4B) However similarity in the home range pattern was
observed in both male and female rats at police quarters The home range pattern (Figure 4C and
D) followed a triangular structure pattern The implication of this is that home range pattern may or
may not follow the same pattern depending on the site
Raster Layers of Habitat Variables for Habitat Suitability
Raster charts of the rattus showed that rats hots spots can be grouped into 4 zones - market
shops settlement and general places while the standardized raster chart identified the major
rallying points of the rats (hot spots) as the market because the highest ratsrsquo frequencies (255) was
obtained at the pink (Figure 5AampB) Meanwhile the non standardized raster charts (Figure 5AampB)
showed that build up points at the market place was the least unlike other places where there
existed many build up points The implication of this result was that the higher the number of build
up points the lesser the ratsrsquo population and it indicated monotonic decrease of the rattus habitat
quality Also the raster charts delineated habitat quality of rat of the study area into 3 - inner city
area mixed settlement area and commercial area The inner city area was said to have the least
size in comparison to both mixed settlement and commercial area The standardized raster chart
however showed that the least sized settlement returned the highest number of rattus (Figure 5C
amp D) This also indicated monotonic decrease like it was obtained in the build up case The raster
charts of the rattus distance to the water ways showed that the further the distance of waterways
the higher the habitat quality thus showing monotonically increasing and positive relationship The
purple coloration shows more suitability for rats habitat (Figure 6AampB) From these results it is
essential to note that habitat quality could be hinged on factors such as water ways build up points
and type of settlement In additions these factors either affects the suitability directly or inversely
(that is positively or negatively)
ActivityMovement Parameters and Habitat Suitability Map of Rattus norvegicus
The Rattus norvegicus emergence from their nests (marking the beginning of activity) was
generally between 1900 hours to 2200 hours At Campbell market the most common time of
emergence for male rats was 1900 hours while for female rats it was 2000 hours (Table 2) At
Police quarter however the most common time of emergence for male was 2000 hours and for
female is 2200 This implied a marked differences in the time of emergence of R norvegicus from
the nest between sexes as well as between sites The animal at Police quarter seems to enter the
nest (as the end of activities) earlier than the rats at Campbell market At Police quarter most
common time of entrywithdrawal for male and female rats proved to be the same (0400 hours)
unlike in Campbell market where the female returnedwithdrawn to the nest earlier than the male
The female returned to the nest at 0600 hours while male returned to the nest at 0700 hours
(Table 2) The mean total daily distance of movement taken by adult rats at Site 2 was 816 more
than that of Site 1 (Table 2) There was no significant difference when total daily distance were
compared between Campbell market and Police quarter (U = 65 pgt005 Mann-Whitney U-Test)
Mean total length of daily active period for rats at Police quarters was 355 hours longer than
Campbell market (Table 3) Statistical analysis shows that when the total length of daily active
period for adult individuals were compared between both sites the difference was not significant
However the total length of daily active period of female rats from Campbell market was
significantly longer compared to female rats at Police quarters (U = 25 p lt 005) As for males
there were no significantly difference when comparing between Campbell market and Police
quarters (U= 14 pgt005) Total length of daily active periods within both sexes (male and female)
at each site were not significantly different either (at Site 1 U = 6 pgt005 and at Site 2 U=55 p gt
005 ) It is apparent from these results that differences existed in term of activity period of the rats
within the sex and sites and male rats have higher home range than the female counterpart
From the suitability map the distribution of R norvegicus shows a patchy pattern (Figure
7) and using a cut-off method the map can be delineated into three categories - high (075 ndash 1)
medium (035 - 074) and low (006 - 034) quality habitat The habitat suitability map showed that
most of the habitat (gt 23) are suitable for rattus because they fall within highly suitable
region(Figure 7)
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Rats home range pattern based on results of this research differs in term of sex as well as sites
and can be hinged on differences of activities or role of each of the sexes It can also been
connected with differences in the availability of key resources such as food burrows vegetation
and others in each of the sites (Dickmann and Doncaster 1987 Davies et al 2013) Lack of home
range overlaps as established in this study may be due to the fact that rattusrsquo burrows do not
normally overlap This conform with non overlapping ranging in Microtus breweri established else
where (Zwicker 1989) Similarly home range pattern may or may not be different according to this
study because the similarity or otherwise would be based on the landscape connectivity
Landscape connectivity (Wang et al 2008) has been found to affect the brown rats dispersal
around houses in Amsterdam Landscape connectivity of the 2 locations (Campbell market and
Police quarter) differs At Campbell market burrowing might be easy for the rats while at the Police
quarter such act are restricted due to the fact that the whole area have been tarred This also
conform with Van Adrichem et al (2013) and Yabe (1979) that established that availability of the
green area and food were some of the factors that govern rats population density in and around
houses in Amsterdam
All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water source and
nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern of habitat suitability for the
raster chart These habitat threshold are similar to habitat factors identify for rodents in urban
habitat (Spraging 2002) However it is worthy of note that while some of these threshold produce
monotonic increment others produced monotonic decrease for the habitat suitability This is not
unconnected with the fact that while some of the threshold factors enhance the rats habitat others
inhibit the habitat In addition it had been found that sewage serves as a suitable habitat for rattus
(Channon et al 2000) contrary to the findings in this study This contradiction might be hinged on
the difference in the sewage system Sewage that always or partially free to provide habitat for
rodents can be suitable for rodents but sewage that always contains enormous water and other
waste in large quantity (like in the study area) would definitely be avoided by rats (Harper et al
2005 Kolawole et al 2009) Meanwhile less rats were also trapped in the sewage as reported by
Trawegger et al (2006) Similarly the observed differences in the activities period of the rats in
term of sex and site as found in this study could be linked to differences in social roles of the 2
sexes as well as difference in the habitat factors of each of the sites It had been established that
food availability weather condition and predator are some of the factors that can influence the
movement and some other activities of rats (Carlini et al 1972) Also it is important to note that
activities at the 2 sites are markedly different because they are 2 non similar settlements
This study in conclusion have been able to produce habitat suitability map of a highly
urbanized area This can be used in the rodents control program since the use of habitat structure
would provide a pragmatic and integrative approach to rodents control and can supplement old rat
control methods It is equally adoptable for any urbanized area with similar characteristics with the
study area otherwise the algorithm established in the study can be used to established a new
habitat suitability for such different urban area This study therefore provide basic foundation for
further study of ratsrsquo management and control Lastly ratsrsquo movement pattern (5-sided and
Triangular structure pattern) was established in this study and can be used in the control of rodent
in the area as well as similar structured areas It is therefore recommended that this habitat
suitability map be used along with other rodents control to ensure integrated pest management
strategies for better efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support provided by the the School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
field work facilitation the TWAS- USM Postdoctoral Fellowship provided to Dauda TO and
Ministry of Higher Education Grant and RUI-Grant from Universiti Sains Malaysia for SAMS are
hereby appreciated by the authors
REFERENCES
Bell E Boyle D Floyd K Garner-Richard P Swann B Luxmoore R Patterson A and R Thomson
(2011) The ground based eradication of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Isle of
Canna Inner Hebrides Scotland in Vietch CR Clout MN and Town DR (eds) Island
Invasives eradication and Management Gland Switzerland IUCN 269 - 274
Belmain S Chakman N Sarker N J Saker S Kamal N and Sarker S (2013) Prospects for
Ecologically - based Management of Rodent Population Outbreaks Can we mitigate 50
years Cyclic Famine in South Asia In Huitu O and Henttonen H (eds) 9th European
Vertebrate Pest Management Conference held between 22nd
September - 26th
September 2013 68 - 73
Carlini E A Hamaoui A and Regina M W M (1972) Factor influencing aggressiveness
elicited Marihuana in Food deprived rats British Journal of Pharmacol 44(4) 794ndash804
Channon D Cole M and Cole L (2000) A long - term study of Rattus norvegicus in the London
Borough of Enfield using baiting returns as an indicator of sewer population levels
Epidemiol Infect 125 441 - 445
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Introduction
Rodent control have been occasioned by their increasing population which had consequently led
to vast increase in their economic importance (Traweger and Slotta-Backmayr 2005) They have
however been proved useful in laboratory model for physiology and genetic studies (Wang et al
2011) Globally the current and prominent strategy of rodents control and management is the use
of Trap and rodenticides (Trawerger et al 2006 VanAdrichem et al 2013) These strategies had
been on use for decades (Belmain et al 2013 Bell et al 2011 VanAdrichem et al 2013) hence
they are gradually becoming ineffective because rodents are developing ways round these
strategies (Roomaney et al 2012) There is therefore a growing need for an all encompassing or
integrated rodents control strategy like been advocated round the globe (Frantz 1988 Frantz and
Davis 1991 Spragins 2002) Preliminary survey of rats population in the urban center clearly
established a stable rat population in distinctive colonies which do not mingle with other colonies
as obtained in cities round the world (Patergnani et al 2010 Wood 2006 Yasuma and Andau
1999) Normally home range and movement of city rats are smaller than in their natural habitat but
can provide useful information for the all encompassing approach to rodents control strategy The
suitable habitat conditions in the city where the rats can get all the resources needed made the
rats not to linger far from their nestsource Modification in the urban landscape also restrict ratsrsquo
movements to different places (Dickman and Doncaster 1987) These works and preliminary
survey notwithstanding few or non of them have integrated the application of Geographical
Information System (GIS) into home range studies of rat Knowledge regarding the home range of
this commensal rat in the urban area is necessary as it enhance our expertise in the control and
management of the population as well as provide basis for integrative pest management
The aim of using GIS is to gain information concerning the potential distribution of R
norvegicus within the zone (developed urban environment) and relative to their spatial positions In
addition GIS will help to ease the researcherrsquos effort in searching analyzing and presenting the
data map Thus GIS provides powerful automated tools for integrated rodent control strategy and
can enhance better understanding about the ecology of this animal in developed urban
environment The objective of this study was therefore to measure the movement and the home
range size of Rattus norvegicus in the Campbell market and human settlement of the developed
urban environment and to establish a GIS distribution map of Rattus norvegicus in relation to the
different habitat This study also aim at developing an integrated habitat suitability mapping using
the GIS (Geographical Information System)
METHODOLOGY
This study was conducted in Georgetown of Malaysia using both Campbell market (Site 1) and the
Police quarters (Site 2) Campbell market built in 1947 is a wet market for chicken duck fish
pork as well as others aquatic species and it covers an area of 5000m2
Activity in the market
usually commence as early as 600 am to 700 am when the market become busier with human
activities Police quarter on the other hand was built in 1986 and it covers an area of 20000 m2
The police quarters compose of four blocks in the housing area with facilities like a lsquosuraursquo (small
mosque) kindergarten and a badminton court Using Kenward (2001) method home range
measurement of the rats and rat activities (in terms of time of leaving nest and returning) were
captured for two months (March to April 2008) including six days of intensive radio-tracking during
which the mean movements of the rats were recorded for every one hour (2 -4 ratstracking)
These 2 months were found (through preliminary study) to be the most suitable or activities peak
period of the animals The accuracy of the entire transmitter for the study area using TR-4 to
ensure frequency and range accuracy was boosted with Yagi-antenna at a distance of 150m
(Figure 1) All rats tagged were of good health before and after the experiment (with respect to
body and agility) and their body size ranged between 267 - 350g Mean distance and pattern of 2-4
ratssex were monitored using the the radio tracking aforementioned
Data analysis for home range study of Rattus norvegicus was divided into two parts -
home range determination and activities movement map Movement remain one of the main
activities of rats and provide the basis for the fractal activity of rats (Hsieh et al 2014) Movement
was thus the variable of interest in our study and were compared between gender as well as
locations (using the mean of the sex of the rats followed) The GIS coordinates of the 2 locations
(Campbell market and Police quarters) were obtained using GPS (GARMIN - 60CSX) and the
cumulative area curve was plotted using the Ecological Solution Software (Biotas Version 20)
100 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 100) 95 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 95) and
the 95 Harmonic Mean (HM95) were used to estimate the home range in this study
Meanwhile to estimate the core area two of these methods - 50 Harmonic Mean (HM50) and
50 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 50) were employed The total distance of a ratrsquos
movement detected everyday was measured based on the linear distance of the radio fixes at
every alternate hour using the Ecological Software Solutions (Biotas Version 20) The daily
movement rate for each individual was obtained by the division of the daily distance moved each
day by the total active period for that individual rat Differences between sexes and the site for total
active period were statistically compared using Mann- Whitney U test The development of the
suitability map of Rattus norvegicus was executed using data from both questionnaire and
secondary data from Mapping and Survey Department (JUPEM) of the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment Malaysia and Penang Municipal Council George Town Malaysia
The essence of these secondary data was to have asses to the original Penang map on which the
rat home range and suitability can be superimposed The data gathered were used to update the
existing one and were digitized into the computer compatible format using Arc-GIS 93 software of
Geographical Information System (GIS) An algorithm for suitability map development was written
(Figure 2)
RESULTS
Radio-tracking of Rattus norvegicus and Cumulative area curve
Generally the mean body size of the male rats was 305g while that of females was 315g with a
total of 786rats encountered during the study The home range curves of adult male (MA 37) at
Campbell market reached an asymptote of 96 radio fixes with a frail increase while for adult female
(FA 28) the asymptote was reached after the minimum of 62 radio fixes was reached also with a
slight increase (Figure 3A amp B) These curves generally reached visible asymptotic limit after 90
radio fixes (approximately 98 radio fixes for MA 37 and 94 radio fixes for FA 28 - Figure 3) At
police quarter and for adult male (MA 3) the curve appears to reach an asymptote after the
minimum number of 51 radio fixes while for adult females the minimum number of radio fixes was
47 (Figure 3C ampD) Both curves progressively increased and a clear asymptotic limit was reached
at 92 radio fixes for MA 3 and 112 radio fixes for FA 9
The implication of the closeness of the minimum number of radio fixes (47 and 51radio fixes)
was that the movement of the rats were usually from the same starting points They however
usually depart at different distance from the source until a point where their further movement
cannot yield a meetingintersection point Also it could be established that there exist differences
in the home range distances covered at each of the sites based on the differences in the number
of radio pixels covered at each site
Home Ranges and Home Range Pattern
The ratsrsquo detection analysis in both location showed that the rats had not moved much from the
nests and only came out in search of food The rodents headed towards similar ways and do not
change their route much for the days that followed and thus the use of MCP 100 was a suitable
approach to estimate the width of the home range area At Campbell market adult males (MA 37
MA 38 and MA 39) had an average home range size of 13352 m2 and mean core area estimation
size of 2939 m2 while adult females (FA 28) had mean home range of 1338 m
2 and mean core
area estimation size of 917 m2(Table 1) The graphical distribution of home range and core area
for MA 37 and FA 28 showed that no home range overlap between MA37 and FA28 in site 1 was
obtained (Figure 3 AampB) At Police quarters adult male (MA 3) had a home range estimation size
of 27111 m2 and mean core area estimation size of 166 m
2 Adult females (FA 9) had mean home
range estimation size of 119 m2 and a very small core area estimation (010 m
2) The graphical
distribution of home range and core area for MA 3 and FA 9 were presented in Figure 4 C amp D
Also there was no overlapping of home range between MA3 and FA 9 in Site 2 (Figure 3 AampB)
Male rats in both sites had a larger home range and core area than their female counterparts
(Table 1)
Generally the mean home range size of rats at Site 2 was 4809 larger than that of rats at
Site 1 14151 m2 (range = 119-27111 m
2) In contrast to the core area size Campbell market was
5669 and it is larger than adult individual at police quarters which was 1928 m2 (range
917-2939 m2 -
Table 1) Home range pattern followed by male rats in Campbell market differ
markedly from that of female rats in the same markets and even from the male rats from the Police
quarters (Figure 4A-D) The home range map showed that the male rats movement pattern
followed a 4-unequal sided structurersquos pattern (Figure 4A) while that of the female followed a
rhombus structure pattern (Figure 4B) However similarity in the home range pattern was
observed in both male and female rats at police quarters The home range pattern (Figure 4C and
D) followed a triangular structure pattern The implication of this is that home range pattern may or
may not follow the same pattern depending on the site
Raster Layers of Habitat Variables for Habitat Suitability
Raster charts of the rattus showed that rats hots spots can be grouped into 4 zones - market
shops settlement and general places while the standardized raster chart identified the major
rallying points of the rats (hot spots) as the market because the highest ratsrsquo frequencies (255) was
obtained at the pink (Figure 5AampB) Meanwhile the non standardized raster charts (Figure 5AampB)
showed that build up points at the market place was the least unlike other places where there
existed many build up points The implication of this result was that the higher the number of build
up points the lesser the ratsrsquo population and it indicated monotonic decrease of the rattus habitat
quality Also the raster charts delineated habitat quality of rat of the study area into 3 - inner city
area mixed settlement area and commercial area The inner city area was said to have the least
size in comparison to both mixed settlement and commercial area The standardized raster chart
however showed that the least sized settlement returned the highest number of rattus (Figure 5C
amp D) This also indicated monotonic decrease like it was obtained in the build up case The raster
charts of the rattus distance to the water ways showed that the further the distance of waterways
the higher the habitat quality thus showing monotonically increasing and positive relationship The
purple coloration shows more suitability for rats habitat (Figure 6AampB) From these results it is
essential to note that habitat quality could be hinged on factors such as water ways build up points
and type of settlement In additions these factors either affects the suitability directly or inversely
(that is positively or negatively)
ActivityMovement Parameters and Habitat Suitability Map of Rattus norvegicus
The Rattus norvegicus emergence from their nests (marking the beginning of activity) was
generally between 1900 hours to 2200 hours At Campbell market the most common time of
emergence for male rats was 1900 hours while for female rats it was 2000 hours (Table 2) At
Police quarter however the most common time of emergence for male was 2000 hours and for
female is 2200 This implied a marked differences in the time of emergence of R norvegicus from
the nest between sexes as well as between sites The animal at Police quarter seems to enter the
nest (as the end of activities) earlier than the rats at Campbell market At Police quarter most
common time of entrywithdrawal for male and female rats proved to be the same (0400 hours)
unlike in Campbell market where the female returnedwithdrawn to the nest earlier than the male
The female returned to the nest at 0600 hours while male returned to the nest at 0700 hours
(Table 2) The mean total daily distance of movement taken by adult rats at Site 2 was 816 more
than that of Site 1 (Table 2) There was no significant difference when total daily distance were
compared between Campbell market and Police quarter (U = 65 pgt005 Mann-Whitney U-Test)
Mean total length of daily active period for rats at Police quarters was 355 hours longer than
Campbell market (Table 3) Statistical analysis shows that when the total length of daily active
period for adult individuals were compared between both sites the difference was not significant
However the total length of daily active period of female rats from Campbell market was
significantly longer compared to female rats at Police quarters (U = 25 p lt 005) As for males
there were no significantly difference when comparing between Campbell market and Police
quarters (U= 14 pgt005) Total length of daily active periods within both sexes (male and female)
at each site were not significantly different either (at Site 1 U = 6 pgt005 and at Site 2 U=55 p gt
005 ) It is apparent from these results that differences existed in term of activity period of the rats
within the sex and sites and male rats have higher home range than the female counterpart
From the suitability map the distribution of R norvegicus shows a patchy pattern (Figure
7) and using a cut-off method the map can be delineated into three categories - high (075 ndash 1)
medium (035 - 074) and low (006 - 034) quality habitat The habitat suitability map showed that
most of the habitat (gt 23) are suitable for rattus because they fall within highly suitable
region(Figure 7)
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Rats home range pattern based on results of this research differs in term of sex as well as sites
and can be hinged on differences of activities or role of each of the sexes It can also been
connected with differences in the availability of key resources such as food burrows vegetation
and others in each of the sites (Dickmann and Doncaster 1987 Davies et al 2013) Lack of home
range overlaps as established in this study may be due to the fact that rattusrsquo burrows do not
normally overlap This conform with non overlapping ranging in Microtus breweri established else
where (Zwicker 1989) Similarly home range pattern may or may not be different according to this
study because the similarity or otherwise would be based on the landscape connectivity
Landscape connectivity (Wang et al 2008) has been found to affect the brown rats dispersal
around houses in Amsterdam Landscape connectivity of the 2 locations (Campbell market and
Police quarter) differs At Campbell market burrowing might be easy for the rats while at the Police
quarter such act are restricted due to the fact that the whole area have been tarred This also
conform with Van Adrichem et al (2013) and Yabe (1979) that established that availability of the
green area and food were some of the factors that govern rats population density in and around
houses in Amsterdam
All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water source and
nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern of habitat suitability for the
raster chart These habitat threshold are similar to habitat factors identify for rodents in urban
habitat (Spraging 2002) However it is worthy of note that while some of these threshold produce
monotonic increment others produced monotonic decrease for the habitat suitability This is not
unconnected with the fact that while some of the threshold factors enhance the rats habitat others
inhibit the habitat In addition it had been found that sewage serves as a suitable habitat for rattus
(Channon et al 2000) contrary to the findings in this study This contradiction might be hinged on
the difference in the sewage system Sewage that always or partially free to provide habitat for
rodents can be suitable for rodents but sewage that always contains enormous water and other
waste in large quantity (like in the study area) would definitely be avoided by rats (Harper et al
2005 Kolawole et al 2009) Meanwhile less rats were also trapped in the sewage as reported by
Trawegger et al (2006) Similarly the observed differences in the activities period of the rats in
term of sex and site as found in this study could be linked to differences in social roles of the 2
sexes as well as difference in the habitat factors of each of the sites It had been established that
food availability weather condition and predator are some of the factors that can influence the
movement and some other activities of rats (Carlini et al 1972) Also it is important to note that
activities at the 2 sites are markedly different because they are 2 non similar settlements
This study in conclusion have been able to produce habitat suitability map of a highly
urbanized area This can be used in the rodents control program since the use of habitat structure
would provide a pragmatic and integrative approach to rodents control and can supplement old rat
control methods It is equally adoptable for any urbanized area with similar characteristics with the
study area otherwise the algorithm established in the study can be used to established a new
habitat suitability for such different urban area This study therefore provide basic foundation for
further study of ratsrsquo management and control Lastly ratsrsquo movement pattern (5-sided and
Triangular structure pattern) was established in this study and can be used in the control of rodent
in the area as well as similar structured areas It is therefore recommended that this habitat
suitability map be used along with other rodents control to ensure integrated pest management
strategies for better efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support provided by the the School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
field work facilitation the TWAS- USM Postdoctoral Fellowship provided to Dauda TO and
Ministry of Higher Education Grant and RUI-Grant from Universiti Sains Malaysia for SAMS are
hereby appreciated by the authors
REFERENCES
Bell E Boyle D Floyd K Garner-Richard P Swann B Luxmoore R Patterson A and R Thomson
(2011) The ground based eradication of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Isle of
Canna Inner Hebrides Scotland in Vietch CR Clout MN and Town DR (eds) Island
Invasives eradication and Management Gland Switzerland IUCN 269 - 274
Belmain S Chakman N Sarker N J Saker S Kamal N and Sarker S (2013) Prospects for
Ecologically - based Management of Rodent Population Outbreaks Can we mitigate 50
years Cyclic Famine in South Asia In Huitu O and Henttonen H (eds) 9th European
Vertebrate Pest Management Conference held between 22nd
September - 26th
September 2013 68 - 73
Carlini E A Hamaoui A and Regina M W M (1972) Factor influencing aggressiveness
elicited Marihuana in Food deprived rats British Journal of Pharmacol 44(4) 794ndash804
Channon D Cole M and Cole L (2000) A long - term study of Rattus norvegicus in the London
Borough of Enfield using baiting returns as an indicator of sewer population levels
Epidemiol Infect 125 441 - 445
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
environment The objective of this study was therefore to measure the movement and the home
range size of Rattus norvegicus in the Campbell market and human settlement of the developed
urban environment and to establish a GIS distribution map of Rattus norvegicus in relation to the
different habitat This study also aim at developing an integrated habitat suitability mapping using
the GIS (Geographical Information System)
METHODOLOGY
This study was conducted in Georgetown of Malaysia using both Campbell market (Site 1) and the
Police quarters (Site 2) Campbell market built in 1947 is a wet market for chicken duck fish
pork as well as others aquatic species and it covers an area of 5000m2
Activity in the market
usually commence as early as 600 am to 700 am when the market become busier with human
activities Police quarter on the other hand was built in 1986 and it covers an area of 20000 m2
The police quarters compose of four blocks in the housing area with facilities like a lsquosuraursquo (small
mosque) kindergarten and a badminton court Using Kenward (2001) method home range
measurement of the rats and rat activities (in terms of time of leaving nest and returning) were
captured for two months (March to April 2008) including six days of intensive radio-tracking during
which the mean movements of the rats were recorded for every one hour (2 -4 ratstracking)
These 2 months were found (through preliminary study) to be the most suitable or activities peak
period of the animals The accuracy of the entire transmitter for the study area using TR-4 to
ensure frequency and range accuracy was boosted with Yagi-antenna at a distance of 150m
(Figure 1) All rats tagged were of good health before and after the experiment (with respect to
body and agility) and their body size ranged between 267 - 350g Mean distance and pattern of 2-4
ratssex were monitored using the the radio tracking aforementioned
Data analysis for home range study of Rattus norvegicus was divided into two parts -
home range determination and activities movement map Movement remain one of the main
activities of rats and provide the basis for the fractal activity of rats (Hsieh et al 2014) Movement
was thus the variable of interest in our study and were compared between gender as well as
locations (using the mean of the sex of the rats followed) The GIS coordinates of the 2 locations
(Campbell market and Police quarters) were obtained using GPS (GARMIN - 60CSX) and the
cumulative area curve was plotted using the Ecological Solution Software (Biotas Version 20)
100 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 100) 95 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 95) and
the 95 Harmonic Mean (HM95) were used to estimate the home range in this study
Meanwhile to estimate the core area two of these methods - 50 Harmonic Mean (HM50) and
50 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 50) were employed The total distance of a ratrsquos
movement detected everyday was measured based on the linear distance of the radio fixes at
every alternate hour using the Ecological Software Solutions (Biotas Version 20) The daily
movement rate for each individual was obtained by the division of the daily distance moved each
day by the total active period for that individual rat Differences between sexes and the site for total
active period were statistically compared using Mann- Whitney U test The development of the
suitability map of Rattus norvegicus was executed using data from both questionnaire and
secondary data from Mapping and Survey Department (JUPEM) of the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment Malaysia and Penang Municipal Council George Town Malaysia
The essence of these secondary data was to have asses to the original Penang map on which the
rat home range and suitability can be superimposed The data gathered were used to update the
existing one and were digitized into the computer compatible format using Arc-GIS 93 software of
Geographical Information System (GIS) An algorithm for suitability map development was written
(Figure 2)
RESULTS
Radio-tracking of Rattus norvegicus and Cumulative area curve
Generally the mean body size of the male rats was 305g while that of females was 315g with a
total of 786rats encountered during the study The home range curves of adult male (MA 37) at
Campbell market reached an asymptote of 96 radio fixes with a frail increase while for adult female
(FA 28) the asymptote was reached after the minimum of 62 radio fixes was reached also with a
slight increase (Figure 3A amp B) These curves generally reached visible asymptotic limit after 90
radio fixes (approximately 98 radio fixes for MA 37 and 94 radio fixes for FA 28 - Figure 3) At
police quarter and for adult male (MA 3) the curve appears to reach an asymptote after the
minimum number of 51 radio fixes while for adult females the minimum number of radio fixes was
47 (Figure 3C ampD) Both curves progressively increased and a clear asymptotic limit was reached
at 92 radio fixes for MA 3 and 112 radio fixes for FA 9
The implication of the closeness of the minimum number of radio fixes (47 and 51radio fixes)
was that the movement of the rats were usually from the same starting points They however
usually depart at different distance from the source until a point where their further movement
cannot yield a meetingintersection point Also it could be established that there exist differences
in the home range distances covered at each of the sites based on the differences in the number
of radio pixels covered at each site
Home Ranges and Home Range Pattern
The ratsrsquo detection analysis in both location showed that the rats had not moved much from the
nests and only came out in search of food The rodents headed towards similar ways and do not
change their route much for the days that followed and thus the use of MCP 100 was a suitable
approach to estimate the width of the home range area At Campbell market adult males (MA 37
MA 38 and MA 39) had an average home range size of 13352 m2 and mean core area estimation
size of 2939 m2 while adult females (FA 28) had mean home range of 1338 m
2 and mean core
area estimation size of 917 m2(Table 1) The graphical distribution of home range and core area
for MA 37 and FA 28 showed that no home range overlap between MA37 and FA28 in site 1 was
obtained (Figure 3 AampB) At Police quarters adult male (MA 3) had a home range estimation size
of 27111 m2 and mean core area estimation size of 166 m
2 Adult females (FA 9) had mean home
range estimation size of 119 m2 and a very small core area estimation (010 m
2) The graphical
distribution of home range and core area for MA 3 and FA 9 were presented in Figure 4 C amp D
Also there was no overlapping of home range between MA3 and FA 9 in Site 2 (Figure 3 AampB)
Male rats in both sites had a larger home range and core area than their female counterparts
(Table 1)
Generally the mean home range size of rats at Site 2 was 4809 larger than that of rats at
Site 1 14151 m2 (range = 119-27111 m
2) In contrast to the core area size Campbell market was
5669 and it is larger than adult individual at police quarters which was 1928 m2 (range
917-2939 m2 -
Table 1) Home range pattern followed by male rats in Campbell market differ
markedly from that of female rats in the same markets and even from the male rats from the Police
quarters (Figure 4A-D) The home range map showed that the male rats movement pattern
followed a 4-unequal sided structurersquos pattern (Figure 4A) while that of the female followed a
rhombus structure pattern (Figure 4B) However similarity in the home range pattern was
observed in both male and female rats at police quarters The home range pattern (Figure 4C and
D) followed a triangular structure pattern The implication of this is that home range pattern may or
may not follow the same pattern depending on the site
Raster Layers of Habitat Variables for Habitat Suitability
Raster charts of the rattus showed that rats hots spots can be grouped into 4 zones - market
shops settlement and general places while the standardized raster chart identified the major
rallying points of the rats (hot spots) as the market because the highest ratsrsquo frequencies (255) was
obtained at the pink (Figure 5AampB) Meanwhile the non standardized raster charts (Figure 5AampB)
showed that build up points at the market place was the least unlike other places where there
existed many build up points The implication of this result was that the higher the number of build
up points the lesser the ratsrsquo population and it indicated monotonic decrease of the rattus habitat
quality Also the raster charts delineated habitat quality of rat of the study area into 3 - inner city
area mixed settlement area and commercial area The inner city area was said to have the least
size in comparison to both mixed settlement and commercial area The standardized raster chart
however showed that the least sized settlement returned the highest number of rattus (Figure 5C
amp D) This also indicated monotonic decrease like it was obtained in the build up case The raster
charts of the rattus distance to the water ways showed that the further the distance of waterways
the higher the habitat quality thus showing monotonically increasing and positive relationship The
purple coloration shows more suitability for rats habitat (Figure 6AampB) From these results it is
essential to note that habitat quality could be hinged on factors such as water ways build up points
and type of settlement In additions these factors either affects the suitability directly or inversely
(that is positively or negatively)
ActivityMovement Parameters and Habitat Suitability Map of Rattus norvegicus
The Rattus norvegicus emergence from their nests (marking the beginning of activity) was
generally between 1900 hours to 2200 hours At Campbell market the most common time of
emergence for male rats was 1900 hours while for female rats it was 2000 hours (Table 2) At
Police quarter however the most common time of emergence for male was 2000 hours and for
female is 2200 This implied a marked differences in the time of emergence of R norvegicus from
the nest between sexes as well as between sites The animal at Police quarter seems to enter the
nest (as the end of activities) earlier than the rats at Campbell market At Police quarter most
common time of entrywithdrawal for male and female rats proved to be the same (0400 hours)
unlike in Campbell market where the female returnedwithdrawn to the nest earlier than the male
The female returned to the nest at 0600 hours while male returned to the nest at 0700 hours
(Table 2) The mean total daily distance of movement taken by adult rats at Site 2 was 816 more
than that of Site 1 (Table 2) There was no significant difference when total daily distance were
compared between Campbell market and Police quarter (U = 65 pgt005 Mann-Whitney U-Test)
Mean total length of daily active period for rats at Police quarters was 355 hours longer than
Campbell market (Table 3) Statistical analysis shows that when the total length of daily active
period for adult individuals were compared between both sites the difference was not significant
However the total length of daily active period of female rats from Campbell market was
significantly longer compared to female rats at Police quarters (U = 25 p lt 005) As for males
there were no significantly difference when comparing between Campbell market and Police
quarters (U= 14 pgt005) Total length of daily active periods within both sexes (male and female)
at each site were not significantly different either (at Site 1 U = 6 pgt005 and at Site 2 U=55 p gt
005 ) It is apparent from these results that differences existed in term of activity period of the rats
within the sex and sites and male rats have higher home range than the female counterpart
From the suitability map the distribution of R norvegicus shows a patchy pattern (Figure
7) and using a cut-off method the map can be delineated into three categories - high (075 ndash 1)
medium (035 - 074) and low (006 - 034) quality habitat The habitat suitability map showed that
most of the habitat (gt 23) are suitable for rattus because they fall within highly suitable
region(Figure 7)
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Rats home range pattern based on results of this research differs in term of sex as well as sites
and can be hinged on differences of activities or role of each of the sexes It can also been
connected with differences in the availability of key resources such as food burrows vegetation
and others in each of the sites (Dickmann and Doncaster 1987 Davies et al 2013) Lack of home
range overlaps as established in this study may be due to the fact that rattusrsquo burrows do not
normally overlap This conform with non overlapping ranging in Microtus breweri established else
where (Zwicker 1989) Similarly home range pattern may or may not be different according to this
study because the similarity or otherwise would be based on the landscape connectivity
Landscape connectivity (Wang et al 2008) has been found to affect the brown rats dispersal
around houses in Amsterdam Landscape connectivity of the 2 locations (Campbell market and
Police quarter) differs At Campbell market burrowing might be easy for the rats while at the Police
quarter such act are restricted due to the fact that the whole area have been tarred This also
conform with Van Adrichem et al (2013) and Yabe (1979) that established that availability of the
green area and food were some of the factors that govern rats population density in and around
houses in Amsterdam
All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water source and
nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern of habitat suitability for the
raster chart These habitat threshold are similar to habitat factors identify for rodents in urban
habitat (Spraging 2002) However it is worthy of note that while some of these threshold produce
monotonic increment others produced monotonic decrease for the habitat suitability This is not
unconnected with the fact that while some of the threshold factors enhance the rats habitat others
inhibit the habitat In addition it had been found that sewage serves as a suitable habitat for rattus
(Channon et al 2000) contrary to the findings in this study This contradiction might be hinged on
the difference in the sewage system Sewage that always or partially free to provide habitat for
rodents can be suitable for rodents but sewage that always contains enormous water and other
waste in large quantity (like in the study area) would definitely be avoided by rats (Harper et al
2005 Kolawole et al 2009) Meanwhile less rats were also trapped in the sewage as reported by
Trawegger et al (2006) Similarly the observed differences in the activities period of the rats in
term of sex and site as found in this study could be linked to differences in social roles of the 2
sexes as well as difference in the habitat factors of each of the sites It had been established that
food availability weather condition and predator are some of the factors that can influence the
movement and some other activities of rats (Carlini et al 1972) Also it is important to note that
activities at the 2 sites are markedly different because they are 2 non similar settlements
This study in conclusion have been able to produce habitat suitability map of a highly
urbanized area This can be used in the rodents control program since the use of habitat structure
would provide a pragmatic and integrative approach to rodents control and can supplement old rat
control methods It is equally adoptable for any urbanized area with similar characteristics with the
study area otherwise the algorithm established in the study can be used to established a new
habitat suitability for such different urban area This study therefore provide basic foundation for
further study of ratsrsquo management and control Lastly ratsrsquo movement pattern (5-sided and
Triangular structure pattern) was established in this study and can be used in the control of rodent
in the area as well as similar structured areas It is therefore recommended that this habitat
suitability map be used along with other rodents control to ensure integrated pest management
strategies for better efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support provided by the the School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
field work facilitation the TWAS- USM Postdoctoral Fellowship provided to Dauda TO and
Ministry of Higher Education Grant and RUI-Grant from Universiti Sains Malaysia for SAMS are
hereby appreciated by the authors
REFERENCES
Bell E Boyle D Floyd K Garner-Richard P Swann B Luxmoore R Patterson A and R Thomson
(2011) The ground based eradication of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Isle of
Canna Inner Hebrides Scotland in Vietch CR Clout MN and Town DR (eds) Island
Invasives eradication and Management Gland Switzerland IUCN 269 - 274
Belmain S Chakman N Sarker N J Saker S Kamal N and Sarker S (2013) Prospects for
Ecologically - based Management of Rodent Population Outbreaks Can we mitigate 50
years Cyclic Famine in South Asia In Huitu O and Henttonen H (eds) 9th European
Vertebrate Pest Management Conference held between 22nd
September - 26th
September 2013 68 - 73
Carlini E A Hamaoui A and Regina M W M (1972) Factor influencing aggressiveness
elicited Marihuana in Food deprived rats British Journal of Pharmacol 44(4) 794ndash804
Channon D Cole M and Cole L (2000) A long - term study of Rattus norvegicus in the London
Borough of Enfield using baiting returns as an indicator of sewer population levels
Epidemiol Infect 125 441 - 445
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
was thus the variable of interest in our study and were compared between gender as well as
locations (using the mean of the sex of the rats followed) The GIS coordinates of the 2 locations
(Campbell market and Police quarters) were obtained using GPS (GARMIN - 60CSX) and the
cumulative area curve was plotted using the Ecological Solution Software (Biotas Version 20)
100 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 100) 95 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 95) and
the 95 Harmonic Mean (HM95) were used to estimate the home range in this study
Meanwhile to estimate the core area two of these methods - 50 Harmonic Mean (HM50) and
50 Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP 50) were employed The total distance of a ratrsquos
movement detected everyday was measured based on the linear distance of the radio fixes at
every alternate hour using the Ecological Software Solutions (Biotas Version 20) The daily
movement rate for each individual was obtained by the division of the daily distance moved each
day by the total active period for that individual rat Differences between sexes and the site for total
active period were statistically compared using Mann- Whitney U test The development of the
suitability map of Rattus norvegicus was executed using data from both questionnaire and
secondary data from Mapping and Survey Department (JUPEM) of the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment Malaysia and Penang Municipal Council George Town Malaysia
The essence of these secondary data was to have asses to the original Penang map on which the
rat home range and suitability can be superimposed The data gathered were used to update the
existing one and were digitized into the computer compatible format using Arc-GIS 93 software of
Geographical Information System (GIS) An algorithm for suitability map development was written
(Figure 2)
RESULTS
Radio-tracking of Rattus norvegicus and Cumulative area curve
Generally the mean body size of the male rats was 305g while that of females was 315g with a
total of 786rats encountered during the study The home range curves of adult male (MA 37) at
Campbell market reached an asymptote of 96 radio fixes with a frail increase while for adult female
(FA 28) the asymptote was reached after the minimum of 62 radio fixes was reached also with a
slight increase (Figure 3A amp B) These curves generally reached visible asymptotic limit after 90
radio fixes (approximately 98 radio fixes for MA 37 and 94 radio fixes for FA 28 - Figure 3) At
police quarter and for adult male (MA 3) the curve appears to reach an asymptote after the
minimum number of 51 radio fixes while for adult females the minimum number of radio fixes was
47 (Figure 3C ampD) Both curves progressively increased and a clear asymptotic limit was reached
at 92 radio fixes for MA 3 and 112 radio fixes for FA 9
The implication of the closeness of the minimum number of radio fixes (47 and 51radio fixes)
was that the movement of the rats were usually from the same starting points They however
usually depart at different distance from the source until a point where their further movement
cannot yield a meetingintersection point Also it could be established that there exist differences
in the home range distances covered at each of the sites based on the differences in the number
of radio pixels covered at each site
Home Ranges and Home Range Pattern
The ratsrsquo detection analysis in both location showed that the rats had not moved much from the
nests and only came out in search of food The rodents headed towards similar ways and do not
change their route much for the days that followed and thus the use of MCP 100 was a suitable
approach to estimate the width of the home range area At Campbell market adult males (MA 37
MA 38 and MA 39) had an average home range size of 13352 m2 and mean core area estimation
size of 2939 m2 while adult females (FA 28) had mean home range of 1338 m
2 and mean core
area estimation size of 917 m2(Table 1) The graphical distribution of home range and core area
for MA 37 and FA 28 showed that no home range overlap between MA37 and FA28 in site 1 was
obtained (Figure 3 AampB) At Police quarters adult male (MA 3) had a home range estimation size
of 27111 m2 and mean core area estimation size of 166 m
2 Adult females (FA 9) had mean home
range estimation size of 119 m2 and a very small core area estimation (010 m
2) The graphical
distribution of home range and core area for MA 3 and FA 9 were presented in Figure 4 C amp D
Also there was no overlapping of home range between MA3 and FA 9 in Site 2 (Figure 3 AampB)
Male rats in both sites had a larger home range and core area than their female counterparts
(Table 1)
Generally the mean home range size of rats at Site 2 was 4809 larger than that of rats at
Site 1 14151 m2 (range = 119-27111 m
2) In contrast to the core area size Campbell market was
5669 and it is larger than adult individual at police quarters which was 1928 m2 (range
917-2939 m2 -
Table 1) Home range pattern followed by male rats in Campbell market differ
markedly from that of female rats in the same markets and even from the male rats from the Police
quarters (Figure 4A-D) The home range map showed that the male rats movement pattern
followed a 4-unequal sided structurersquos pattern (Figure 4A) while that of the female followed a
rhombus structure pattern (Figure 4B) However similarity in the home range pattern was
observed in both male and female rats at police quarters The home range pattern (Figure 4C and
D) followed a triangular structure pattern The implication of this is that home range pattern may or
may not follow the same pattern depending on the site
Raster Layers of Habitat Variables for Habitat Suitability
Raster charts of the rattus showed that rats hots spots can be grouped into 4 zones - market
shops settlement and general places while the standardized raster chart identified the major
rallying points of the rats (hot spots) as the market because the highest ratsrsquo frequencies (255) was
obtained at the pink (Figure 5AampB) Meanwhile the non standardized raster charts (Figure 5AampB)
showed that build up points at the market place was the least unlike other places where there
existed many build up points The implication of this result was that the higher the number of build
up points the lesser the ratsrsquo population and it indicated monotonic decrease of the rattus habitat
quality Also the raster charts delineated habitat quality of rat of the study area into 3 - inner city
area mixed settlement area and commercial area The inner city area was said to have the least
size in comparison to both mixed settlement and commercial area The standardized raster chart
however showed that the least sized settlement returned the highest number of rattus (Figure 5C
amp D) This also indicated monotonic decrease like it was obtained in the build up case The raster
charts of the rattus distance to the water ways showed that the further the distance of waterways
the higher the habitat quality thus showing monotonically increasing and positive relationship The
purple coloration shows more suitability for rats habitat (Figure 6AampB) From these results it is
essential to note that habitat quality could be hinged on factors such as water ways build up points
and type of settlement In additions these factors either affects the suitability directly or inversely
(that is positively or negatively)
ActivityMovement Parameters and Habitat Suitability Map of Rattus norvegicus
The Rattus norvegicus emergence from their nests (marking the beginning of activity) was
generally between 1900 hours to 2200 hours At Campbell market the most common time of
emergence for male rats was 1900 hours while for female rats it was 2000 hours (Table 2) At
Police quarter however the most common time of emergence for male was 2000 hours and for
female is 2200 This implied a marked differences in the time of emergence of R norvegicus from
the nest between sexes as well as between sites The animal at Police quarter seems to enter the
nest (as the end of activities) earlier than the rats at Campbell market At Police quarter most
common time of entrywithdrawal for male and female rats proved to be the same (0400 hours)
unlike in Campbell market where the female returnedwithdrawn to the nest earlier than the male
The female returned to the nest at 0600 hours while male returned to the nest at 0700 hours
(Table 2) The mean total daily distance of movement taken by adult rats at Site 2 was 816 more
than that of Site 1 (Table 2) There was no significant difference when total daily distance were
compared between Campbell market and Police quarter (U = 65 pgt005 Mann-Whitney U-Test)
Mean total length of daily active period for rats at Police quarters was 355 hours longer than
Campbell market (Table 3) Statistical analysis shows that when the total length of daily active
period for adult individuals were compared between both sites the difference was not significant
However the total length of daily active period of female rats from Campbell market was
significantly longer compared to female rats at Police quarters (U = 25 p lt 005) As for males
there were no significantly difference when comparing between Campbell market and Police
quarters (U= 14 pgt005) Total length of daily active periods within both sexes (male and female)
at each site were not significantly different either (at Site 1 U = 6 pgt005 and at Site 2 U=55 p gt
005 ) It is apparent from these results that differences existed in term of activity period of the rats
within the sex and sites and male rats have higher home range than the female counterpart
From the suitability map the distribution of R norvegicus shows a patchy pattern (Figure
7) and using a cut-off method the map can be delineated into three categories - high (075 ndash 1)
medium (035 - 074) and low (006 - 034) quality habitat The habitat suitability map showed that
most of the habitat (gt 23) are suitable for rattus because they fall within highly suitable
region(Figure 7)
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Rats home range pattern based on results of this research differs in term of sex as well as sites
and can be hinged on differences of activities or role of each of the sexes It can also been
connected with differences in the availability of key resources such as food burrows vegetation
and others in each of the sites (Dickmann and Doncaster 1987 Davies et al 2013) Lack of home
range overlaps as established in this study may be due to the fact that rattusrsquo burrows do not
normally overlap This conform with non overlapping ranging in Microtus breweri established else
where (Zwicker 1989) Similarly home range pattern may or may not be different according to this
study because the similarity or otherwise would be based on the landscape connectivity
Landscape connectivity (Wang et al 2008) has been found to affect the brown rats dispersal
around houses in Amsterdam Landscape connectivity of the 2 locations (Campbell market and
Police quarter) differs At Campbell market burrowing might be easy for the rats while at the Police
quarter such act are restricted due to the fact that the whole area have been tarred This also
conform with Van Adrichem et al (2013) and Yabe (1979) that established that availability of the
green area and food were some of the factors that govern rats population density in and around
houses in Amsterdam
All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water source and
nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern of habitat suitability for the
raster chart These habitat threshold are similar to habitat factors identify for rodents in urban
habitat (Spraging 2002) However it is worthy of note that while some of these threshold produce
monotonic increment others produced monotonic decrease for the habitat suitability This is not
unconnected with the fact that while some of the threshold factors enhance the rats habitat others
inhibit the habitat In addition it had been found that sewage serves as a suitable habitat for rattus
(Channon et al 2000) contrary to the findings in this study This contradiction might be hinged on
the difference in the sewage system Sewage that always or partially free to provide habitat for
rodents can be suitable for rodents but sewage that always contains enormous water and other
waste in large quantity (like in the study area) would definitely be avoided by rats (Harper et al
2005 Kolawole et al 2009) Meanwhile less rats were also trapped in the sewage as reported by
Trawegger et al (2006) Similarly the observed differences in the activities period of the rats in
term of sex and site as found in this study could be linked to differences in social roles of the 2
sexes as well as difference in the habitat factors of each of the sites It had been established that
food availability weather condition and predator are some of the factors that can influence the
movement and some other activities of rats (Carlini et al 1972) Also it is important to note that
activities at the 2 sites are markedly different because they are 2 non similar settlements
This study in conclusion have been able to produce habitat suitability map of a highly
urbanized area This can be used in the rodents control program since the use of habitat structure
would provide a pragmatic and integrative approach to rodents control and can supplement old rat
control methods It is equally adoptable for any urbanized area with similar characteristics with the
study area otherwise the algorithm established in the study can be used to established a new
habitat suitability for such different urban area This study therefore provide basic foundation for
further study of ratsrsquo management and control Lastly ratsrsquo movement pattern (5-sided and
Triangular structure pattern) was established in this study and can be used in the control of rodent
in the area as well as similar structured areas It is therefore recommended that this habitat
suitability map be used along with other rodents control to ensure integrated pest management
strategies for better efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support provided by the the School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
field work facilitation the TWAS- USM Postdoctoral Fellowship provided to Dauda TO and
Ministry of Higher Education Grant and RUI-Grant from Universiti Sains Malaysia for SAMS are
hereby appreciated by the authors
REFERENCES
Bell E Boyle D Floyd K Garner-Richard P Swann B Luxmoore R Patterson A and R Thomson
(2011) The ground based eradication of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Isle of
Canna Inner Hebrides Scotland in Vietch CR Clout MN and Town DR (eds) Island
Invasives eradication and Management Gland Switzerland IUCN 269 - 274
Belmain S Chakman N Sarker N J Saker S Kamal N and Sarker S (2013) Prospects for
Ecologically - based Management of Rodent Population Outbreaks Can we mitigate 50
years Cyclic Famine in South Asia In Huitu O and Henttonen H (eds) 9th European
Vertebrate Pest Management Conference held between 22nd
September - 26th
September 2013 68 - 73
Carlini E A Hamaoui A and Regina M W M (1972) Factor influencing aggressiveness
elicited Marihuana in Food deprived rats British Journal of Pharmacol 44(4) 794ndash804
Channon D Cole M and Cole L (2000) A long - term study of Rattus norvegicus in the London
Borough of Enfield using baiting returns as an indicator of sewer population levels
Epidemiol Infect 125 441 - 445
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Campbell market reached an asymptote of 96 radio fixes with a frail increase while for adult female
(FA 28) the asymptote was reached after the minimum of 62 radio fixes was reached also with a
slight increase (Figure 3A amp B) These curves generally reached visible asymptotic limit after 90
radio fixes (approximately 98 radio fixes for MA 37 and 94 radio fixes for FA 28 - Figure 3) At
police quarter and for adult male (MA 3) the curve appears to reach an asymptote after the
minimum number of 51 radio fixes while for adult females the minimum number of radio fixes was
47 (Figure 3C ampD) Both curves progressively increased and a clear asymptotic limit was reached
at 92 radio fixes for MA 3 and 112 radio fixes for FA 9
The implication of the closeness of the minimum number of radio fixes (47 and 51radio fixes)
was that the movement of the rats were usually from the same starting points They however
usually depart at different distance from the source until a point where their further movement
cannot yield a meetingintersection point Also it could be established that there exist differences
in the home range distances covered at each of the sites based on the differences in the number
of radio pixels covered at each site
Home Ranges and Home Range Pattern
The ratsrsquo detection analysis in both location showed that the rats had not moved much from the
nests and only came out in search of food The rodents headed towards similar ways and do not
change their route much for the days that followed and thus the use of MCP 100 was a suitable
approach to estimate the width of the home range area At Campbell market adult males (MA 37
MA 38 and MA 39) had an average home range size of 13352 m2 and mean core area estimation
size of 2939 m2 while adult females (FA 28) had mean home range of 1338 m
2 and mean core
area estimation size of 917 m2(Table 1) The graphical distribution of home range and core area
for MA 37 and FA 28 showed that no home range overlap between MA37 and FA28 in site 1 was
obtained (Figure 3 AampB) At Police quarters adult male (MA 3) had a home range estimation size
of 27111 m2 and mean core area estimation size of 166 m
2 Adult females (FA 9) had mean home
range estimation size of 119 m2 and a very small core area estimation (010 m
2) The graphical
distribution of home range and core area for MA 3 and FA 9 were presented in Figure 4 C amp D
Also there was no overlapping of home range between MA3 and FA 9 in Site 2 (Figure 3 AampB)
Male rats in both sites had a larger home range and core area than their female counterparts
(Table 1)
Generally the mean home range size of rats at Site 2 was 4809 larger than that of rats at
Site 1 14151 m2 (range = 119-27111 m
2) In contrast to the core area size Campbell market was
5669 and it is larger than adult individual at police quarters which was 1928 m2 (range
917-2939 m2 -
Table 1) Home range pattern followed by male rats in Campbell market differ
markedly from that of female rats in the same markets and even from the male rats from the Police
quarters (Figure 4A-D) The home range map showed that the male rats movement pattern
followed a 4-unequal sided structurersquos pattern (Figure 4A) while that of the female followed a
rhombus structure pattern (Figure 4B) However similarity in the home range pattern was
observed in both male and female rats at police quarters The home range pattern (Figure 4C and
D) followed a triangular structure pattern The implication of this is that home range pattern may or
may not follow the same pattern depending on the site
Raster Layers of Habitat Variables for Habitat Suitability
Raster charts of the rattus showed that rats hots spots can be grouped into 4 zones - market
shops settlement and general places while the standardized raster chart identified the major
rallying points of the rats (hot spots) as the market because the highest ratsrsquo frequencies (255) was
obtained at the pink (Figure 5AampB) Meanwhile the non standardized raster charts (Figure 5AampB)
showed that build up points at the market place was the least unlike other places where there
existed many build up points The implication of this result was that the higher the number of build
up points the lesser the ratsrsquo population and it indicated monotonic decrease of the rattus habitat
quality Also the raster charts delineated habitat quality of rat of the study area into 3 - inner city
area mixed settlement area and commercial area The inner city area was said to have the least
size in comparison to both mixed settlement and commercial area The standardized raster chart
however showed that the least sized settlement returned the highest number of rattus (Figure 5C
amp D) This also indicated monotonic decrease like it was obtained in the build up case The raster
charts of the rattus distance to the water ways showed that the further the distance of waterways
the higher the habitat quality thus showing monotonically increasing and positive relationship The
purple coloration shows more suitability for rats habitat (Figure 6AampB) From these results it is
essential to note that habitat quality could be hinged on factors such as water ways build up points
and type of settlement In additions these factors either affects the suitability directly or inversely
(that is positively or negatively)
ActivityMovement Parameters and Habitat Suitability Map of Rattus norvegicus
The Rattus norvegicus emergence from their nests (marking the beginning of activity) was
generally between 1900 hours to 2200 hours At Campbell market the most common time of
emergence for male rats was 1900 hours while for female rats it was 2000 hours (Table 2) At
Police quarter however the most common time of emergence for male was 2000 hours and for
female is 2200 This implied a marked differences in the time of emergence of R norvegicus from
the nest between sexes as well as between sites The animal at Police quarter seems to enter the
nest (as the end of activities) earlier than the rats at Campbell market At Police quarter most
common time of entrywithdrawal for male and female rats proved to be the same (0400 hours)
unlike in Campbell market where the female returnedwithdrawn to the nest earlier than the male
The female returned to the nest at 0600 hours while male returned to the nest at 0700 hours
(Table 2) The mean total daily distance of movement taken by adult rats at Site 2 was 816 more
than that of Site 1 (Table 2) There was no significant difference when total daily distance were
compared between Campbell market and Police quarter (U = 65 pgt005 Mann-Whitney U-Test)
Mean total length of daily active period for rats at Police quarters was 355 hours longer than
Campbell market (Table 3) Statistical analysis shows that when the total length of daily active
period for adult individuals were compared between both sites the difference was not significant
However the total length of daily active period of female rats from Campbell market was
significantly longer compared to female rats at Police quarters (U = 25 p lt 005) As for males
there were no significantly difference when comparing between Campbell market and Police
quarters (U= 14 pgt005) Total length of daily active periods within both sexes (male and female)
at each site were not significantly different either (at Site 1 U = 6 pgt005 and at Site 2 U=55 p gt
005 ) It is apparent from these results that differences existed in term of activity period of the rats
within the sex and sites and male rats have higher home range than the female counterpart
From the suitability map the distribution of R norvegicus shows a patchy pattern (Figure
7) and using a cut-off method the map can be delineated into three categories - high (075 ndash 1)
medium (035 - 074) and low (006 - 034) quality habitat The habitat suitability map showed that
most of the habitat (gt 23) are suitable for rattus because they fall within highly suitable
region(Figure 7)
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Rats home range pattern based on results of this research differs in term of sex as well as sites
and can be hinged on differences of activities or role of each of the sexes It can also been
connected with differences in the availability of key resources such as food burrows vegetation
and others in each of the sites (Dickmann and Doncaster 1987 Davies et al 2013) Lack of home
range overlaps as established in this study may be due to the fact that rattusrsquo burrows do not
normally overlap This conform with non overlapping ranging in Microtus breweri established else
where (Zwicker 1989) Similarly home range pattern may or may not be different according to this
study because the similarity or otherwise would be based on the landscape connectivity
Landscape connectivity (Wang et al 2008) has been found to affect the brown rats dispersal
around houses in Amsterdam Landscape connectivity of the 2 locations (Campbell market and
Police quarter) differs At Campbell market burrowing might be easy for the rats while at the Police
quarter such act are restricted due to the fact that the whole area have been tarred This also
conform with Van Adrichem et al (2013) and Yabe (1979) that established that availability of the
green area and food were some of the factors that govern rats population density in and around
houses in Amsterdam
All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water source and
nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern of habitat suitability for the
raster chart These habitat threshold are similar to habitat factors identify for rodents in urban
habitat (Spraging 2002) However it is worthy of note that while some of these threshold produce
monotonic increment others produced monotonic decrease for the habitat suitability This is not
unconnected with the fact that while some of the threshold factors enhance the rats habitat others
inhibit the habitat In addition it had been found that sewage serves as a suitable habitat for rattus
(Channon et al 2000) contrary to the findings in this study This contradiction might be hinged on
the difference in the sewage system Sewage that always or partially free to provide habitat for
rodents can be suitable for rodents but sewage that always contains enormous water and other
waste in large quantity (like in the study area) would definitely be avoided by rats (Harper et al
2005 Kolawole et al 2009) Meanwhile less rats were also trapped in the sewage as reported by
Trawegger et al (2006) Similarly the observed differences in the activities period of the rats in
term of sex and site as found in this study could be linked to differences in social roles of the 2
sexes as well as difference in the habitat factors of each of the sites It had been established that
food availability weather condition and predator are some of the factors that can influence the
movement and some other activities of rats (Carlini et al 1972) Also it is important to note that
activities at the 2 sites are markedly different because they are 2 non similar settlements
This study in conclusion have been able to produce habitat suitability map of a highly
urbanized area This can be used in the rodents control program since the use of habitat structure
would provide a pragmatic and integrative approach to rodents control and can supplement old rat
control methods It is equally adoptable for any urbanized area with similar characteristics with the
study area otherwise the algorithm established in the study can be used to established a new
habitat suitability for such different urban area This study therefore provide basic foundation for
further study of ratsrsquo management and control Lastly ratsrsquo movement pattern (5-sided and
Triangular structure pattern) was established in this study and can be used in the control of rodent
in the area as well as similar structured areas It is therefore recommended that this habitat
suitability map be used along with other rodents control to ensure integrated pest management
strategies for better efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support provided by the the School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
field work facilitation the TWAS- USM Postdoctoral Fellowship provided to Dauda TO and
Ministry of Higher Education Grant and RUI-Grant from Universiti Sains Malaysia for SAMS are
hereby appreciated by the authors
REFERENCES
Bell E Boyle D Floyd K Garner-Richard P Swann B Luxmoore R Patterson A and R Thomson
(2011) The ground based eradication of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Isle of
Canna Inner Hebrides Scotland in Vietch CR Clout MN and Town DR (eds) Island
Invasives eradication and Management Gland Switzerland IUCN 269 - 274
Belmain S Chakman N Sarker N J Saker S Kamal N and Sarker S (2013) Prospects for
Ecologically - based Management of Rodent Population Outbreaks Can we mitigate 50
years Cyclic Famine in South Asia In Huitu O and Henttonen H (eds) 9th European
Vertebrate Pest Management Conference held between 22nd
September - 26th
September 2013 68 - 73
Carlini E A Hamaoui A and Regina M W M (1972) Factor influencing aggressiveness
elicited Marihuana in Food deprived rats British Journal of Pharmacol 44(4) 794ndash804
Channon D Cole M and Cole L (2000) A long - term study of Rattus norvegicus in the London
Borough of Enfield using baiting returns as an indicator of sewer population levels
Epidemiol Infect 125 441 - 445
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Also there was no overlapping of home range between MA3 and FA 9 in Site 2 (Figure 3 AampB)
Male rats in both sites had a larger home range and core area than their female counterparts
(Table 1)
Generally the mean home range size of rats at Site 2 was 4809 larger than that of rats at
Site 1 14151 m2 (range = 119-27111 m
2) In contrast to the core area size Campbell market was
5669 and it is larger than adult individual at police quarters which was 1928 m2 (range
917-2939 m2 -
Table 1) Home range pattern followed by male rats in Campbell market differ
markedly from that of female rats in the same markets and even from the male rats from the Police
quarters (Figure 4A-D) The home range map showed that the male rats movement pattern
followed a 4-unequal sided structurersquos pattern (Figure 4A) while that of the female followed a
rhombus structure pattern (Figure 4B) However similarity in the home range pattern was
observed in both male and female rats at police quarters The home range pattern (Figure 4C and
D) followed a triangular structure pattern The implication of this is that home range pattern may or
may not follow the same pattern depending on the site
Raster Layers of Habitat Variables for Habitat Suitability
Raster charts of the rattus showed that rats hots spots can be grouped into 4 zones - market
shops settlement and general places while the standardized raster chart identified the major
rallying points of the rats (hot spots) as the market because the highest ratsrsquo frequencies (255) was
obtained at the pink (Figure 5AampB) Meanwhile the non standardized raster charts (Figure 5AampB)
showed that build up points at the market place was the least unlike other places where there
existed many build up points The implication of this result was that the higher the number of build
up points the lesser the ratsrsquo population and it indicated monotonic decrease of the rattus habitat
quality Also the raster charts delineated habitat quality of rat of the study area into 3 - inner city
area mixed settlement area and commercial area The inner city area was said to have the least
size in comparison to both mixed settlement and commercial area The standardized raster chart
however showed that the least sized settlement returned the highest number of rattus (Figure 5C
amp D) This also indicated monotonic decrease like it was obtained in the build up case The raster
charts of the rattus distance to the water ways showed that the further the distance of waterways
the higher the habitat quality thus showing monotonically increasing and positive relationship The
purple coloration shows more suitability for rats habitat (Figure 6AampB) From these results it is
essential to note that habitat quality could be hinged on factors such as water ways build up points
and type of settlement In additions these factors either affects the suitability directly or inversely
(that is positively or negatively)
ActivityMovement Parameters and Habitat Suitability Map of Rattus norvegicus
The Rattus norvegicus emergence from their nests (marking the beginning of activity) was
generally between 1900 hours to 2200 hours At Campbell market the most common time of
emergence for male rats was 1900 hours while for female rats it was 2000 hours (Table 2) At
Police quarter however the most common time of emergence for male was 2000 hours and for
female is 2200 This implied a marked differences in the time of emergence of R norvegicus from
the nest between sexes as well as between sites The animal at Police quarter seems to enter the
nest (as the end of activities) earlier than the rats at Campbell market At Police quarter most
common time of entrywithdrawal for male and female rats proved to be the same (0400 hours)
unlike in Campbell market where the female returnedwithdrawn to the nest earlier than the male
The female returned to the nest at 0600 hours while male returned to the nest at 0700 hours
(Table 2) The mean total daily distance of movement taken by adult rats at Site 2 was 816 more
than that of Site 1 (Table 2) There was no significant difference when total daily distance were
compared between Campbell market and Police quarter (U = 65 pgt005 Mann-Whitney U-Test)
Mean total length of daily active period for rats at Police quarters was 355 hours longer than
Campbell market (Table 3) Statistical analysis shows that when the total length of daily active
period for adult individuals were compared between both sites the difference was not significant
However the total length of daily active period of female rats from Campbell market was
significantly longer compared to female rats at Police quarters (U = 25 p lt 005) As for males
there were no significantly difference when comparing between Campbell market and Police
quarters (U= 14 pgt005) Total length of daily active periods within both sexes (male and female)
at each site were not significantly different either (at Site 1 U = 6 pgt005 and at Site 2 U=55 p gt
005 ) It is apparent from these results that differences existed in term of activity period of the rats
within the sex and sites and male rats have higher home range than the female counterpart
From the suitability map the distribution of R norvegicus shows a patchy pattern (Figure
7) and using a cut-off method the map can be delineated into three categories - high (075 ndash 1)
medium (035 - 074) and low (006 - 034) quality habitat The habitat suitability map showed that
most of the habitat (gt 23) are suitable for rattus because they fall within highly suitable
region(Figure 7)
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Rats home range pattern based on results of this research differs in term of sex as well as sites
and can be hinged on differences of activities or role of each of the sexes It can also been
connected with differences in the availability of key resources such as food burrows vegetation
and others in each of the sites (Dickmann and Doncaster 1987 Davies et al 2013) Lack of home
range overlaps as established in this study may be due to the fact that rattusrsquo burrows do not
normally overlap This conform with non overlapping ranging in Microtus breweri established else
where (Zwicker 1989) Similarly home range pattern may or may not be different according to this
study because the similarity or otherwise would be based on the landscape connectivity
Landscape connectivity (Wang et al 2008) has been found to affect the brown rats dispersal
around houses in Amsterdam Landscape connectivity of the 2 locations (Campbell market and
Police quarter) differs At Campbell market burrowing might be easy for the rats while at the Police
quarter such act are restricted due to the fact that the whole area have been tarred This also
conform with Van Adrichem et al (2013) and Yabe (1979) that established that availability of the
green area and food were some of the factors that govern rats population density in and around
houses in Amsterdam
All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water source and
nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern of habitat suitability for the
raster chart These habitat threshold are similar to habitat factors identify for rodents in urban
habitat (Spraging 2002) However it is worthy of note that while some of these threshold produce
monotonic increment others produced monotonic decrease for the habitat suitability This is not
unconnected with the fact that while some of the threshold factors enhance the rats habitat others
inhibit the habitat In addition it had been found that sewage serves as a suitable habitat for rattus
(Channon et al 2000) contrary to the findings in this study This contradiction might be hinged on
the difference in the sewage system Sewage that always or partially free to provide habitat for
rodents can be suitable for rodents but sewage that always contains enormous water and other
waste in large quantity (like in the study area) would definitely be avoided by rats (Harper et al
2005 Kolawole et al 2009) Meanwhile less rats were also trapped in the sewage as reported by
Trawegger et al (2006) Similarly the observed differences in the activities period of the rats in
term of sex and site as found in this study could be linked to differences in social roles of the 2
sexes as well as difference in the habitat factors of each of the sites It had been established that
food availability weather condition and predator are some of the factors that can influence the
movement and some other activities of rats (Carlini et al 1972) Also it is important to note that
activities at the 2 sites are markedly different because they are 2 non similar settlements
This study in conclusion have been able to produce habitat suitability map of a highly
urbanized area This can be used in the rodents control program since the use of habitat structure
would provide a pragmatic and integrative approach to rodents control and can supplement old rat
control methods It is equally adoptable for any urbanized area with similar characteristics with the
study area otherwise the algorithm established in the study can be used to established a new
habitat suitability for such different urban area This study therefore provide basic foundation for
further study of ratsrsquo management and control Lastly ratsrsquo movement pattern (5-sided and
Triangular structure pattern) was established in this study and can be used in the control of rodent
in the area as well as similar structured areas It is therefore recommended that this habitat
suitability map be used along with other rodents control to ensure integrated pest management
strategies for better efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support provided by the the School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
field work facilitation the TWAS- USM Postdoctoral Fellowship provided to Dauda TO and
Ministry of Higher Education Grant and RUI-Grant from Universiti Sains Malaysia for SAMS are
hereby appreciated by the authors
REFERENCES
Bell E Boyle D Floyd K Garner-Richard P Swann B Luxmoore R Patterson A and R Thomson
(2011) The ground based eradication of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Isle of
Canna Inner Hebrides Scotland in Vietch CR Clout MN and Town DR (eds) Island
Invasives eradication and Management Gland Switzerland IUCN 269 - 274
Belmain S Chakman N Sarker N J Saker S Kamal N and Sarker S (2013) Prospects for
Ecologically - based Management of Rodent Population Outbreaks Can we mitigate 50
years Cyclic Famine in South Asia In Huitu O and Henttonen H (eds) 9th European
Vertebrate Pest Management Conference held between 22nd
September - 26th
September 2013 68 - 73
Carlini E A Hamaoui A and Regina M W M (1972) Factor influencing aggressiveness
elicited Marihuana in Food deprived rats British Journal of Pharmacol 44(4) 794ndash804
Channon D Cole M and Cole L (2000) A long - term study of Rattus norvegicus in the London
Borough of Enfield using baiting returns as an indicator of sewer population levels
Epidemiol Infect 125 441 - 445
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
charts of the rattus distance to the water ways showed that the further the distance of waterways
the higher the habitat quality thus showing monotonically increasing and positive relationship The
purple coloration shows more suitability for rats habitat (Figure 6AampB) From these results it is
essential to note that habitat quality could be hinged on factors such as water ways build up points
and type of settlement In additions these factors either affects the suitability directly or inversely
(that is positively or negatively)
ActivityMovement Parameters and Habitat Suitability Map of Rattus norvegicus
The Rattus norvegicus emergence from their nests (marking the beginning of activity) was
generally between 1900 hours to 2200 hours At Campbell market the most common time of
emergence for male rats was 1900 hours while for female rats it was 2000 hours (Table 2) At
Police quarter however the most common time of emergence for male was 2000 hours and for
female is 2200 This implied a marked differences in the time of emergence of R norvegicus from
the nest between sexes as well as between sites The animal at Police quarter seems to enter the
nest (as the end of activities) earlier than the rats at Campbell market At Police quarter most
common time of entrywithdrawal for male and female rats proved to be the same (0400 hours)
unlike in Campbell market where the female returnedwithdrawn to the nest earlier than the male
The female returned to the nest at 0600 hours while male returned to the nest at 0700 hours
(Table 2) The mean total daily distance of movement taken by adult rats at Site 2 was 816 more
than that of Site 1 (Table 2) There was no significant difference when total daily distance were
compared between Campbell market and Police quarter (U = 65 pgt005 Mann-Whitney U-Test)
Mean total length of daily active period for rats at Police quarters was 355 hours longer than
Campbell market (Table 3) Statistical analysis shows that when the total length of daily active
period for adult individuals were compared between both sites the difference was not significant
However the total length of daily active period of female rats from Campbell market was
significantly longer compared to female rats at Police quarters (U = 25 p lt 005) As for males
there were no significantly difference when comparing between Campbell market and Police
quarters (U= 14 pgt005) Total length of daily active periods within both sexes (male and female)
at each site were not significantly different either (at Site 1 U = 6 pgt005 and at Site 2 U=55 p gt
005 ) It is apparent from these results that differences existed in term of activity period of the rats
within the sex and sites and male rats have higher home range than the female counterpart
From the suitability map the distribution of R norvegicus shows a patchy pattern (Figure
7) and using a cut-off method the map can be delineated into three categories - high (075 ndash 1)
medium (035 - 074) and low (006 - 034) quality habitat The habitat suitability map showed that
most of the habitat (gt 23) are suitable for rattus because they fall within highly suitable
region(Figure 7)
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Rats home range pattern based on results of this research differs in term of sex as well as sites
and can be hinged on differences of activities or role of each of the sexes It can also been
connected with differences in the availability of key resources such as food burrows vegetation
and others in each of the sites (Dickmann and Doncaster 1987 Davies et al 2013) Lack of home
range overlaps as established in this study may be due to the fact that rattusrsquo burrows do not
normally overlap This conform with non overlapping ranging in Microtus breweri established else
where (Zwicker 1989) Similarly home range pattern may or may not be different according to this
study because the similarity or otherwise would be based on the landscape connectivity
Landscape connectivity (Wang et al 2008) has been found to affect the brown rats dispersal
around houses in Amsterdam Landscape connectivity of the 2 locations (Campbell market and
Police quarter) differs At Campbell market burrowing might be easy for the rats while at the Police
quarter such act are restricted due to the fact that the whole area have been tarred This also
conform with Van Adrichem et al (2013) and Yabe (1979) that established that availability of the
green area and food were some of the factors that govern rats population density in and around
houses in Amsterdam
All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water source and
nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern of habitat suitability for the
raster chart These habitat threshold are similar to habitat factors identify for rodents in urban
habitat (Spraging 2002) However it is worthy of note that while some of these threshold produce
monotonic increment others produced monotonic decrease for the habitat suitability This is not
unconnected with the fact that while some of the threshold factors enhance the rats habitat others
inhibit the habitat In addition it had been found that sewage serves as a suitable habitat for rattus
(Channon et al 2000) contrary to the findings in this study This contradiction might be hinged on
the difference in the sewage system Sewage that always or partially free to provide habitat for
rodents can be suitable for rodents but sewage that always contains enormous water and other
waste in large quantity (like in the study area) would definitely be avoided by rats (Harper et al
2005 Kolawole et al 2009) Meanwhile less rats were also trapped in the sewage as reported by
Trawegger et al (2006) Similarly the observed differences in the activities period of the rats in
term of sex and site as found in this study could be linked to differences in social roles of the 2
sexes as well as difference in the habitat factors of each of the sites It had been established that
food availability weather condition and predator are some of the factors that can influence the
movement and some other activities of rats (Carlini et al 1972) Also it is important to note that
activities at the 2 sites are markedly different because they are 2 non similar settlements
This study in conclusion have been able to produce habitat suitability map of a highly
urbanized area This can be used in the rodents control program since the use of habitat structure
would provide a pragmatic and integrative approach to rodents control and can supplement old rat
control methods It is equally adoptable for any urbanized area with similar characteristics with the
study area otherwise the algorithm established in the study can be used to established a new
habitat suitability for such different urban area This study therefore provide basic foundation for
further study of ratsrsquo management and control Lastly ratsrsquo movement pattern (5-sided and
Triangular structure pattern) was established in this study and can be used in the control of rodent
in the area as well as similar structured areas It is therefore recommended that this habitat
suitability map be used along with other rodents control to ensure integrated pest management
strategies for better efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support provided by the the School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
field work facilitation the TWAS- USM Postdoctoral Fellowship provided to Dauda TO and
Ministry of Higher Education Grant and RUI-Grant from Universiti Sains Malaysia for SAMS are
hereby appreciated by the authors
REFERENCES
Bell E Boyle D Floyd K Garner-Richard P Swann B Luxmoore R Patterson A and R Thomson
(2011) The ground based eradication of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Isle of
Canna Inner Hebrides Scotland in Vietch CR Clout MN and Town DR (eds) Island
Invasives eradication and Management Gland Switzerland IUCN 269 - 274
Belmain S Chakman N Sarker N J Saker S Kamal N and Sarker S (2013) Prospects for
Ecologically - based Management of Rodent Population Outbreaks Can we mitigate 50
years Cyclic Famine in South Asia In Huitu O and Henttonen H (eds) 9th European
Vertebrate Pest Management Conference held between 22nd
September - 26th
September 2013 68 - 73
Carlini E A Hamaoui A and Regina M W M (1972) Factor influencing aggressiveness
elicited Marihuana in Food deprived rats British Journal of Pharmacol 44(4) 794ndash804
Channon D Cole M and Cole L (2000) A long - term study of Rattus norvegicus in the London
Borough of Enfield using baiting returns as an indicator of sewer population levels
Epidemiol Infect 125 441 - 445
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
at each site were not significantly different either (at Site 1 U = 6 pgt005 and at Site 2 U=55 p gt
005 ) It is apparent from these results that differences existed in term of activity period of the rats
within the sex and sites and male rats have higher home range than the female counterpart
From the suitability map the distribution of R norvegicus shows a patchy pattern (Figure
7) and using a cut-off method the map can be delineated into three categories - high (075 ndash 1)
medium (035 - 074) and low (006 - 034) quality habitat The habitat suitability map showed that
most of the habitat (gt 23) are suitable for rattus because they fall within highly suitable
region(Figure 7)
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Rats home range pattern based on results of this research differs in term of sex as well as sites
and can be hinged on differences of activities or role of each of the sexes It can also been
connected with differences in the availability of key resources such as food burrows vegetation
and others in each of the sites (Dickmann and Doncaster 1987 Davies et al 2013) Lack of home
range overlaps as established in this study may be due to the fact that rattusrsquo burrows do not
normally overlap This conform with non overlapping ranging in Microtus breweri established else
where (Zwicker 1989) Similarly home range pattern may or may not be different according to this
study because the similarity or otherwise would be based on the landscape connectivity
Landscape connectivity (Wang et al 2008) has been found to affect the brown rats dispersal
around houses in Amsterdam Landscape connectivity of the 2 locations (Campbell market and
Police quarter) differs At Campbell market burrowing might be easy for the rats while at the Police
quarter such act are restricted due to the fact that the whole area have been tarred This also
conform with Van Adrichem et al (2013) and Yabe (1979) that established that availability of the
green area and food were some of the factors that govern rats population density in and around
houses in Amsterdam
All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water source and
nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern of habitat suitability for the
raster chart These habitat threshold are similar to habitat factors identify for rodents in urban
habitat (Spraging 2002) However it is worthy of note that while some of these threshold produce
monotonic increment others produced monotonic decrease for the habitat suitability This is not
unconnected with the fact that while some of the threshold factors enhance the rats habitat others
inhibit the habitat In addition it had been found that sewage serves as a suitable habitat for rattus
(Channon et al 2000) contrary to the findings in this study This contradiction might be hinged on
the difference in the sewage system Sewage that always or partially free to provide habitat for
rodents can be suitable for rodents but sewage that always contains enormous water and other
waste in large quantity (like in the study area) would definitely be avoided by rats (Harper et al
2005 Kolawole et al 2009) Meanwhile less rats were also trapped in the sewage as reported by
Trawegger et al (2006) Similarly the observed differences in the activities period of the rats in
term of sex and site as found in this study could be linked to differences in social roles of the 2
sexes as well as difference in the habitat factors of each of the sites It had been established that
food availability weather condition and predator are some of the factors that can influence the
movement and some other activities of rats (Carlini et al 1972) Also it is important to note that
activities at the 2 sites are markedly different because they are 2 non similar settlements
This study in conclusion have been able to produce habitat suitability map of a highly
urbanized area This can be used in the rodents control program since the use of habitat structure
would provide a pragmatic and integrative approach to rodents control and can supplement old rat
control methods It is equally adoptable for any urbanized area with similar characteristics with the
study area otherwise the algorithm established in the study can be used to established a new
habitat suitability for such different urban area This study therefore provide basic foundation for
further study of ratsrsquo management and control Lastly ratsrsquo movement pattern (5-sided and
Triangular structure pattern) was established in this study and can be used in the control of rodent
in the area as well as similar structured areas It is therefore recommended that this habitat
suitability map be used along with other rodents control to ensure integrated pest management
strategies for better efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support provided by the the School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
field work facilitation the TWAS- USM Postdoctoral Fellowship provided to Dauda TO and
Ministry of Higher Education Grant and RUI-Grant from Universiti Sains Malaysia for SAMS are
hereby appreciated by the authors
REFERENCES
Bell E Boyle D Floyd K Garner-Richard P Swann B Luxmoore R Patterson A and R Thomson
(2011) The ground based eradication of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Isle of
Canna Inner Hebrides Scotland in Vietch CR Clout MN and Town DR (eds) Island
Invasives eradication and Management Gland Switzerland IUCN 269 - 274
Belmain S Chakman N Sarker N J Saker S Kamal N and Sarker S (2013) Prospects for
Ecologically - based Management of Rodent Population Outbreaks Can we mitigate 50
years Cyclic Famine in South Asia In Huitu O and Henttonen H (eds) 9th European
Vertebrate Pest Management Conference held between 22nd
September - 26th
September 2013 68 - 73
Carlini E A Hamaoui A and Regina M W M (1972) Factor influencing aggressiveness
elicited Marihuana in Food deprived rats British Journal of Pharmacol 44(4) 794ndash804
Channon D Cole M and Cole L (2000) A long - term study of Rattus norvegicus in the London
Borough of Enfield using baiting returns as an indicator of sewer population levels
Epidemiol Infect 125 441 - 445
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
All the habitat suitability threshold including build up points skip bins water source and
nature of the site explored in this study produced a structural pattern of habitat suitability for the
raster chart These habitat threshold are similar to habitat factors identify for rodents in urban
habitat (Spraging 2002) However it is worthy of note that while some of these threshold produce
monotonic increment others produced monotonic decrease for the habitat suitability This is not
unconnected with the fact that while some of the threshold factors enhance the rats habitat others
inhibit the habitat In addition it had been found that sewage serves as a suitable habitat for rattus
(Channon et al 2000) contrary to the findings in this study This contradiction might be hinged on
the difference in the sewage system Sewage that always or partially free to provide habitat for
rodents can be suitable for rodents but sewage that always contains enormous water and other
waste in large quantity (like in the study area) would definitely be avoided by rats (Harper et al
2005 Kolawole et al 2009) Meanwhile less rats were also trapped in the sewage as reported by
Trawegger et al (2006) Similarly the observed differences in the activities period of the rats in
term of sex and site as found in this study could be linked to differences in social roles of the 2
sexes as well as difference in the habitat factors of each of the sites It had been established that
food availability weather condition and predator are some of the factors that can influence the
movement and some other activities of rats (Carlini et al 1972) Also it is important to note that
activities at the 2 sites are markedly different because they are 2 non similar settlements
This study in conclusion have been able to produce habitat suitability map of a highly
urbanized area This can be used in the rodents control program since the use of habitat structure
would provide a pragmatic and integrative approach to rodents control and can supplement old rat
control methods It is equally adoptable for any urbanized area with similar characteristics with the
study area otherwise the algorithm established in the study can be used to established a new
habitat suitability for such different urban area This study therefore provide basic foundation for
further study of ratsrsquo management and control Lastly ratsrsquo movement pattern (5-sided and
Triangular structure pattern) was established in this study and can be used in the control of rodent
in the area as well as similar structured areas It is therefore recommended that this habitat
suitability map be used along with other rodents control to ensure integrated pest management
strategies for better efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support provided by the the School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
field work facilitation the TWAS- USM Postdoctoral Fellowship provided to Dauda TO and
Ministry of Higher Education Grant and RUI-Grant from Universiti Sains Malaysia for SAMS are
hereby appreciated by the authors
REFERENCES
Bell E Boyle D Floyd K Garner-Richard P Swann B Luxmoore R Patterson A and R Thomson
(2011) The ground based eradication of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Isle of
Canna Inner Hebrides Scotland in Vietch CR Clout MN and Town DR (eds) Island
Invasives eradication and Management Gland Switzerland IUCN 269 - 274
Belmain S Chakman N Sarker N J Saker S Kamal N and Sarker S (2013) Prospects for
Ecologically - based Management of Rodent Population Outbreaks Can we mitigate 50
years Cyclic Famine in South Asia In Huitu O and Henttonen H (eds) 9th European
Vertebrate Pest Management Conference held between 22nd
September - 26th
September 2013 68 - 73
Carlini E A Hamaoui A and Regina M W M (1972) Factor influencing aggressiveness
elicited Marihuana in Food deprived rats British Journal of Pharmacol 44(4) 794ndash804
Channon D Cole M and Cole L (2000) A long - term study of Rattus norvegicus in the London
Borough of Enfield using baiting returns as an indicator of sewer population levels
Epidemiol Infect 125 441 - 445
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
suitability map be used along with other rodents control to ensure integrated pest management
strategies for better efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support provided by the the School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
field work facilitation the TWAS- USM Postdoctoral Fellowship provided to Dauda TO and
Ministry of Higher Education Grant and RUI-Grant from Universiti Sains Malaysia for SAMS are
hereby appreciated by the authors
REFERENCES
Bell E Boyle D Floyd K Garner-Richard P Swann B Luxmoore R Patterson A and R Thomson
(2011) The ground based eradication of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Isle of
Canna Inner Hebrides Scotland in Vietch CR Clout MN and Town DR (eds) Island
Invasives eradication and Management Gland Switzerland IUCN 269 - 274
Belmain S Chakman N Sarker N J Saker S Kamal N and Sarker S (2013) Prospects for
Ecologically - based Management of Rodent Population Outbreaks Can we mitigate 50
years Cyclic Famine in South Asia In Huitu O and Henttonen H (eds) 9th European
Vertebrate Pest Management Conference held between 22nd
September - 26th
September 2013 68 - 73
Carlini E A Hamaoui A and Regina M W M (1972) Factor influencing aggressiveness
elicited Marihuana in Food deprived rats British Journal of Pharmacol 44(4) 794ndash804
Channon D Cole M and Cole L (2000) A long - term study of Rattus norvegicus in the London
Borough of Enfield using baiting returns as an indicator of sewer population levels
Epidemiol Infect 125 441 - 445
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Davies N Gramotnev G Seabrook L Bradley A Baxter G Rhodes J Lunney D and McAlpine C
(2013) Movement Patterns of an Arboreal Marsupial at the edge of its range Acase study
of the Koala Movement Ecology 1 (8) 1 -15
Dickman C and Doncaster C (1987) The ecology of small mammals in urban habitats I
Populations in a patchy environment The journal of animal ecology 629-640
Frantz S C (1988) Architecture and Commensal vertebrate pest management In Kundsin RB
(ed) Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution Oxford University Press New
York 259pp
Frantz S C and Davies D E (1991) Bionomics and integrated pest management In Gorman G
(ed) Ecology and Management of food - industry pest Association of Official amalytica
chemist Arlington
Harper G A Dickinson K J M and Seddon P J (2005) Habitat use by three rat species (Rattus spp)
on stewart IslandRakiura New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29 (2)251 -
260
Hsieh w Escobar C Yugay TLo M Pittma-Polletta B Salgado-Delgado R Scheer F A J L Shea
S A Buijs R M and Hu K (2014) Simulated shift work in rats pertubs multiscale regulation
of locomotor activity Journal of Royal Society Interface 11(96) 75-82
doi101098rsif20140318
Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging San Diego Academic Press 76pp
Kolawole O M Olayode J A Oyewo O O Adegboye A A and Kolawole C F (2009) Toxicological
renal effects of Bridelia ferruginea-treeated wastewater in rats African Journal of
Microbiology Research 3 (3)082 - 087
Patergnani M Mughini GL Poglayen G Gelli A Pasqualucci F Farina M and Stancampiano L
(2010) Environmental influence on urban rodent bait consumption Journal of Pest
Science 1-13
Roomaney R Ehrlich R and Rother H 2012 The acceptability of rat trap use over pesticides for
rodent control in two poor urban communities in South Africa Environ Health 11 32 -38
doi 1011861476-069X-11-32
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Spragins C W (2002) Advances in IPM rodent control in Agriculture Sustain Dev Int Earth
Summit pp 135 - 140
Traweger D and Slotta-Backmayr L (2005) Introducing GIS-modelling into the management of a
brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) (Mamm Rodentia Muridae) Population in Urban habitat Journal of
Pest Science 78 17 ndash 24
Traweger D Travnitzky R Moser C Walzer C Bernatzky G (2006) Habitat preferences and
distribution of the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk) in the city of Salzburg
(Austria) implications for an urban rat Management Journal of Pest Science 79 113 -
125
Van Adrichem M H C Buijs J A Goedhart P W and Verboom J (2013) Factors influencing the
Density of the Brown rat (Rattus norvengicus) in and around houses in Amsterdam
Zoogdierverenigig Lutra 56 (2)77 - 91
Wang D Cong L Yue L Huang B Zhang J Wang Y Li N and Liu X (2011) Seasonal Variation in
Population characteristics and management implications for rats (Rattus norvegicus)
within their native range in Harbin Chinna Journal of Pest Science 78 17 - 24
Wood B J (2006) A long term study of Rattus tiominicus population in an oil palm plantation in
Johore Malaysia I Study method and population size without control The Journal of
Applied Ecology 21(2) 445-460
Yabe T (1979) The relation of food habits to the ecological distributions of the Norway rat Rattus
norvegicus and the roof rat R rattus Japanese Journal of Ecology 293 235-244
Yasuma S and Andau PM (1999) Mammals of Sabah field guide and identification Kuala
Lumpur Japan International Cooperation Agency and Sabah Wildlife Department 172pp
Yu-Huang Wang Y Yang K Bridgman C and Lin L (2008) Habitat suitability modeling to correlate
gene flow with landscape connectivity Landscape Ecology 23989ndash1000
Zwicker K (1989) Home range and spatial organization of the beach vole Microtus breweri
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 161-170
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Table 1 Home range and core area estimation for each individual in both sites
Site Animal ID MCP100 MCP95 HM95 HM50 MCP50
1 MA 37 45535 13352 37435 2939
FA 28 2784 1338 1977 917 728
MA 38 4521 13487 3701 2924
FA 27 2959 1203 2102 942 703
MA 39 4586 13217 3786 2954
FA 29 2609 1473 1852 892 753
Mean 241595 7345 19706 1928 728
2 MA 3 27111 27111 10768 166 073
FA 9 119 119 183 01 007
MA 4 271 27202 10747 1871 069
FA 10 1205 1155 1695 005 0065
MA 5 27122 2702 10789 1449 077
FA 11 1175 1225 1965 015 0075
Mean 141505 141505 6299 835 04
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Table 2 Time of emergence and withdrawal of Rattus norvegicus into the nest according to sex at
Site 1 and Site 2
Site Sex Animal ID Number of days Mode time of exit from nest (hours) Mode time of entry
from nest (hours)
Site 1 Male (MA 37) 6 1900 700
Female (FA 28) 6 2000 600
Site 2 Male (MA 3) 6 2000 400
Female (FA 9) 6 2200 400
Sex Number of days Mean total active period (hrs) SD
Site 1 Male amp Female 14 825 312
Male 7 683 366
Female 7 966 258
Site 2 Male amp Female 14 118 292
Male 7 7 366
Female 7 48 217
Note NB Site 1 is Campbell Market while Site 2 is Police quarters
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Table 3 Total active period and total distance traveled for male and female at both Site 1 amp 2 for
six consecutive days
Sites
Animal ID MA 37 FA 28
Days ix iy ix yi iy
Site 1
1 4 4949 6 1209
2 4 9369 7 16
3 5 3739 12 2135
4 5 5478 10 2056
5 12 7958 12 1724
6 11 9325 11 1415
Mean 683 6803 966 1689
(SD) -366 -2402 -258 -36
MA 3 FA 9
Site 2
1 6 14994 - -
2 8 7862 3 129
3 9 6735 6 1981
4 9 7176 6 736
5 3 2 209
6 3 6714 7 3754
Mean 7 7297 48 197
(SD) -366 -4673 -217 -1138
Note NB - x and y are both total active period in hours and total distance traveled in meters
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Figure 2
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Figure 3(a)
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Figure 3(b) Number of fixes required to reach an asymptote for male(MA 3) and female (FA 9) at
site 2
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Figure 4 Distribution Map of the home range and core area of adult male MA 3 at Site 2 NB The
outer lines encompass an area that represents home range area using 100 the inner shaded
area represents 95 Minimum convex polygon 95 Harmonic Mean and the core area using the
50 Harmonic Mean and 50 Minimum Convex Polygon estimates
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Figure 5(a) Raster Chart of build up type (V1) as well as settlement type (V2) before standardized
with fuzzy (ranking type 4 market 3 Shop houses 2 Settlement 1 General) Map layer of build
up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 5(b) Map layer of build up type (V1) after standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Figure 6(a) Raster layer of distance to waterways (V4) before standardized with fuzzy
Figure 6(b) Raster layer of distance to skipsbin (V7) before standardized with fuzzy (distance in
metres)
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes
Figure 7 Habitat suitability map of Rattus norvegicus in the city of Georgetown divided into three
spaced classes