REFERENCE: The Blue Planet An Introduction to Earth System Science. Brian J. Skinner and Barbara W. Murck (2011) Third Edition. John Wiley and Sons Inc.

Energy is the capacity to do

work, to move matter, to make things happen.

1. : stored in a system.

2. : expressed in the movement of electrons, atoms, molecules, materials, and objects.

1. Chemical Energy: the energy that holds the molecules and compounds together.

2. Nuclear Energy: the energy that holds atomic nuclei together.

3. Stored Mechanical Energy: Energy stored in objects through the application of force, ex. springs.

4. Gravitational Energy: the energy that arises from the gravitational force between two objects, such as the moon and the Earth.

1. Radiant Energy: is the energy radiated by particles that are electrically charge, also called electromagnetic radiation.

2. Electrical Energy: the movement of electrons or other charged particles.

3. Thermal Energy: or heat, the vibrational movement of atoms and molecules.

4. Sound: results when an object is cause to vibrate.

5. Motion: is a change in position of an object with respect to time.

First Law:

Conservation and Transformation

“In a system of constant mass, theenergy involved in any physical orchemical change is neither created nordestroyed, but merely changed fromone form to another.”

Second Law: Efficiency and Entropy

“Energy always changes from a moreuseful, more concentrated form to a lessuseful, less concentrated form.”

The flow of energy involvesdegradation, which leads to increasingdisorganization ( ) in the system.

Third Law: Absolute Zero

“It postulates the existence of the stateof absolute zero temperature.”

is a measure of heat, thevibrational motion of particles.

Convection: Is the process by which hot, less dense materials rise upward

and are replaced by cold, more dense materials (downward-flowing and sideways –flowing) to create a convection current (shown in figure).

conduction

convection

Radiation: Is the process

in which heat passes through a gas or liquid. This is the way that heat reaches the Earth from the Sun.

Conduction: Is the process by which heat can move through any solid body, like solid rock, without changing the shape of the body.

radiation

1. External

- Solar radiation

2. Internal

- Geothermal energy

3. Earth-Moon-Sun

- Tidal interactions

“The Sun is by far the main source of energy coming into the Earth system from an external source.”

Sphere's surface area=4r2

It is the total amount of energy radiated outward each second by the Sun.

= 2.8 x 1023 m2

Luminosity=Area x Flux

= (2.8 x1023 m2)(1370 W/m2)

= 3.8 x 1026 watts

1 watt (W) = J/s

The fusion process: Nuclear reactions where lightweight chemical elements (like hydrogen) form heavier elements (such as helium and carbon). This process converts matter (i.e. mass of an atom) to energy.

Albert Einstein in 1905 showed that: E = mc2

Where, E= Energym= massc=speed of light in a vacuum (3.0 x 108 m/s)

The Sun produces its energy by two fusion reactions:1. Proton-Proton (PP) – 88%2. Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) – 12%

Four 1H One 4He + Energy

The energy released in this fusion reaction is about 4.2 x 10-12 JoulesBut 4.5 x 106 metric tons of H are converted to He every second.

H = 1.00794H x 4 = 4.03176He = 4.002602The difference isreleased as energy.

It is the energy radiated by particles that are electrically chargeFor example: Light, X-ray, infrared rays, and radio waves.

Wavelength (): The distance between two successive crests.

Speed (): The distance traveled by a crest in one second.

: The number of crests (or cycles) that pass a given point each second.

Therefore; = cf

0.03 300 400 700

Gamma

Ray

X-Ray UV Visible

106

(1 mm)

Infrared Microwave

(Radar)

Radio

3X108

(30 cm)

Wavelength (nm)

Blue Green Red

It is a group of electromagnetic rays arranged in order of increasing or decreasing wavelength.

Energy is created in the core when hydrogen is fused to helium. This energyflows out from the core by radiation through the radiative layer, by convectionthrough the convective layer, and by radiation from the surface of thephotosphere, which is the portion of the Sun we see.

The two curves are different because gases in the atmosphere (oxygen, water vapor, and carbon dioxide) selectively absorb some of the wavelengths of emitted radiation.

SOHO is a project of international collaboration between ESA and NASA to study the Sun from its deep core to the outer corona and the solar wind.

Launched on December 2, 1995.

The SOHO spacecraft was built in Europe under overall management by ESA.

Originally planned as a two-year mission, SOHOcurrently continues to operate after over ten years in space.

1. CDS (Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer) - Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, United Kingdom

2. CELIAS (Charge, Element, and Isotope Analysis System) - Universitat Bern, in Switzerland

3. COSTEP (Comprehensive Suprathermal and Energetic Particle Analyzer) - University of Kiel,

Germany

4. EIT (Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope) - NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, USA

5. ERNE (Energetic and Relativistic Nuclei and Electron experiment) - University of Turku, Finland

6. GOLF (Global Oscillations at Low Frequencies) - Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale, France

7. LASCO (Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph) - Naval Research Laboratory, USA and Max

Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Germany

8. MDI (Michelson Doppler Imager) - Stanford University, USA

9. SUMER (Solar Ultraviolet Measurements of Emitted Radiation) - Max Planck Institute for Solar

System Research, Germany

10. SWAN (Solar Wind Anisotropies) - FMI, Finland, and from the Service d'Aeronomie, France

11. UVCS (Ultraviolet Coronagraph Spectrometer) - Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, USA

12. VIRGO (Variability of Solar Irradiance and Gravity Oscillations) - Institut d'Astrophysique

Spatiale, France

TWELVE INSTRUMENTS ON SOHO WERE PROVIDED BY EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN SCIENTISTS

Incoming short-wavelength solar radiation accounts for 99.8 % of the total Earth’s energy budget.

Current remote sensing techniques are capable to separate these different wavelengths in different channels or bands.

This incoming solar radiation is received at different wavelengths with different levels of energy.

SDO: The Solar Dynamics Observatoryis the first mission to be launched for NASA's Living

With a Star (LWS) Program, a program designed to

understand the causes of solar variability and its

impacts on Earth. SDO is designed to help us understand

the Sun's influence on Earth and Near-Earth space by

studying the solar atmosphere on small scales of space

and time and in many wavelengths simultaneously.

SDO was launched on February 11, 2010, 10:23 am EST

on an Atlas V from Cape Canaveral.

More info at: http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/

Helioseismicand Magnetic Imager

Atmospheric Imaging

Assembly

Extreme Ultraviolet Variability Experiment

Imp

rove

d R

eso

luti

on

This is a beautiful profile view of cascading loops spiraling above it (Jan. 15-16, 2012) following asolar flare eruption. These loop structures are made of superheated plasma, just one of which is thesize of several Earths. With its ability to capture the Sun in amazing detail, SDO observed it all inextreme ultraviolet light. This particular video clip used an image every five minutes to present themotion. Note all of the other spurts and minor bursts from both regions during almost two days.

A solar eruption gracefully rose up from the sun on December 31, 2012, twisting and turning.Magnetic forces drove the flow of plasma, but without sufficient force to overcome the sun’sgravity much of the plasma fell back into the sun. This four–hour event occurred from 10:20 am to2:20 pm EST and was captured by NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory in extreme ultraviolet lightshown here at a high cadence of an image every 36 seconds.

It is hypothesized that convection also occurs in the interior of the Earth due to the geothermal gradient.

Temperature increases with depth in the Earth's interior.Note that temperature increases more slowly with depthunder continental crust that under oceanic crust.

In Red: Material that has move up relative to the reference sphere.

In Blue: Material that has move down relative to the reference sphere.

Much of the energy involved in tidal distortion is translated into heat energy.