rationality and religious ethics; the discussion on an
TRANSCRIPT
Rationality and Religious Ethics; The Discussion on an
Autonomous Moral in Catholic Theology
Peter Neuner
1
Abstract
The debate of moral foundations is one of the important issues in the sphere of
ethics. So, the authority of reason or religion for moral values has always been
debated. The article shows that the moral values have the moral authority. This view is
supported by the Bible and Christian theologians. In fact, Bible's values are the same
values of reason. This interpretation of autonomy can be considered the line between
Kant's theory and the theory of the divine. The author believes that the belief in the
moral autonomy can provide non-partisan platform for dialogue between cultures and
religions.
Keywords: autonomous moral, dialogue between religions, Christian ethics,
Catholic theology.
1 . University of Munich, Germany ([email protected])
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1. A book on autonomous moral and the first reactions to it.
Nearly 40 years ago a book, written by the German Professor for Moral Theology,
Alfons Auer irritated the authorities of the Catholic Church. It had the title:
“Autonomous Moral and Christian Faith”. Auer presented the thesis, that in the field
of ethic everybody has to decide on his own insight and therefore he is autonomous.
Christian religion follows natural reason und does not present special ethical norms,
which were valid to Christian believers only. Thus, in the field of ethical decisions
Christians are free to an open discussion with members of other religions and even
with non-believers. To all of them, rational arguments are decisive and the finding of
ethical norms is independent of the different religious convictions.
Especially the authorities of the Catholic teaching office criticized the book. If
everybody may act according to his own individual conscience and his personal
insight, what will happen with the ethical orders of the Christian tradition? Is there any
authority for the Church? At first, authorities tended to reject the book as non
compatible with the catholic faith. But in the following discussion on the meaning of
autonomy it became obvious, that Auer’s book was backed by the early Christian and
the medieval theology and the official teaching of the Church.
2. Starting point in Greek philosophy
Auer’s concept of autonomy was based on the Stoa and on Aristotle. Starting point
is the conviction, that nature as a whole is rational and thus it is intelligible to human
intellect. Certainly, human rational capacity is limited; we encounter many phenomena
which we can’t understand. But nevertheless they obey the same structure as our
intellect and our reason. Even if they are incomprehensible they are not irrational.
Human intellect follows the same logic as nature.
Within the Stoic school this concept was developed to an entire theory of natural
law. According to this tradition, the world as a whole is penetrated by the Pneuma, the
Spirit, and this Pneuma can be recognized in nature by reasoning. At the same time
natural law presents the norms according to which one has to live in this world. Nature
is intelligible and it gives the norms of a right behavior. Thus, ethical norms obey the
intellect, one can find them by reasoning, ethical life follows one’s intellect. Seneca,
the teacher of the Roman Emperor Nero, put it in the words: secundum naturam
vivere, to live according to nature. Because all human beings participate in the same
reason, the laws of logic are universal to all people. Thus, there is also one universal
ethic to the entire mankind. In the general norms of ethic all people convene,
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independent to which social, cultural and religious context they belong. Ethic can be
taught and it can be learned.
3. Communication of Greek philosophy to the West by Arab
scholarship
The idea of a universal and all mankind embracing ethic was developed in the
decades of classic Greek philosophy. However during the late years of the Roman
Empire this concept was widely lost. The optimistic ethical view was superseded by
endless conflicts. The early Christian Church was - only in a very limited degree - able
to uphold the ethical standards of the classic Greek philosophy.
History of philosophy shows that the ideas of Plato, Aristotle and the Stoa went east:
Alexandria in Egypt and Syria became the centers of Hellenistic scholarship. The
classic philosophical works were translated to the Coptic and Syrian language. From
there they were received by Arabic scholars, first of all in Bagdad. Since the 8th
century the translation and the reception of Greek philosophy in combination with the
revelation of the Koran led – as historians say - to an explosion of knowledge in the
Arabic world. The relation between faith and reason, revelation and human
intelligence became one of the central issues between the different philosophical
schools in Bagdad. There were traditions which were convinced of a total accordance
of Islamic faith and intellectual insight. If somebody is intelligent and sincere he, by
nature, is in accordance with the Koran. Greek philosophy had found a new home in
this reception by the Islamic world.
This development bore fruit to the western philosophy and theology and it became
important to the medieval Christian scholastic system. The most essential personalities
were Avicenna (Ibn Sina) 980-1037 in Persia, and Averroes (Ibn Rusd) 1126-1198 in
Andalusia, both of whom had written commentaries on Aristotle. These works
prepared the way for an encounter of Islamic and western civilization in 12th and 13
th
century. In Toledo a school for the translation of Arabic documents to Latin was
established and so the commentaries of Avicenna and Averroes became known in the
west. This fact led to a new paradigm in the western philosophy. In the writings of
Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274), the central figure of this new concept, Aristotle simply
appears as the Philosopher, Averroes as the Commentator.
4. Thomas Aquinas
At first, the authorities of the Roman Church opposed these new ideas. They
considered Aristotle as a heathen and Avicenna and Averroes as Islamic, i.e. non
Christian thinkers. But nevertheless the new concept, represented by Thomas Aquinas,
proved to be successful. It was able to establish a synthesis of biblical faith and
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philosophy. Soon the officials of the Christian Church were convinced that the
approach of Thomas could be accepted as a convenient tool to express the old faith in
a way, which was in accordance to contemporary challenges and the questions of
mankind. The concept of Thomas became normative to Christian - or at least to
Catholic - theology and philosophy. And his normativity lasts till to our times. Thomas
is still one of the most influential thinkers in the Catholic Church.
By the reception of Greek metaphysic and ethic, Thomas not only adapted Aristotle,
but he also modified him according to the Christian Tradition. The most important
modification was his conviction that the world is not eternal but it is the creation of
God. The universe had a beginning; it is based on God’s will and his grace. World
exists because God wanted it to be and he called it to being. It is built as God decided
it. Nature is not by itself and it does not function according to an impersonal law – as
Stoic philosophy had taught - but according to God’s will. Thus, with Thomas the
natural law receives a different perspective. It appears as the will of God and to follow
this law is to obey his precept. The principle to live according to nature became
equivalent to be faithful to the will of God. To find the norms of ethic by the use of
one’s own reason - not by an imposed order - is the correct way to be faithful to the
Christian message. In other words: According to Thomas autonomy is the real
theonomy, the rule of God.
5. The meaning of Autonomy
Auer developed his concept of autonomy in the reception of Thomas. According to
him one can find ethical values and norms for moral behavior by reasoning, not by
looking for divine commands. We find ethical norms by intellect, not by obedience. In
a rather broad evaluation of biblical texts Auer shows that e.g. the Ten
Commandments are in accordance with rational insight. To him, the biblical prophets,
Jesus himself and the apostles preached nothing which was contrary to the natural law
and to intellectual comprehension. Jesus even restored natural law wherever human
errors and bad will had led to deviation. Repeatedly Auer underlines his conviction,
that Jesus did not preach any other ethical norms than are to be found in natural law.
Christian ethics is in full accord to the maxims we find ourselves by reasoning and
conscience. Thus, to follow one’s own insight is to follow Jesus and his proclamation
of the kingdom of God. In the consequence Auer regards Christian ethics as
autonomous. But it is obvious, this approach is based on Greek philosophy and its
reception by medieval Christian theologians, it is different from Kant’s concept of
autonomy. For Auer autonomy is not against God’s command, on the contrary it is the
correct way to find it.
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Comparable efforts to Auer’s thesis are made by Hans Küng in his project of a
global ethic. He starts with the conviction that there will be no peace between peoples
without peace between religions. Religious conflicts are frequently caused by
conflicting claims on truth. Often religiously inspired wars are especially cruel. In
those wars the goal is not a new political order but the destruction of the enemy as a
proponent of error and heresy. Küng applies a more empirical method than Auer. He
compares the world religions and looks for corresponding ethical norms. His aim is to
promote them in order to bring the world religions closer to each other and enhance
their readiness for peace. Küng’s project has found widespread attention, whilst Auer’s
thesis remained a more or less academic approach. But I think Auer prepared the
theoretical basis on which Küng could establish his international and interreligious
activity.
6. Religious input to ethics
Auer’s and Küng’s ideas were criticized by some theologians who regarded these
concepts as endangering the Christian identity. In rejecting autonomous ethic they
proposed the so called faith ethic, which starts with the biblical message. According to
them ethical norms are to be taken from the revelation and by faith, not by reasoning.
The former theologian Ratzinger, now Pope Benedict, was one of the most outspoken
critics of Küng and Auer. His approach regards the Sermon on the Mountain to be in
contradiction to natural whishes and longings. Christian ethic must be orientated on
the discipleship of Christ and therefore it has to start with the proclamation of the
cross. But in spite of the harsh critic and the very different starting points, in the way
to find moral norms both concepts do not differ so much. Faith ethic also depends on
rational arguments and adopts them and also the critics try to present a moral teaching
which is able to convince also people who don’t belief in the Christian message. The
difference between both traditions lies first of all in the position they give to the
doctrinal office (Magisterium) of the Church. Whilst Auer and Küng stress the
freedom of the individual person and his conscience, their opponents enhance the
authority of Church officials and obedience to them.
Nevertheless, the question remains: Is there a special religious or Christian ethic?
What is with the Ten Commandments in the Bible, what is with the Sermon on the
Mountain, in which Jesus preached absolute love even to the enemy? Is his request not
to resist the robber and the thief of any impact to Christian ethic? According to Auer,
in spite of man’s autonomy in finding moral laws, Christian faith is not irrelevant to
ethical behavior. Autonomous ethic is not an ethic without religion or without God.
Auer stresses that faith prepares the context in which all human acts find their place.
Nothing what happens in our life is isolated. Faith is the horizon within which our
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endeavors happen, it influences all our actions. It makes a big difference, whether one
thinks to be obliged by an impersonal law – as Stoic philosophy thought - or by a
personal God, who speaks via the nature. Religious belief is decisive to the motivation
of acting. It is meaningful to recognize that obedience to the ethical law is not only an
obligation one puts on oneself or society demands, but that it is rooted in God and has
consequences for the relation to God and even to the eternal destination of the acting
person. Religious faith gives a different motivation, especially in the cases where
actions are difficult or demand sacrifices. It presents an integration of ethical behavior
within a global view of the world and of history. They are imbedded in God’s plan and
will for the world, which embraces its beginning and its end. Thus, human actions
can’t be regarded as isolated or without consequences, they even gain eternal dignity.
This idea grants ethic a new value and bestows the acting person with additional
responsibility. Even, as Auer maintains, if religion does not give other concepts or
norms than those we find by ourselves, within the horizon of religion ethic gains a
specific relevance. Human actions receive a transcendent value.
This idea is not only true to religion in general, but it affects also the concrete
religions. They integrate ethic into an entire “weltanschauung”, a worldview, and it
gives a specific interpretation to the rational concepts. By revelation and also by the
orders of the religious authority we may get insights which we - by our own efforts -
would not be able to find. Within a religious community we participate in the wisdom
and the experience of our fellow-believers which may help to find the best path. One
may recognize that certain orders or instructions are in accordance to our own insight,
even if we by ourselves alone would not have been able to find them. Thus, religious
faith may help to avoid narrow-mindedness and it can correct erroneous decisions.
As the consequence there are differences between moral concepts of the various
religions. The dependence of moral conviction from natural reasoning does not
implicate universally identical behavior. The religious conviction gives a specific form
to the ethical concept without destroying its rationality. Actually there exist different
ethical concepts and this fact may be welcomed as providing richness, it must not be
regarded as nothing but a destructive relativism. It may be good that the other is
different and one does not need try to persuade him to one’s own approach, in order to
establish uniformity. One even needs the other in order to find one’s own position.
Pluriformity is not an evil which we have to eliminate. Within an autonomous ethic
and its trust on reason the pluriformity of moral decisions is to be maintained, not to be
abandoned.
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7. Ethical norms in a pluralistic society
Since Thoma’s time the confidence in the natural law has lost much of its evidence.
The supporters of an autonomous ethic don’t follow the concept of natural law in the
sense as Stoic and medieval philosophy and theology had developed. They are very
aware of the dependence of human condition and hence on ethical convictions on
special historical, cultural and ethnical circumstances. Nature depends on them and it
changes with them. It is far more complicated to find universal norms in nature than
traditional philosophy and scholastic theology had imagined. The experience, that
moral decisions are not unequivocal is as old as humankind. Nevertheless, I have the
impression, that this problem has become more pressing in recent decades. I refer
especially to my western experience, where closed and uniform societies have more or
less disappeared. We live in pluralistic or even in fragmented societies. In modern - or
as some philosophers name it - postmodern times everybody lives in different worlds
and has to act according to different standards: in the family, in school and university,
in the Church, at office, among various friends. In my country nearly everybody has
within his family or among his colleges and friends members of different confessions
or religious convictions. The most familiar weltanschauung seems to be secular, where
religious faith is without any significance. When religious questions appear in our
newspapers, they very often refer to the Islamic community in Europe. Islam has
brought new attention to religious questions to the rather secularized European society.
Autonomous ethic does not say that there should be one identical and universal
behavior among all these different religious and non-religious groups. Certainly very
basic norms are universally shared: You shall not kill, you shall not lie, you shall
respect dignity of men and human rights. But in the concrete application the
differences appear very readily. Autonomous ethics maintains the possibility, that all
these various convictions are subjected to a rational examination. Therefore they can
undergo an open dialogue in which narrow-mindedness and error can be solved and
extreme positions may be overcome. The way of dialogue in ethical decisions is
possible even in a pluralistic society and complicated global world.
8. Justification by faith and its ethical impact
One of the main controversies between the Protestant and Catholic Church used to
be the question of justification. Are we redeemed by faith alone, as Protestants say, or
by faith and our own work, as Catholic teaching maintains? Protestant theologians
accused the Catholic concept as an effort of men to redeem one by good works. If man
is able to do so, he is independent of Christ. From this standpoint catholic faith was
criticized as a rejection of the Lord. On the other hand, Catholics questioned the
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Protestants for eliminating ethic. Since, as the argument went, if God alone can redeem
man and humans can’t contribute to it, why should they strive for a moral life?
Ecumenical discussion settled this controversy. In 1999 a joint declaration on
justification was signed by representatives of the Protestant and the Catholic Church.
Both sides agreed, that man is unable to justify himself. Justification is a gift and grace
of God and not the consequence of a moral life. We can’t gain heaven and we don’t
need to gain it, for the loving God grants justification alone by his grace. But we have
learned that this conviction does not destroy ethic. Faith in God’s love has to bear fruit
and a moral life is the fruit of this faith. Missing love of your neighbor and of your
enemy shows absence of faith. According to Christian belief the contribution of man
to his justification is not on the same level as the work of God. God’s forgiveness is by
far more important than human endeavor to avoid sin and to perform good deeds.
Exactly this conviction I regard as an important starting point for a Christian ethic.
God’s promise to forgive failings affects human actions. Therefore, I can live and act
even knowing that my actions will be imperfect or the success of my efforts will
remain doubtful. I must not merit heaven, I must not be perfect and the result of my
actions may be rather ambiguous. Sins and failings may be forgiven. Thus, I can act as
good as I am able and I need not despair on my shortcomings. If I were asked to be
perfect, I could not act at all because such a request would paralyze me. The belief in
justification by faith does not lead to immorality or passivity. It opens the possibility
for acting as good as I am able in my situation as a limited being with weak power and
imperfect insight. In this belief of justification I find a common Christian basis for
ethic. I think it is open to provide moral aspirations in different philosophical and
religious convictions.
Conclusion
Ethical decisions demand intellectual efforts. Starting from the idea of an
autonomous ethic I have learned that - because all human beings participate in the
same intellect and rationality - ethical convictions are communicable amongst
mankind. To find the best solutions to the pressing challenges of our time and our
world it is necessary and it is possible to enter a dialogue between members of
different religious convictions and cultural backgrounds. Ethic has become an
interreligious and intercultural challenge. We have to maintain the dialogue on ethic in
order to avoid narrow mindedness and possible errors. The finding of norms is
subjected to rational insight and to an open and free discussion, to which all people are
invited. To find the best solutions we need the arguments of all the participants within
a global world. The thesis of an autonomous ethic offers a generals and far reaching
basis for such an interreligious and intercultural dialogue.
کیکاتول اتیدر الاه ادیـ بحث در اخلاق خود بن ینیو اخلاق د تیعقلان
∗نريترنويپ
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1. Alfons Auer
2. natura/ reson
3. autonomy
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1. Pneuma
2. intellect
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1. Thomas Aquinas
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1. thehomy
2. Hans Küng
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1. Ratzinger
2. Pope Benedict
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