reducing air pollution in urban china
TRANSCRIPT
REDUCING AIR POLLUTION IN URBAN CHINA
By
Tate Townsend
University of Florida
2020
Contents
ABSTRACT AND METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 3
Reducing Air Pollution In China’s Urban Populations ............................................................... 3
CHAPTER I .................................................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 4
Air Pollution Damages ................................................................................................................ 4
Sustainability and Air Pollution .................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER II ................................................................................................................................... 8
GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION .......................................................................................... 8
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)................................................................... 9
Five Year Plans (FYPs) ............................................................................................................. 11
Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan.................................................................... 13
Wind Power Laws and Programs .............................................................................................. 15
Overall Progress ........................................................................................................................ 18
CHAPTER III ............................................................................................................................... 19
SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS ................................................................................................ 19
Green Spaces ............................................................................................................................. 20
Transportation ........................................................................................................................... 25
Renewable Energy..................................................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER IV ............................................................................................................................... 43
Application to Gainesville ......................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER V ................................................................................................................................ 50
Closing Remarks ....................................................................................................................... 50
References ..................................................................................................................................... 52
ABSTRACT AND METHODOLOGY
Reducing Air Pollution In China’s Urban Populations
This essay will review methods of reducing air pollution in urban Chinese populations.
The purpose behind the intended research is to identify and apply sustainable solutions to real-
world areas in need of a change. This essay will begin with an explanation for why air pollution
is so harmful, followed by existing articles regarding the amount of pollution, its effects, and
what substances the Chinese citizens are breathing in. This will be done by collecting statistics
and reports on medical issues resulting from exposure to China’s air, as well as examining the
excess consequences of mass industrialization. Because maladies resulting from this pollution
are not unknown to the people, the Chinese government has been implementing laws and
regulations in an effort to mitigate their pollution issue. This essay will also analyze the
government’s effectiveness in curbing the mass issue by citing their laws and reports that follow
them. Finally, this essay will propose multiple techniques for pollution reduction. This includes
in-depth case studies of successful methods in other countries that will be applied to China,
research on current sustainable processes in China, and suggestions for improvement. An
ultimate review of China’s progress and potential will round out the end of this research,
bringing about the ultimate goal of this essay. The methodology for these approaches is
concentric around deep research by reputable journals and articles, most of which originate from
Chinese scholars who are tackling a similar issue.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The World Health Organization’s (WHO) most recent collective study of air pollution
was conducted in 2016, in which China’s cities were surveyed for ambient air pollution. These
studies were conducted by measuring the PM2.5, or particulates in the air per cubic meter. In their
report, the WHO acknowledged that air pollution is inevitable, and suggested that a level of 10
parts per million of particulates can be found in the air at any given time. The maximum amount
that should be detected is 20 PM2.5. However, China’s urban population averages on a level of 51
PM2.5, with a maximum of level 128 (WHO, 2005). This is a danger to all who reside in urban
areas, as both long-term and short-term exposure can lead to “chronic asthma, pulmonary
insufficiency, cardiovascular diseases, and cardiovascular mortality” (Manisalidis et al., 2020).
Air Pollution Damages
Air pollution can have many sources, though the most common ones are produced
through smoke, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from fossil fuel burning, and
volcanic activity (Sharma et al., 2013). This particulate pollution directly results in 2.4 million
premature deaths worldwide, with the diagnosable causes relating to lower levels of lung
function, associable pollution-caused cancers, and coronary strokes. Furthermore, exposure to
intense levels of air pollution in children increase their potential for developing asthma,
pneumonia, and other respiratory infections.
A case study of the Great Smog of London in 1952 reveals an increased mortality rate
when, a dense fog of pollutants, primarily SO2, caused by rapid industrialization and high-
pressure weather conditions had engulfed England’s capital. As a result, death rates reached up
to 12,000 fatalities, and can be seen below in Figure 1. The smog clouded London for five days
starting December 5 and ending December 9, meaning the damage that was done to the city
occurred in the short span of five days.
Furthermore, exposed and surviving children in utero were reported being born with
cases of childhood asthma (Polivka, 2018). Recorded causes of death during this period included
bronchitis, pneumonia, respiratory tuberculosis, and lung cancer – all of which are clearly
diseases afflicting the respiratory system (Logan, 1953). This evident decline of human health
serves as an obvious indicator that air pollution in large quantities, no matter how short of a
period one is exposed, can be life-threatening. With Chinese citizens in urban populations
spending their everyday lives in pollution levels deemed dangerous by the WHO, it is imperative
that solutions are put in place to minimize the issue before it has the opportunity to get any
worse.
Figure 1: Figure displays the correlation between the polluting SO2 levels and the weekly mortality of Greater
London during late 1952 to early 1953. (Bell & Davis, 2001).
One study in Shenzhen, China was conducted to demonstrate the short-term effects of
ambient air pollution exposure at the PM2.5 level. It is important to note that due to Shenzhen’s
southern coastal status as a city prone to monsoons, their air quality is much better than other
urban centers in China, although still trespassing the safe levels recommended by the WHO. Yet,
a collection from 2015-2016 shows that exposure to Shenzhen air when PM2.5 levels are higher
due to season changes for one to four days results in increased hospitalization cases, with
patients being diagnosed with pneumonia, asthma, COPD, and respiratory tract infections –
much like the instances in London’s 1952 incident (Zhang, et al., 2020).
Aside from the bodily harm pollution incites, there is also an economic detriment at stake
due to the high capacity of patients per hospital. A small study centered around 10 Chinese urban
communities surveyed both indirect and direct economic loss of 195 surviving lung cancer
patients. Direct economic loss refers to the money spent on medical bills and nonmedical costs,
whereas indirect economic loss accounts for the human capital approach, which regards the time
Figure 2: Shows the relationship between exposure to PM2.5 pollutants and the odds of developing COPD or
pneumonia. (Zhang, et al., 2020).
spent recovering over the potential time one could have been working and benefiting their
homelives. On average, these recovering individuals owed $42,540.00 over their full period of
recovery on direct costs for their condition, with $795.00 making up their indirect costs. Within
just the first year of hospitalization for lung cancer, their economic burden was made of an
insurance-reduced price of $30,277. The overall cost amounted to 171% of the average Chinese
resident’s annual income. Even after insurance had taken on a hefty amount of the bills,
individuals were still forced to resort to spending 107% of their yearly income (Zhang, et al.,
2017). This is money that cannot be recirculated back into the economy, as well as puts a hefty
debt on the cancer survivors that they will need to work to pay off.
Sustainability and Air Pollution
The definition of sustainability varies from person to person, as it is a concept reflecting
the culture of present times. However, the rough idea is the efficient use of available resources to
accommodate current and present needs, without compromising the present or future
generations’ ability to meet their own needs. Based on this, sustainability is a philosophy and
application based on three primary components, or pillars: economic, social, and environmental.
Essentially, sustainability as a study focuses on creating thriving systems that intermingle with
one another in a person’s everyday life (UCLA, 2018).
At a basic sense, air pollution may appear to only appeal to the environmental pillar of
sustainability, but when one pillar is affecting by an extenuating circumstance, all others are
influenced, as well. As explained, air pollution is a driving concern for human health regarding
illnesses of the lungs. Already, this is a social danger for all affecting citizens, especially in
densely populated urban areas of China. Furthermore, the hospitalization rates and costs greatly
burden citizens of China, as time recovering at home or in a hospital is time lost making money
and contributing to China’s economy. Lastly, the environment is at risk, as PM2.5 easily turns
into a thick smog that not only reduces visibility, but chokes out natural wildlife and runs the risk
of contaminating soil or bodies of water during rainy seasons (Marcie, 2008).
These implications have extreme negative effects long-term consequences should they go
unchecked. So, this capstone seeks to call out provisions made by the Chinese government in an
attempt to remedy these rising conflicts, as well as where they fall flat and solutions they can try
to implement for better results.
CHAPTER II
GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION
China’s urban population amounts to approximately 843 million people (The World Bank
Group, 2019) who run the increased amount of potential for developing serious respiratory issues
in their lifetime. Aware of this disparity, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) have enacted
numerous interventions in an attempt to curb air pollution and increase public health. Some of
these attempts include forming the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQSs)
regulations, Five Year Plans (FYPs), and the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan.
While some of these implementations have proven to make in impact on the PM2.5 levels of
pollutants in the air, others have proven ineffective.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
NAAQS was created as part of the Clean Air Act in 1990, which required the
Environmental Protection Agency to set national air quality standards. These standards operate
by two categories: primary and secondary standards. Primary is in regard to public health –
bodily harm, sensitive populations, etc.; whereas secondary deals with public welfare – visibility
impairment, vegetation deficiencies, building damage (EPA, 2016).
February 29th, 2012 marks the day that PM2.5 is first included into NAAQS for the first
time. While the WHO has set recommended levels for the PM2.5 set by the standards of safety,
NAAQS acknowledges that the average level of gaseous pollutants is exceeds WHO’s maximum
range by 37 levels and strives to set a more realistic goal of 25 PM2.5 per cubic meter of air. Still,
after these standards were put in place, 165 urban cities were not be able to meet the revised
NAAQS, let alone get close to lowering their levels accordingly. In fact, less than one percent of
China’s 500 largest cities could adjust their air pollution to the revised guidelines (Zhang & Cao,
2015). Figure 3 below shows the intensity of air pollution by millionth of a gram PM2.5 per cubic
meter, where a direct correlation between heavily populated cities and high PM2.5 levels can be
drawn. The data was collected between 2014-2015, two years after NAAQS regulations were put
into place. The darkest spot on the map is the megacity of Beijing, which continues to display
hazardous levels of pollutants in the air.
Simply setting a standard does not mean that a city will be able to reduce their pollutant
emissions, especially given that less coal usage may inhibit the production efficiency and power
sources of industries. Some cities, like the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, have the highest density
major industries and the largest coal consumption rate (Zhang & Cao, 2015). Beijing is also a
megacity, meaning this city’s population alone has over 10 million residents that get their
electric energy from the burning of coal, which heavily adds to the air pollution. While there is a
possibility that residents may slightly reduce their coal usage to aid in the city’s NAAQS goal,
this is not enough of a change to close the level of Beijing’s 162 PM2.5 level to the proposed 25.
Figure 3: Map of average intensity for PM2.5 in urban China by millionth grams per cubic meter (Zhang & Cao,
2015).
Five Year Plans (FYPs)
Every five years, the PRC forms a plan to tackle a rising issue regarding sustainability.
As of 2020, there are 13 plans in existence, with the most recent taking on air pollution with an
intensity that has not been seen in past plans. Gradually, China has been working on raising the
standards of air quality throughout each plan, with FYP 13 including a binding new requirement
that “by 2020 Chinese cities meet ‘good’ air quality ratings more than 80% of the time,”
(Koleski, 2017). This is a slight increase from the 76.7% previously allowed by the Chinese
government, accompanied by the subjective use of the word “good” that may allow too much
leeway with implementing effective changes regarding China’s air quality improvement.
However, the days when the daily PM2.5 air pollutants exceed allowable limits have fallen
by 18%, giving cities less leeway in their unruly emissions. Previous specific gaseous pollutants
being targeted are sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, continuing the trend from FYP 12, in
which they even exceeded their set goal. China is now increasing the astringency of that goal,
with a new target of volatile organic compounds (VOC), which is one of the three main sources
of air pollution. These are emitted through fossil fuels, paints, solvents, and industrial processes
like mass manufacturing – all of which create PM2.5 pollution. The difficult with lowering VOC
emissions, however, comes from its deep integration in the heavily industrialized Chinese society
that prioritizes mass quantity productions for international trade. Nevertheless, the PRC aims to
lower the emissions rate by 10% by the 14th Five Year Plan (Koleski, 2017).
PM2.5, when found in large quantities as it is in China, creates visibility issues. Smog – a
dense cloud formed of meteorological fog and polluting smoke – becomes thick enough to
inhibit sight. Much of the smoke found in these tangible clouds come from low-quality gasoline
and diesel emissions used in transportation. Thus, China’s FYP 13 includes a call to action for oil
refiners to produce higher quality gas, specifically in diesel trucks and automobiles, which are
the most common private vehicle uses in urban China (Koleski, 2017). On top of that, China has
estimated that limited coal consumption to five billion tons will further lower their energy use for
a better economy through lower energy bills, as well as lower the pollution rate to meet their goal
(Baxter & Yao, 2019). Figure 4 below shows the density of smog that China is prone to
receiving, emphasizing the genuine dangers that pollution can pose on the country’s residents
and visitors.
As 2021 is fast-approaching, China has begun to bring ideas to the table and draw drafts
for their 14th Five Year Plan. One of the leading ideas includes capping carbon emissions
Figure 4: an individual crosses a street, with walk signs and stoplights barely visible,
highlighting the potential danger pedestrians face (Associated Press, 2016).
entirely. This is a change from limiting emissions in FYP 13, to studying successful methods in
other countries, to completely cutting it off once it hits a certain point.
Another key target China wishes to reach it to set a minimum percentage of the rate of
non-fossil fuel incorporation in their power sources. Precisely, the country wishes to expand its
capacity to 20% energy generation and use by 2030. Though the FYP is still in the works, there
have been talks of harnessing hydropower and nuclear power, with methods of using windmills
and solar panels already in the mix (Baxter & Yao, 2019).
Five Year Plans focus on the environmental impact of pollution. With volatile chemicals
and coal emissions creating clouds of dense fog thick enough to impair sight, these clouds also
possess the ability to smother the limited green spaces in urban China, too. While the humanistic
and social effects of pollution are obvious in terms of protecting the health of citizens, the
economic pillar of sustainability is indirectly addressed in the proposals made by China. When it
comes to lowering the burning of coal and switching to refined fuels, the flow of money is
altered in China’s economy. Producing refined fuel costs more money to make and purchase, and
strictly enforcing the carbon emissions cap likely means reducing coal burning, which is the
primary source of energy in China. Just by creating a few new standards to abide by, China
already has an entire fluctuation of its existing systems.
Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan
June 27th, 2018, China’s cabinet released an action plan of three years with the sole focus
of minimizing air pollution. Previous regulations focusing on air pollution did not include PM2.5
monitoring until 2013. After its inclusion, China saw a significant reduction in gaseous
pollutants between 2013-2017, seeing a drop of 15% emissions in the Pearl River Delta and 33%
drop in Beijing while emphasizing the driving force of coal carbon emissions pollution. Still, the
amount of PM2.5 did not satisfy WHO requirements of retaining a maximum level of 20
regarding ambient pollution presence, and the existing levels were still deadly to Chinese urban
residents. With the 2018 Air Pollution Action Plan, cities besides the overly dense hubs of
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei will be put under pressure to reduce their emissions, as well – expanding
the population that needs to be monitored (Hao, 2018).
Specific pollutants the action plan seeks to reduce are sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides
– which are most commonly found in fossil fuel burning and industrial production. Because the
Beijing region and Pearl River Delta have already drastically decreased their PM2.5 levels, five
new key cities are to be added on China’s watchlist. These include the Fen-Wei Plain (population
167.83 million), the Xi’an (population 12 million), and targeted areas of Shaanxi and Henan,
which are cities included in the Fen-Wei Plain. Furthermore, the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region is
to be expanded to include other parts of nearby provinces, umbrellaing them into the Beijing
region’s current goal of keeping emissions at their lower state (Zhang L. , 2018).
Also included in this action plan is a focus on VOCs, similar to FYP 13. Reasoning for
this focus is further elaborated in the plan’s release, explaining how when VOCs come into
contact with nitrogen oxides, they react to create ozone, which is a deadly polluting chemical
that eats away at earth’s protective ozone layer (Zhang L. , 2018). Environmentally, this is cause
for severe concern, as ozone depletion reduces the amount of protection one receives from the
sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays. As the number one polluter in the world, China is largely responsible
for the current state and potential harm of the ozone, and their neglect to increase their air quality
will have a negative impact on the entire globe. This clearly fails the sustainable definition of a
thriving and efficient natural environment, as the current rate of VOC emissions is toxic enough
to warrant its own section in this new action plan.
While this plan does take a great step towards reducing China’s air pollution, it is still
not getting Chinese cities to the levels of safety they need to be at. While emissions in the
targeted cities have been alleviated to an extent, there is still an overabundance quantity of PM2.5
in the air. Based on in-depth research of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, the control of VOCs needs to
be increased, as well as the nitrogen oxides they react with. An effective way would be to crack
down on industrial boilers and transportation methods, as well as transition into district heating
instead of coal combustion in winter seasons (Cai, et al., 2017).
Wind Power Laws and Programs
Despite China being the number one consumer for coal, efforts to exploit their abundant
wind energy have been made, including the implementation of a series of programs and laws to
remove any barriers to harnessing the renewable energy source.
In 1996, the Ride the Wind Program was developed with the goal for importing foreign
technology to create improved and more efficient turbines for converting kinetic wind energy to
electrical power. This was also a part of the 9th Five Year Plan, which sought out to create more
wind farms with the specific purpose of increasing alternative energy sources through the wind.
As an unintended benefit, the economic market for making locally-crafted parts for turbines –
which accounted for about 40% of each new turbine – increased. Jobs in the wind manufacturing
sector saw a drastic increase (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).
With the technology in China’s hands, the next phase of the wind energy project was to
increase the desire for domestically developed wind energies. This included making the National
Debt Wind Power Program, which used the national debt as a subsidy to build wind farms, using
a generous interest to incentivize turbine parts manufacturers and wind farm builders. This
incensed four new pilot wind farm projects that have, since the 2000 program installation, seen
completion (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).
Now that domestic wind power was being created and purchased, China’s next step was
to expand their initiatives and bounty beyond their borders. The Wind Power Concession Project
was put into place in order to commercialize wind power over the course of 20 years. This would
begin by selecting potential investors for large-scale purchases of wind energy. Then, China
ensured with government guarantees that in-grid power prices will be set upon contracting with
an investor, which ensures that all electricity will have been generated by wind farms. This
reduces marketing risks for all parties involved, which was yet another tactic for encouraging the
expansion of wind markets. By the end of 2006, 15 more wind farm projects echoing the designs
of the National Debt Wind Power Program pilots were created. However, only 25% of these
farms have since been completed (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).
Lastly, China enforces the Renewable Energy Law in 2005. This law is simple and
requires that power grid operators purchase a full amount of wind power generated by producers
who are registered to do so. This law, like others before it, also uses incentives – like creating a
national fund to foster renewable energy development and tax preferences for renewable energy
products – to facilitate continual interest in renewable wind energy (Changliang & Zhanfeng,
2009).
Below, Figure 15 details the amount of cumulative installed capacity – or wind energy –
over the years, marking the monumental regulations and laws China installed to create a
relationship between production and governmental intervention.
Compared to the other efforts the PRC had made in order to reduce air pollution, their
greatest success can be seen with the wind power efforts. Though the policies experienced a flop
in their later years, China has realized that they are in possession of a great deal of alternative
energy sources, and have created an entire sector for employment and provided themselves the
opportunity of global economic expansion. Environmentally, wind energy is a renewable source
Figure 15: shows a positive relationship between wind power created and government installations of laws
and regulations (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).
of power and causes no harm to the natural world while supplementing standard sources of
power such as coal.
Overall Progress
The People’s Republic of China have been working fervently to rectify their air pollution
issues, specifically by targeting major urban centers. Most of the more progressive regulations
have come into place around 2012 and have been improving since, which means many of their
plans tend to overlap with similar focuses and goals, and yet their WHO PM2.5 levels are still
incomprehensible. Though China has had better luck creating a culture that supports wind energy
as a sustainable solution – though it was not created in order to combat ambient air pollution –
there are still obvious gaps in the regiment that require attention. The bright side is that there are
a lot of resources and tools at China’s disposal that are not properly being used at this time.
Figure 5 below illustrates the PM2.5 levels of major Chinese cities, comparing the Air
Pollution Control and Action Plan and FYP 13, as well as providing levels in intermediary years.
Here, it is easy to see that active enforcement of Chinese law and capping is effective in lowering
pollutant emissions, and while the PM2.5 levels are nowhere near perfect according to the WHO
standards, China is at least taking a step in the right direction.
CHAPTER III
SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS
Given the background of information regarding the dangers of air pollution and the trying
efforts to fix them by the Chinese government, it is important to look towards the future and
begin to plan for sustainable solutions that can be upheld in populous urban environments. It is
also crucial to note that the solutions presented are versatile and adaptable to other cultures and
countries outside of China.
Figure 5: PM2.5 levels in major urban cities are displayed by million grams per square meter (Hao, 2018).
Green Spaces
China’s urban hubs experience an immense amount of PM2.5 air pollution that has been
proven harmful to both the environment and people. One sustainable solution to help reduce the
particulates in the air would be the implementation of various forms of green spaces.
One study in southeast urban China reveals a strong correlation between green spaces and
PM2.5 intensity in the area. While meteorological influences heavily determine the concentration
of gaseous pollutants, green spaces have been found to have a greater reduction rate in the area
that in non-green spaces. Furthermore, forestland proved to have a greater change in the
reduction of PM2.5 than grasslands, and even greater rates of reduction when compared to non-
green spaces at all (Cai, Zhuang, & Ren, 2020).
Overall, more green space results in lower PM2.5 concentrations with the gaseous
pollutants being absorbed into plants and eventually completely adsorbed. The same study
analyzes the cost analysis of feasible economic implementation should the PRC decide to act
upon the findings of beneficial green spaces. The installation of entire forests does not have a
place in any urban setting – let alone one that encompasses the workspaces, homes, and
recreation of over 800 million people. On top of that, is also a pricey should the space be
reserved for such a plan. The best option would be to plant grasses in widespread plains, ranging
with a sizable amount of 1000-3000 meters, as this does reduce pollution while being
significantly cheaper than a forested idea (Cai, Zhuang, & Ren, 2020).
A suggestion for urban China that would be somewhere in the middle of these two
choices would be to install more parklands amongst their lightspeed industrialization. Parks are
the lungs of a city, with their greenery cycling through transpiration and evaporation, which
ultimately reduces temperature. This is pertinent because high temperatures stimulate humidity
in longer durations, and particulates stick together and coagulate into a smog cloud of PM2.5.
Thus, park implementation would decrease the extent of a humidity cloud and filter gaseous
particles out of the air (Chen, et al., 2014).
Furthermore, tree concentration that is often found in parks generate winds, which push
and disperse PM2.5 particulates. This both reduces the visibility impairment as well as allows for
the pollutants to scatter and disappear at a faster rate. Given the nature of transportation being a
prime suspect behind nitrogen oxide PM2.5 emissions, planting parks alongside heavy traffic
would be most beneficial to take away the immediate exhaust of gaseous particles. Furthermore,
this would generate more aesthetic value in urban China, as it does with tree-line boulevards in
places like Palace of Versailles in France. Further studies show that the Jardin du Luxembourg is
so efficient in reducing pollution that through tree-lined roads, that sulfur dioxides do not even
penetrate the planted spaces (Makhelouf, 2009).
In some other countries, these methods are already in full effect. Research in Strasbourg
City, France, reveals that public tree plazas greatly improve residential health due to the
reduction of pollutants in the air. One situation that needs to be paid mind to when planning
parks in urban areas is that PM2.5 does not spread evenly through an area. The proportion in
which the gasses linger and amass into smog is uneven and influenced by many factors (i.e.
meteorological influences, traffic, industrial wastes), and thus needs to be strategically placed in
a way that benefits the citizens and ambient air quality (Selmi, et al., 2016). This can include
using data for predictable weather patterns, as well as tracking which roadways see the most
traffic and thereby see the most pollution.
An innovative technique for implementing greenery in the urban environment is the use
of green walls – or using plant life along the facades of buildings. Economically, installing green
walls are low-cost, energy-efficient, and effective in reducing PM2.5. Using non-exotic plants to
curtain buildings is the wisest move, as they rarely require an irrigation system and artificial
lighting cycle. Couple this with the strategic placement of walls on buildings most likely to emit
gaseous particulates or exist near places that do, such as smaller buildings surrounding coal
plants and heavy manufacturing sites, and there is a strong possibility that PM2.5 particles will be
reduced by 25% (Srbinovska, Andova, Mateska, & Krstevska, 2020). Below, Figure 6 illustrates
the appearance of a green wall and how it can mesh seamlessly with urban life.
Another worthwhile green investment that would benefit China are green rooftops. They
have a similar functionality to green walls, but serve a stronger purpose in reducing the urban
heat island effect.
Figure 6: example of an urban wall that neither impedes traffic or takes away from urban life (Biotecture,
2020).
The urban heat island effect is a phenomena that occurs when islands of urban areas
experience higher temperatures than areas around them. This is due to structures made of
pavement or concrete absorbing and re-emitting the sun’s heat. Common urban infrastructure,
like buildings and roads, are to blame for this effect. Because the heat island effect induces
higher consumption of energy to combat the heat through air conditioning, it therefore increases
the amount of pollutants in the air. And, as discussed before, the burning of coal produces
volatile organic compounds that diminish the ozone. (EPA, 2020). Thus, green rooftops
positively contribute to both the human health and environmental pillars of sustainability.
In Chicago, green roofs had a successful run in removing pollutants in the heavily
urbanized city. 19.8 hectares of green roofs were monitored for a year after their implementation,
when at the end of observation, 1675 kilograms of air pollutants were removed with a total of
86% of that belonging to the PM2.5 category. Below, Figure 7 visual for the concentration of
green rooftops in Chicago has been provided in order to understand the density of rooftops in
relation to their effectiveness.
Figure 7: a map of green roofs in Chicago, where density of rooftops can be related to dust rate of effectiveness
(Chicago Data Portal, 2020).
Based on these statistics, if all rooftops in Chicago were covered in greenery,
approximately 2046.89 tons of pollutants would be removed from the atmosphere. In crowded
areas like urban China and Chicago, planting trees and reserving spaces for parklands can be
difficult. The space might already be allotted elsewhere, or could be better used to serve flows of
traffic or accessibility for the people. However, using rooftops would be out of the way while
still effectively serving the purpose of other green spaces (Yang, Yu, & Gong, 2008).
Furthermore, green roofs can intercept dust and other similar particulates that make up
PM2.5. On average, a standard 1000 m2 roof can capture about 160-220 kg of particulates per
year. For a town that does not have any trees or green spaces, as many cities in China do not, the
daily amount of dust that drops is 850 milligrams per meter. Meanwhile, a green area reduces
that number to just 100 milligrams per meter. On top of reducing the pollution in the ambient air
and thereby reducing the risk of lung-related illnesses, plants can sterilize and inhibit bacteria
and pathogens. This is done by plants absorbing nitrogen and releasing oxygen, as well as some
mild antibacterial gasses (Xiao, Lin, Han, & Zhang, 2014).
Currently, China is behind on regulations and implementation for green roofs. Beijing’s
green roof regulation of 2005 is a detailed account of ideal plant types, construction processes,
and maintenance, yet the amount of green roofs in China is considerably lower than other
countries. This may also be because of Beijing’s 2009 “urban greening ordinance,” which does
not actually provide any legal provisions on roof greening, which means that nothing has been
addressed when it comes down to construction companies being qualified to install these
rooftops (Xiao, Lin, Han, & Zhang, 2014).
This information is out there and sitting in China’s lap, yet their widespread or even
experimentational implementation is yet to be realized. Despite success stories coming from all
around the globe and the science to prove that green spaces immensely improve upon air quality,
there has been little action from the PRC.
Transportation
China’s urban centers expand far and wide, and combined with the rapid industrialization
in the cities, efficient transportation being a necessity in everyday Chinese life with little
advanced planning for movement infrastructure. Since the 1980’s, automobiles have seen a 12%-
14% increase in road presence. In 1994, the transportation sector of China alone amounted to
5.4% of the world’s total carbon dioxide emissions. As the years progressed, this number only
increased, with 2008 being a peak year of transportation emissions as numbers hit 10.6% of total
global emissions. While this number is obviously alarming on a global scale, in individual cities
in China, the amount of which ambient air pollution is held accountable to transportation can
reach up to 80%. While policies such as emission tax per ton of carbon dioxide emitted have
been trialed in China, levels only continue to rise (Mao, Yang, Liu, Tu, & Jaccard, 2012).
In order to reduce emissions, a conversion to electric transportation could prove to be
beneficial for China. As of recent, China has promoted clean energy development, starting with
the clean energy vehicle subsidy (CEVS). Now, plug-in hybrid vehicle owners can get at least a
50,000-yuan subsidy upon purchase, whereas other clean energy vehicles can receive 3,000-yuan
compensation. For purely electric buses, the subsidy is 500,000 yuan per vehicle with a reduction
in ticket pricing – including public bus and subway tickets – to be discounted by 60%. The exact
qualifications for a “clean energy vehicles” are hybrid electric vehicles, compressed natural gas
vehicles, and bio-diesel vehicles. While estimates based on China’s growth as an industrial hub
suggest that carbon emissions will continue to grow, the rate at which it will be done will
exponentially decrease should China uphold these subsidies and economically encourage sectors
to use clean energy (Mao, Yang, Liu, Tu, & Jaccard, 2012). Below, the projected increase in
emissions and decrease in growth rate can be adequately explained in Figure 8.
Luxembourg is not only renowned for its incorporation of green spaces, but it is also a
frontrunner for successful sustainable transportation. The focus in this country was to maximize
the usage of mass transit systems. This meant extremely accessible trains, trams, and buses were
to be implemented throughout the country through thorough urban design infrastructure. On top
of that, Luxembourg generously made all public transport free by financing the systems through
the government, which encouraged more people to leave behind private cars and opt for a more
sustainable method of movement. While this is not directly a movement against emissions
reduction by switching to clean energy, it is generating less emissions by having less vehicles on
the road (World Bank, 2018).
Figure 8: periodic yearly estimate of carbon dioxide emissions in comparison to its growth rate (Mao, Yang, Liu,
Tu, & Jaccard, 2012).
This is opposed to Norway’s method of clean transportation, where their primary focus is
to utilize their ability to harness alternative energy sources. Like China, they provide incentives
for their citizens, although they are exponentially more generous. Norway does not tax for
electric vehicle imports, value added tax, or road taxes. Instead, they allow for electric vehicles
to freely traverse all over the country without the concern of paying for tolls or having fines for
plugging in their cars at electric stations, as they are publicly financed. This extreme incentive
results in Norway having the highest per capita number of electric cars in the world (World
Bank, 2018).
While China could consider removing toll taxes and financing charging stations, the
heavy emphasis on strictly electric vehicles may not work for them. Norway is a smaller country
of 148,729 square miles, whereas China is a staggering 3.705 million square miles. This means
that to get from one place to another, Chinese citizens would have to stop and recharge their
vehicles frequently to traverse the urban landscape of China. Paired with the average charge time
of eight hours for a completely spent electric vehicle that only gets an estimate of 100 miles on
the road, China might see overcrowding at stations and a slowdown in the economy from people
scrambling to get to jobs and marketplaces to keep cash flowing (World Bank, 2018).
One of China’s most utilized forms of transportation is the bus transit system. While
incentives for electric busses have already been discussed, there might be simpler ways that
China can leverage an already-great system: using big data to improve transit service. This can
be done by documenting which bus stops have the highest amount of people waiting to get on, as
well as surveying from which neighborhoods they are coming from. This type of tracking would
contribute to altering the stops that busses make. This way, a bus can make the same amount of
stops, only their revised schedule would become more efficient by concentrating them in more
populous areas and thus making the usage of their fuel the most efficient. Naturally, which stops
are the most in demand will fluctuate during different times of days: some stops are more
populated during rush hour, whereas during work days people who are recreationally travelling
during to stores and parks might be different. This means that bus schedules will change
throughout the day in order to service a larger amount of people who would be more encouraged
to use the bus rather than personal vehicles (Lewis & Raulerson, 2017).
Making urban China more multimodal friendly would be another way to leverage China’s
expansive land coverage. As it stands, 8% of traffic deaths in China are cyclists, and in 2013,
85% of Chinese residents were surveyed and found to be unsatisfied with their cycling
environment (Lua & Li, 2017). This makes it difficult for citizens to use alternative travel
methods when they do not feel safe enough to do so. In order to facilitate a culture in which
pollutants can be combatted simply by choosing to bike or bus to work, China needs to work on
its urban road designs (NACTO, 2020).
A few safety elements to be implemented are things like buffers at intersections, biking
boulevards, and cycle tracks. Buffers are crescent-shaped segments of pavement meant to outline
specific turn lanes for bicyclists. This would not only prevent cars from wildly swinging on their
turns and putting cyclists at risk, but it creates another barrier between bikes and cars that is not
currently widespread in any part of China (NACTO, 2020). With these kind of safety
precautions, one could see more pedestrians taking to the street rather than utilizing private cars
or less efficient vehicles, thus lowering emissions by not creating any in the first place. Figure 9
below illustrates what these buffers would look like at an intersection.
On the flipside of sharing a road with cars are biking boulevards. These are wide
expanses of roads that are exclusively for bikes so civilians do not have to worry about car
accidents. Wisely, these roads can work in junction with smartly placed bus stops, where these
boulevards can lead to popular stops. And for those who do not own a bike or do not want to deal
with the hassle of toting one around, China can invest in bike-sharing apps that, when used
efficiently and placed in a populous area, can be cheap per use but lucrative to the government,
should masses of people adopt the system. Furthermore, because bikes do not reach the speeds of
cars, scenery and green spaces can be a highlighted focus along these boulevards, such as tree-
lined pavements. This would create a small, contained utopia of extremely clean air in contrast to
the rest of urban China (NACTO, 2020).
Figure 9: buffers serve as a physical safety barrier between cars and bicycles, as well as guide bikes
around turns on populated intersections (Momentum Staff, 2016).
The city of Berkeley in California has already taken advantage of this idea. Seven
intersecting boulevards cross through the dense city, leading to mass transit waiting areas, the
city-named university, include safe crossing over heavily used highways, and bring cyclists to
the beach. The plan had been gradually implemented in phases starting in 1999 and ending in
2003 with small, ongoing improvements as the city sees fit. Over the years, $333,000 were spent
on the project, though 90% of that came from grant sources that funded official statewide acts for
transportation development, safe routes to schools, and clean air. To make their efforts loud and
clear, Berkeley has also invested in a simple signage system, associating the color purple with
traffic signs for bike boulevards and painting large sections of the road with cyclists
(Transportation Division, 2005). Below, Figure 10 displays the various ways in which Berkeley
has emphasized its dedicated boulevard in an effective manner.
Figure 10: Images drawing importance to Berkeley’s bike boulevard, highlighting color
coordination and bold symbology (Transportation Division, 2005).
By far, the easiest and most obvious improvement any country can make is the use of
bicycle tracks. These are biking lanes separated from the vehicular road by a simple barrier,
texturized pavement, or a brightly painted strip of pavement. These obvious tells convey to both
drivers and cyclists that they are sharing the road with traffic and increase awareness of the space
around them. While the integration of this element with an existing road might not appear
seamless, it is far better than the alternative of continuing the trend of high death rates by
cycling. A simple, narrow outline of a biking lane is the most common form of cycling
accessibility as seen below in Figure 11 (NACTO, 2020).
Overall, there are a plethora of avenues China can implement in order to maximize their
land usage and existing systems in the goal to lower PM2.5 pollution. One of the more
rudimentary ways is to simply put pedestrians back on the street by increasing the safety of
bikers and walkers, which would in turn bring back the comfort of sidewalk accessibility. Simple
urban design tactics for streetscapes make a big difference, and it is in these small details that
Figure 11: simulated image of a common bike track found in urban areas (NACTO, 2020).
moving forward with plans such as electrifying the bus system or rescheduling their stops to
leverage the population’s natural flow possible.
The overall ideas mentioned improve upon the social pillar of sustainability by promoting
physical movement through multimodality, as well as instating more direct and efficient routes
of mass transit systems. Any one of these ideas will significantly lower the air pollution in lower
China, which is an obvious win for their suffering environment pillar. Economically, however,
the placement of buffers, biking lanes, and boulevards might make a dent in China’s wallet. For
a mile alone in the United States, a bike lane can range from $5,000-$50,000 dollars. But should
China choose to invest in bike-sharing apps through a government-mandated system, they could
see some coin replenishing their money reserves.
Renewable Energy
As of 2019, China had set the goal of generating and using renewable energy to power
15% of its country’s total power usage by the end of 2020. While the year is still ongoing and so
far indeterminable whether China will be accomplishing this goal, its slowness to update and
improve previous policies regarding pollution dangers and incentives for green energy lead to the
assumption that the green movement in China is losing momentum. Yet China has such a variety
of topography and meteorology that harnessing natural resources to generate and use renewable
energy should be a breeze for the country. If China were to lean more on these non-fossil fuel
sources, the consumption of coal in both private facilities and coal power plants would
dramatically decrease, which would significantly reduce the amount of PM2.5 pollution. In fact,
in China alone, coal burning accounts for 33% of PM2.5, while making a large splash in all of
China’s total emissions with a major 6% impact. And in China alone, coal consumption for
energy amounts to a total of 60% (Science Daily, 2019).
Renewable energy can help China get off the crutch of coal, and it is a solution that can
take its time for full implementation, which would put less of an economic strain on China. As it
stands, China is a country with sunny deserts, airy mountains, and a whole ocean on its southern
border. Currently, these resources are direly underused in the realm of renewable energy.
One of the more recent trends in the realm of sustainability is the implementation of
photovoltaic panels (PVs), or solar panels. In the urban climate, these are most easily installed on
rooftops where the panels can absorb the sunlight without obstruction, but placement around
buildings or near awning can be done, although with the risk of being shadowed during certain
times of the day. The increase in PVs and their consistent installation have been gradually
bringing the cost of implementation down, while technological advances with the panels – such
as expanding their lifespan to a confident 20 years – have only been increasing.
There are two primary forms of solar panels regarding their placement in the built
environment. There are BIPVs and BAPVs. The former stands for Building-Integrated
Photovoltaics, in which solar panels are a functioning part of a building. For example, having
solar panels serve as a rooftop rather than being added onto one is a BIPV. Meanwhile, a BAPV
stands for Building Applied Photovoltaics. This is opposing to the BIPV, where the panels serve
no purpose aside from converting solar energy into usable energy. Here, an example would be
installing panels onto an existing roof, adding an extra layer to the building. BAPVs serve an
extension of a building while BIPVs are the building. While both methods are beneficial to the
environment, BIPVs are significantly more expensive and the use of panels as walls or rooftops
of a building limits their primary function. BAPVs are ideal for China as they are cheaper to
implement and have the option of being placed with more versatility, as well as have the option
of solar cells being cylindrical to harness sunlight during all hours of the day (Peng, Huang, &
Wu, 2011). Below, Figure 12 is an illustration that compares the two methods and accurately
depicts their differences in appearances.
While concerns for sunlight reaching the panels in the midst of the China’s ever-present
smog may result in hesitancy to install panels in urban China – or even rural China, in which the
government can transfer the energy to urban areas – there is no reason to fret. As of March 2020,
Germany had installed 1.8 million solar array systems, earning them the title of one of the largest
solar power producers worldwide, in spite of being one of the countries that receives the least
amount of sunshine in the world. Notwithstanding this obstacle, 8% of the country’s total power
consumption is covered by entirely renewable resources while creating about 36,000 new jobs
for solar panel installers, repairmen, and contractors. So, not only is Germany sustainably
lowering pollution rates by siphoning power from natural resources, but they are improving their
economy by creating jobs in a new employment sector. Currently, Germany’s solar panels have
Figure 12: BAPV installation can be seen attached to a rooftop on the left; BIPV installation can be seen attached to a rooftop on
the right (Science Daily, 2019).
the capacity to produce 49 gigawatts under standard meteorological conditions. Yet despite this
already outstanding achievement, Germany is looking to further expand upon their fortune by
doubling their gigawatt capacity by 2030. Their immense success with solar power has
eventually resulted in cheaper prices for installing panels than that of consuming hard coal or
getting power from gas plants (Wehrmann, 2020).
But China is not completely deficient of sunlight in all of its regions. In fact, areas in
China like Tibet and southeast Qing-Zang altiplano receive, on average, an annual total of 3,200
sunlight hours. Though these are rural regions, the energy can be collected and distributed to
urban hubs, making them ideal plains for photovoltaic panel farms (Liu, Liu, Sun, & Han, 2011).
If this type of accessibility was taken advantage of in China, residents would be more inclined to
adopt solar panels and use them alongside coal, or as a total substitute. If China followed
Germany’s lead in allowing for competitive prices on solar, they could potentially see an
economic undercut to fossil fuel plants and tip the balance of their economy. Though workers at
plants can transitionally be retrained to work in solar should they choose, older generations
might not be able to grasp onto the new concepts as quickly, and this would be a loss in terms of
the social and economic pillars of sustainability.
But solar energy is not the only type of renewable energy source that China has the
option to engage in. Another strong candidate for China’s energy source comes from an
abundant resource that surrounds a large portion of the country’s border: the ocean.
Harnessing the ocean for tidal energy is, essentially, harnessing gravity, naturally
occurring temperature differences in the water, and monsoon winds and salinity. This is a
beneficial source of power as all of these elements are highly predictable, meaning that reliance
on this as an energy source is unwavering and can be broadcast to its users about its
functionality. China is lucrative in shorelines, as it has 18,000 kilometers worth, and is in
possession of thousands of islands not included in this shoreline estimate. Due to its broad
coverage, only an approximation based on existing channel measurements can be made
regarding how many watts China can produced with tidal energy alone. The recorded channels
boast a wattage production of 13,940 megawatts through around 130 water channels. This data
obviously does not include tidal patterns that have not been observed over long periods of time,
insinuating that the total amount of megawatt productions is even higher (Liu, Ma, Gu, Lin, &
Sun, 2011).
To cite more specific areas of focus, rather than an entire border, power densities in the
Jintang, Guishan, and Xihou channels are high enough to produce 15-30 kilowatts per meters
squared of water at a consistent rate. Meanwhile, Zhejiang, an urban province in China, produces
a steady 20 kilowatts per square meter of water. Being that these points of power are all jumbled
together, this makes the eastern archipelago an area of interest with tangible purpose for tidal
energy exploitation. This is especially convenient, as this archipelago butts up to one of China’s
most populous urban hubs, that being the Shanghai area (Liu, Ma, Gu, Lin, & Sun, 2011).
To harness tidal energy, current strengths are used to push the blades of a turbine, which
ultimately converts the physical movement of the turbine into power. Due to the predictable
nature of tidal energy, the subject has become a topic of research for many renewable source
researchers. The USA, UK, Canada, and the Shetland Islands have already started taking
advantage of their respective waterways and have successful turbines up and running. The
United States have the largest ocean current power unit in the world titled the SeaGen system,
which has been operable since 2008 and produces energy at a capacity of 1.2 megawatts (Liu,
Ma, Gu, Lin, & Sun, 2011). Since the US’s success, countries all over the world have been
creating operable and lucrative turbines. However, it seems that China is lagging in this
development.
In the 1950s, China had over 76 tidal energy plants up and running. Though decades
later, only three of those plants are still functioning today. In spite of the lack of commitment to
utilizing a nearly infinite reserve of renewable energy, universities in China – such as Harbin
Engineering University, Zhejiang University, and Ocean University of China – have been
researching successful turbine models and creating some of their own in hopes of revitalizing the
tidal energy movement. Their focal points have been on trialing turbines with variations of blade
sizes and materials, as well as documenting the rates of watts produced during different levels of
tide strengths. Given that it has been over 20 years since China has had a country-wide survey of
ocean energy production since the number of their tidal energy plants have narrowed down to
three, the research done by these students contributes to an actively developing and mainstream
practice that China ought to reinstate. Already, these universities have discovered that novel
blades and air foils are worth conducting in-depth research for, as they appear to maximize the
amount of kilowatts produced at any given tidal strength over previously developed blades (Liu,
Ma, Gu, Lin, & Sun, 2011).
If China puts tidal energy back on the forefront of their power source, more students and
practiced experts can combine their knowledge and use more recent technology to create an
efficient turbine that might help subsidize the coal use in the country. By alleviating the pressure
put on coal plants, less pollutants – especially oxides – will cloud the air and create a healthier
environment, while reopening the tidal sector of China’s economy and providing people with
more jobs.
On top of that, transitioning to tidal energy and dispersal will significantly decrease the
virtual expenditure of fuels that pollute the air. South China is anemic in fossil fuel resources,
and for homeowners to manage the temperatures of their homes or for industries to power their
buildings and machines, mass quantities of coal needs to be transported from coal plants to these
southern urban areas. Billions of tons of coal is transported from North China every year, and
with the quantity being so exorbitant, massive diesel trucks are the transporters, meaning their
fuel expenditures and the cost of fuel to make these trips is through the roof (Liu, Liu, Sun, &
Han, 2011).
Below, Figure 13 details the various types of tidal turbines that could potentially be used
in China. Here, it is easy to see how the kinetic energy of the currents turn the turbines, thus
creating electrical energy. It is also representative of the versatility a turbine design can adopt in
order to properly adapt to China’s natural landscape and topography, demonstrating the
accessibility that Chinese residents can have to this energy source.
Figure 13: Four types of turbine models are illustrated to show the diversity and applicability of turbines in harnessing
tidal energy (National Geographic, 2014).
Ultimately, restoring China’s interest and investment in tidal energy is beneficial in the
fight to reduce PM2.5 pollution, as well as comes with the benefits of predictability, virtual
emissions reductions, and abundance. Every pillar is satisfied within the realm of sustainability,
as the predictable nature of tidal energy allows for long-term plans for harnessing and
distributing this power. Tidal energy will also create jobs, reinvigorate the renewable energy
sector of the economy, and relieve coal emissions stress on the environment and the people.
Another form of renewable energy for China is wind energy, which is more of a common
practice in China than the previously mentioned alternative energy sources. In fact, China has
been such a keystone of wind power that they have the potential to become a global dominator in
the wind market. Already, they are ranked as the 5th largest wind energy producer in the world.
The amount of which they can harness is in part due to the same reason why tidal energy is so
lucrative for them: miles and miles of extensive coastlines where both winds and waves are
consistently abundant in quantity. On top of that, China’s flat and broad plain of the Gobi desert
is the perfect arena for winds to travel long and far.
Below, Figure 14 shows the distribution of wind energy. Here, there is a strong
correlation between island coastlines and flatlands that are illustrated by the dark blue sections of
the map. There is also a clear depravation of strong winds in central and eastern China, where the
urban hubs can be found. This means that wind energy will, like tidal energy, have to be used in
junction with other energy types, as well as distributed to lacking regions highlighted in the light
blue.
The greatest potential in China to capture wind energy is the Sanbei Region, which
covers a span of cities and provinces that have the strongest winds for the greatest amount of
time. The power wind density ranges in this region from 200-300 W/m2, although in the
mountainous regions of Ala, Dabancheng, and the hunting ground of Chengde, power wind
density can even hit up to 500 W/m2. The amount of wind duration in these mountain ranges can
also hit numbers as high as 5,000-7,000 hours annually, presenting China with a lucrative area
for wind harnessing (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).
Present-day application for wind energy goes into Chinese traffic lights, road signal
detection, and traffic management at sea. The hope is that as air foil is incorporated into primary
Figure 14: illustration of wind strength and prevalence in China (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).
market turbines – which reduces the start times for turbines, and means that even the smallest
winds can generate energy rather than waiting for a strong gust to power up the turbine – the
energy can be incorporated into bigger city projects, like electrical power management in
apartment buildings or industrial business facilities. As it stands, China is still investing in new
technology to make more efficient products. Right now, the country is able to run megawatt
turbines that can experience 600-675p kW. China has also mastered blades, gearbox, converters,
and others important design components of a whole turbine that will help them gather more
energy to convert. Moreover, research is being poured into creating more disaster-resistant
turbines to ensure that previous investors get their wind energy, as China is prone to natural
occurrences like typhoons and monsoons that they can utilize as long as their equipment does not
fail under pressure. The solution so far appears to be creating high efficiency, yet low-cost
turbines that can be easily replaced. These expectations that China has sought out to fulfill has
been put into formal plans that, with innovation and a little bit of luck, will hopefully come into
fruition (Xu, He, & Zhao, 2010).
China has set a target of running wind turbines for both independent properties and
industrial systems at 100 GW until 2020, giving them time to conduct experiments and research
aimed towards improving efficiency until their next goal, which happens to be hitting 150 GW
for the same systems once the year of 2020 has completed. With this easy access to wind energy,
China also plans on the cost for wind energy to be equal and thus competitive with that of
traditional power. With the costs for wind energy and coal energy being equivalent, buyers are
more likely to look at both options and choose to reap the benefits of a sustainable option, rather
than being cornered into only being able to afford the unsustainable option of coal (Xu, He, &
Zhao, 2010).
China has set even later goals, demonstrating the long-term plans and commitment they
have dedicated towards progressing in the wind energy realm. Just like its previous early 21st
century plans, where wind energy was perfected for its time in China before being introduced
beyond its borders, China intends on using its hopefully-completed goals for industrial systems
of wind energy for international market competition. From 2020-2030, China’s industrial and
service systems should reach a capacity above 10,000 MW with a projected growth rate of 20%,
annually. This would increase the presence of wind energy in all forms of existing electricity to
8%, whereas purely electric energy would see an increase of being composed of 4% wind power.
Such a leap in technology would mean an initial leap in pricing, but officials are working on
finding a way to bring prices down to remain in the global market (Xu, He, & Zhao, 2010).
Ultimately, China has a lot of natural and built resources that they could expand upon
when it comes to renewable energy sources. Solar panels could be installed in the cities; tidal
energy could be reinstated as a prime facility of electricity; wind turbines could be perfected with
wind farms being completed and available to the global market. Each of these options creates
new jobs and opportunities for employment, as well as reduces ambient air pollution. While,
despite all of their plans, China remains one of the most polluted countries in the world, it is
important to realize the existing obstacles they have already overcome, as well as note that their
land and population size also pose a more difficult circumstance when it comes to efficient use of
resources and sustainable solutions.
CHAPTER IV
Application to UF, Gainesville
These methods of sustainability for reducing PM2.5 in urban China can also be applied to
other cities around the world. Already, data from Luxembourg, Germany, and Norway have
shown these strategies to be successful with expanding rates of implementation. Despite this
great news from abroad, there is still much work to be done locally.
The University of Florida (UF) is located in Gainesville, Florida. The campus is known
for its swamps and resident alligator, but could be known for more if it utilized its naturally
occurring resources. Despite being known as the sunshine state, UF is significantly lacking in
any major implementation of solar panels. Especially for being the only public university in
Florida that offers two sustainability undergraduate degrees, the campus is severely deficient in
practicing what it preaches. The most obvious proposal for the school is to use its state nickname
and take advantage of their relentless sunshine hours by installing solar panels on rooftops.
Figure 15: both the new and old parts of UF lack any panels on the tops of their buildings, despite
their flatness and vacancy (Google Maps, 2020).
Above, Figure 15 shows a variety of UF buildings that have vacant rooftops that could
effectively be occupied by BAPVs. While flat solar cells are the most common type of panel
installation to date, the university could take things a step further with the use of half-cylinder
solar cells. These cells are a form of thin-film solar cells, which are layers of thinly crafted
photovoltaic materials laid out on any substrate. The difference between these flat cells and
cylindrical ones is that the curvature of the cylinders mean that the cells are absorbing sunlight at
all times of the day, as well as collecting diffuse light. Below, Figure 16 displays the difference
in appearance between cylindrical and flat solar cells.
Though UF has installed experimental panels on buildings like Powell Hall and the Beta
Theta Pi house, there are dozens of more locations for optimal panel additions, especially given
the energy intensive use of the campus as a whole. The collective carbon footprint created from
UF’s energy consumption in its buildings accounts for 75% of the campus’s total use. Of this
percentage, 30%-40% of that is solely derived from plug loads; devices such as printers,
computers, and projectors. The rest of that comes from daily building functions, such as
Figure 16: left: cylindrical solar cells attached to a rooftop; right: flat solar cells attached to a rooftop (Biello,
2011).
managing the indoor temperature and keeping the classrooms lit. The college’s normal block
schedule runs from 7:25 AM to 7:05 PM, meaning that UF is operable Monday through Saturday
for almost an entire half of a day. This consistent usage of energy takes both a toll on the
environment and creates a hefty utility bill. Using solar panels, whether they be cylindrical or
not, would greatly reduce the strain on the electrical and energy systems onsite.
Aside from the obvious benefit of a clean source of energy, solar panels also provide a
great deal of HVAC system relief. HVAC stands for heating, ventilation, and air condition; it is
the system that regulates temperature and circulation in a given building. In Florida, where the
year is hotter than not, air conditioning is continuously kicking on every time the set temperature
of a building raises above its setting. This cycling by the HVAC system consumes a heavy
amount of energy, and while solar panels can help subsidize some of this energy, it can also
increase the insulation of a building should they be installed on a rooftop through a BAPV
method. This is done by the panels needing their own hardware and cushioning on top of the
existing roof, adding layers between direct sunlight and the building’s envelope. This decreases
the amount of heat penetrating the building’s façade, thus keeping temperatures lower by
shielding the construction from outside conditions. The panel layering also retains artificially set
temperatures inside by keeping the air within the building and reducing the natural flow of cool
indoor air exchanging with hot outdoor air. With the decrease in altering temperatures in a
building, the HVAC system runs less and therefore consumes less energy. Below, Figure 17
represents a simplified visual of the setup of a solar panel installation and how its layers increase
insulation.
Layer 1 serves as the glass layer for the panels, though it is anti-reflective with the
purpose of maximizing solar panel lifespans through protection while allowing for sunlight to
pass through. Layer 2 is an encapsulate layer that provides adhesion between solar cells, proving
crucial in keeping temperatures high to increase UV exposure for increasing solar energy. Layer
3 are the solar cells themselves, which are sandwiched between another encapsulate sheet in
layer 4 (Honsberg & Bowden, 2020). Though the purpose of the previous layers is to induce
sunlight absorption, layer 5 is the backsheet, which prevents the solar panels from overintense
UV exposure and moisture penetration, as well as offers electrical insulation to keep the panel
components resistant to outside wear and tear. Layer 6 is where the energy is actually converted
into power, as this is where the heat exchanger is. This layer is composed of conductive metals
like aluminum and copper. Finally, layer 7 is strictly a thermal insulation layer with the sole
Figure 17: visual of solar panel layers on a rooftop that heighten the insulation of a building (Lammle).
purpose of reducing heat loss in the exchange of sunlight to power, although this layer indirectly
shields the building’s interior from exterior temperature intensity (Saur News Bureau, 2018).
Aside from energy generation, the University of Florida could stand to improve its safety
measures when it comes to transportation. Though multimodality is encouraged onsite – with its
numerous bike racks and lanes, parking garages, interconnected walkways cutting through scenic
green spaces, and bus stops peppered through the campus – there is a problem of safety when
mixing pedestrian and vehicular pathways together. The university sees mass amounts of foot
traffic in a condensed area, making vehicles a threat to the average pedestrian. Below, Figure 18
shows that though UF has the right idea for multiple modes of transportation, they are
unenforced and disregarded by the general public.
Figure 19: cars parked in the bike lane on Stadium Road at UF (Google Maps 2020).
As observable, cars are parked all along the bicycle lanes. While cyclists could
technically take to the sidewalks, this would be a highly inefficient option, as the sidewalks are
congested with students and faculty zigzagging across campus to get where they need to be.
Options previously suggested for China was the inclusion of bike tracks – and while this
included the simple painted line as seen above – there were other options such as physical
barriers between cars and bike lanes that would be the next best solution for the University of
Florida. These barriers can range from concrete planters to maintain a sense of greenery on the
streets, to simple concrete poles that only bikes can weave in and out of. Not only would this
prevent cars from taking away biking accessibility, but it would increase the safety of cyclists, as
vehicles would be blocked from even swerving incidentally into the dedicated lane. With the
heightened sense of safety, this means that more university travelers may be encouraged to
utilize their bikes rather than choosing another mode of transportation that may emit more
pollutants – such as bussing or private driving.
Due to its condensed size and hopeful bicycle improvements, the campus may
want to create a bike-sharing app and system for on-campus travels. The campus was created in
1853, meaning that as time went on and buildings were added, the university endured its own
urban sprawl. This means that getting from one end of the university in the hot Florida sun to the
other might be too taxing for a brisk walk, but too short a distance to be wasteful with vehicle
fuel. This makes a cheap but heavily utilized campus-centered bike sharing application ideal to
both students and faculty.
This would serve all three pillars of sustainability, as it would benefit the people by
increasing the sense of safety, the alteration for including bike barriers is a highly versatile
project that can be completed at any range of pricing convenient for the school, and more safety
may induce and increase in bicyclists as opposed to maintaining the traffic of fuel-consuming
transportation.
Another urban design feature that would benefit both China and Gainesville are buffers
for pedestrian crossings at intersections. The campus of the university possesses many wide
streets that provide a lot of leeway for cars to swing around corners. This poses a danger to
pedestrians who may not be paying attention to traffic signals, as unaware drivers who may be
just as unconcentrated could get into an accident without any sort of barrier to warn or stop them.
The inclusion of buffers would serve as a physical deterrent for cars that are headed in a
hazardous direction, as well as serve as a mental deterrent for wide-swinging drivers who are
careless with their turns but do not want to curb their car. Similar to bike lane barriers, these
buffers would increase safety and encourage more sustainable travel.
Finally, the University of Florida is in possession of a green roof, as seen below in Figure
20.
Figure 20: green roof at Rinker Hall on UF’s campus (Google Maps, 2020).
Since its installation, the greenery has browned and been neglected in its upkeep. Yet, as
the Chicago green roof project had proved, green roofs have the ability to steal thousands of tons
of air pollutants from the air every year. If UF created a more structured regime for upkeep on
this rooftop and saw the benefits of having it, then perhaps more green roofs could spring up
around campus.
Similar to solar panels, green rooftops also provide their own layers of insulation that
create a more lax HVAC system, on top of previously mentioned benefits like urban heat island
reduction and air pollution mitigation. The University of Florida, like the rooftops in Chicago,
are extensive roofs that exist to better the environment, as opposed to intensive roofs that exist
for scenic or crop purposes. Extensive rooftops come with an additional layer to go on the
rooftop in order to drain excess water away from plant roots, which serves as a parallel to a PV’s
seventh layer of pure insulation.
CHAPTER V
Closing Remarks
China is the world’s number one polluter in the world, with the main causes in urban
areas being transportation and energy use powered by coal. By adding green spaces in urban
settings, improving safety and encouraging multimodality for transportation, and tapping into
their abundance of renewable energy sources, China can significantly reduce their PM2.5
pollution levels. While meeting the air quality standards of the WHO linger like an unattainable
achievement over China’s head, abiding by the suggested sustainable strategies can certainly get
them closer to the desired levels than previous policies have.
Though there have been issues with effective enforcement of previous regulations in the
past, those regulations did manage to improve the air quality to a small extent. Improvement in
the realm of execution of ideas and communications would see China reaching their full potential
in the air pollution revolution.
While Gainesville’s University of Florida nowhere near amasses the population or
landmass that China possesses, it is still an urban climate with urban issues. The applicability
between China’s solutions and UF’s solutions goes to show the versatility of sustainable
solutions and how they can fit in anywhere across the board. At the same time, the fact that
China can experience the same issues as a city 7,886 miles away goes to show that air pollution
is a global problem that requires global action from all.
The concept of sustainability is to create a series of interacting systems that have positive
economic, environmental, and social outputs. Just as sustainable methods can aid in rectifying
China’s urban climates, these same sustainable methods can aid in rectifying the University of
Florida’s urban climate. This is because no matter the country or continent, sustainability is a
global philosophy that all can grasp, as it is in everyone’s best interest to create successfully
efficient and resilient lifestyles that can be passed down through generations of humankind and
civilizations to come.
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