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INDEX

Abandoned village, as theme in painting, viii, 155-156, 160. See also Genres; Painting; Styles; Themes

Abbreviation, process of, 219-220. See also Simplification

Abelam (of New Guinea), 21. See also New Guinea

Abidjan (ivory Coast), 24, 182, 203; art market in, 26, 198; carvers of, xiii, 22, 185n.6; cottage industries in, 64, 73; galleries in (see Galleries); labor force in, 24; University of, xii. See also Galleries; Ivory Coast; Museums; West Africa

Abomey tapestries. See Tapestries Academies, art, I, 15n.l, 44, 48-49; development

of, 49-50; grass-roots, 142; impact of, 50-97, 142n.2, 169n.ll; training in, 49-50, 72, 143, 151, 164, 185,192; woodcarvers from, 72; in Zaire, 151. See also Colonialism, in art schools

Academy of Fine Arts: Kinshasa, 50, 143-144, 164; Lubumbashi, 40, 49, 49n.12, 51, 97,143, 159, 185. See also Academies, art; Zaire

Adangme (of Ghana), 32. See also Ghana Adaptation: of appropriate technology, 7, 58; in

art, 38, 49, 77, 102; economic, 42, 77, 85 Advertising: in cottage industries, 68, 72, 74, 203-

204; surplus produced for, 42; in tourist art market, 112, 227. See also Surplus

Adze, 73, 138, 185, 185n.6, 190. See also Tools, hand

Aesthetic code-changing, 220. See also Aesthetic idiolect; Codes, aesthetic

Aesthetic criticism, xi, I, 145, 147, 165 Aesthetic distance, 218, 227, 228, 228n.5. See

also Horizon; Reception Aesthetic idiolect, 218. See also Codes. aesthetic;

Symbolic units Aesthetic preferences, 6, 75, 121 Aesthetics, xi, 8, 11, 20, 28, 30, 44, 48, 56, 136-

137,140-141,151,198,226,229; and avail­ability of resources, 65, 186; in carving, 129, 136-137,139-141,202; as change in tourist art, 210; codes of, 179,220, 235; and commer­cialization, 8, 48, 102; of communication, 237; conventions of, 9. 139, 151; criteria for, 85, 102,214; dimensions of, xii, 7, 16,231; forms in art, 193; functions of, 136: of liberation, 25, 230, 230n.6, 231; in painting, 148, 152. 170.

247

Aesthetics (cont.)

186,209; of reception, 28, 227, 228n.5: stan­dards of, 5, 28, 137, 170,204,235: of symbolic exchange, 11, 28, 220, 226-227: Western vs. African, 41, 148. See also Aesthetic distance; Aesthetic preferences; Aesthetic value: Criticism, aesthetic; Ethnoaesthetics

Aesthetic value, viii, 5, 37,41,44, 222. See also Value, of art

Africa Arts Gallery, 124, 132, 135, 198. See also Galleries

African Heritage Shop, 128, 198; dealers of, 129. See also Galleries

Africanity, in painting, 148. See also Genres; Styles; Themes

Age-set system, 116. See also Kamba Airport art, 15,30,32.213. See also Curios;

Souvenirs; Tourist art: Tourist art objects Akamba Export Shop, 123 Akamba Handicraft Industry Cooperative (Akamba

Industry), xvi, 114-116, 190n.11: Central Com­mittee of, 115, 115n.11, 116; demand for prod­ucts of, 59. See also Changamwe Cooperative; Cooperatives; Kamba carvers (of Kenya)

Akan (of Ghana): craftsmen, 27; female fertility among, 27; potters among, 96n9; royal carvings of, 23. See also Akuaba; Ashanti; Ghana

Akuaba: dolls, 26-27, 210; necklace, 27. See also Akan; Ashanti; Ghana

Alliance Fran,aise, 144. See also Art patrons; Patronage

Allophones, 222. See also Language; Syntax Amerind artifacts, 210. See also Navajo; Zuni Ancestors: artists as, 24: representation of in art,

107, 171. See also Ideology, of authenticity; Spirits

Angola: ancient kingdom of, 36; cowrie money in, 36, 196. See also Kongo, Kingdom of

Animal figures, 18, 18n.4, 48, 106, 108-109, 119, 121,127-128, 128n.14, 129, 133, 135, 173, 181,188,196,200,206.210,214: in chisungu. 50, 81n.I, 92, 102. See also Chisungu

Animal folktales. 128n.14. See also Folktales Anonymity of artists, I, 28, 74, 213: of con­

sumers, 23. See also Pseudonyms Apostles of John Masowe. See Masowe Apostles Apostolic Church of God. See Masowe Apostles

248

Appollinaire, Guillaume, 117n.1, 177-178, 262n.1 Apprenticeship system, 11,31-32,43-44,57,73,

127, 179, 189, 192, 197; in Abidjan, 65; in cabinetmaking, 67; in carving, 73, 186; children in, 87, 184; in cooperatives, 122, 204; in Eu­rope, 64n. 10; family-based, 52, 68, 72; in fur­niture production, 67; in Hong Kong, 64-65, 203n.6; in informal economic sector, 57; in ivory workshops, 52, 64, 69; in Kanyama circle, 162, 163-167; in Lusaka, 57, 63, 65, 100; in painting, 74; payment of apprentices, 52, 67, 72; in potting, 51-52, 62, 68, 90-92; specialization of, 62; traditional requirements of, 44; turnover in, 64, 64n.lO, 136; in wood carving; 44, 72-73, 108, 116, 130, 135, 138, 140, 182-183, 189, 203; work of apprentices, 7, 62. See also Children; Cooperatives; Cottage industries; Infor­mal economic sector; Workshops

Appropriate technology, 7, 58 Arrows: ceramic, 97; for commercial sale, 109 Art: authentic, 4-5,10,15-16,20,27,43, 163,

213,230,235; ceremonial purposes of. 19-22, 32, 34, 37-38, 40, 50, 82, 82n.2, 84, 85n.6, 89,92, 106, 150, 196-197,202,230; commer­cial, 7, 15n.1, 16,21-22,27,31-33,38,41, 82,230,233; decorative, 19,21,23-24,27, 32,35,41,44,51-54,67,89,108,119,148-149, 153, 171, 173, 189,230,233; economic value of, 31, 99, 214; elite, viii, 22-23, 25; ethnic, 1, 10, 15,27,84,98, 100, 129, 171, 210,214,230; folk, viii, 22, 23-25, 27, 40-41; graphic, 40,217,222; inauthentic, 15, 20n.6, 137-138, 180,230; integrated, 19, 19n.5, 22, 47; manufactured (see Manufactured art); as marker, 3-4,10,17-18,27,84,171,229; modem, 147n.5, 177,236; new styles of, 18, 20-21,29,38, 121, 143,209,230,233; plastic, 140; popular forms of, 2, 7, 23n.9, 26, 29, 29n.11, 84n.3, 139, 158n.lO, 169, 232-233, 235; "primitive," 18,25,210, 232n.8; quality of (see Quality, of art); representational, 20, 20n.8; role of women in, 45-46, 81-85, 98, 129-132; as surplus commodity, 52, 89, 210; as symbolic exchange (see Symbolic exchange); tra­ditional forms of, 16, 18, 20n.6, 21, 23, 31, 38, 41,43, 48n.l, 151n.9, 179, 180, 186n.8, 230, 232-233; Western pop, 133, 147,212; Western styles of, 24, 28-29, 31, 81, 147, 147n.5, 179, 230. See also Art critics; Authenticity; Copies; Evaluation of art; Tourist art

Art brokers. See Brokers Art circles: African, 11,50, 143-144, 164-165,

168, 177, 184, 190; European (see European artists)

Art collectors. See Collectors Art criticism. See Criticism Art critics, 8, 16,25, 180,212-213; as dealers,

212. See also Aesthetic criticism; Art; Authen­ticity; Evaluation of art

Art exchange, system of, 8-9, 30, 179, 198,222, 235, 236

Art forms, 30, 38; beadwork as, 142n.2; carving as, 142n.2; commercialization of, 30n.2. 170: of

INDEX

Art forms (cont.)

commercial products, -195; decorative textiles as, 41n.7, 142n.2; painting as, 142n.2; pottery as, 142n.2; standardization of, 102, 219. See also Iconic forms

Art historians, 15, 26, 212, 230. See also Histor­ical reconstruction

Art history, 25, 140 Artisans: in Africa, 1,5,27,31,43-44,47,

48n.11, 52, 60-61, 76,105,108,118,136, 142, 184, 192, 196, 203-204, 228; in Europe, 64n.lO, 105, 105n.1. See also Journeymen; Technicians

Artists: as agents, 222; avant-garde, 140n.18; com­mercial, 43-44, 47-50, 68, 142; conventional, 31,43-47,68,205-207; European (see Euro­pean artists); as image creators, I, 6, 11, 17, 25-27, 138, 140, 142, 147-148, 167, 170, 184, 198,204,213,228-230; master, 44, 136, 178; migrant, 1,21,142, 142n.1, 144; proletarian, 192; self-employment of, 184; self-perception of, 5-6, 192; signatures of, 17, 147, 149,205; tourist artists in Lusaka, 143; traditional, 18-19, 44, 48n.11; village, 207-208. See also Art; Artisans; Carvers; Image creators; Painters; Sculptors

Art market, 16-17,23,31,36-37,48,58,75,89, 136, 146, 208n.9, 213-214; conditions of, 76; international, 77, 149, 203n.9, 207. See also Market

Art motifs. See Motifs Art motive, 16,31, 178,225; objective, 6,8, 179;

SUbjective, 6, 8, 8n.6 Art patrons, 21, 23, 44, 53, 147, 156, 165, 167.

See also Consumers; Patronage Art producers, 3-5, 8, 28, 210-211, 220, 226.

See also Image producers; Producers Art schools, colonial, 170. See also Academies, art Arts Council. See Bali Ashanti (of Ghana): akuaba dolls of, 26, 210; stool

of, 210. See also Akan; Ghana Assembly-line production, 46-47, 65, 85, 105,

118, 186. See also Conveyor-belt production; Manufacture; Mechanization

Ateliers, 133, 179, 182-183. See also Art circles; Studios; Workshops

Atrocities, in painting, 159-160 Atsidi, Sani (Navajo), 107n.5 Attitudes, consumer. See Consumers, attitudes of;

Fads Audience. See Consumers; Tourists Authenticity: certificates of, 212; cultural. 4; ide­

ology of, 232; lack of in carving, 137, 230; as movement in painting, 154; in painting, 149n.6; in politics, 154, 232, 235n.11; as standard of evaluation, 4, 16,43, 179n.3, 200, 212, 236; in tourist art, 4, 16,43, 163,200; of traditional art, 4, 20, 179, 230, 232. See also Art; Art critics; Criticism, art; Evaluation of art; Zaire

Automation, 185. See also Mechanization; Reproduction

Axes: in exchange, 32-33; steel, 188n.lO; stone, 188n.lO. See also Tools, hand

INDEX 249

Bakwele (of Zaire). masks of, 17ln.12 Bali, 32, 196,207-208; artists, 192; Arts Council

in, 32; standards for tourist art in, 31-32, 196. See also Indonesia

Bangwa carvers (of Cameroon), 41; apprenticeship among, 44. See also Carvers

Bark cloth, 31 Barter: in commercialization, 53; economy, 37.

59-60, 84n.3, 85n.4, 207; of raffia cloth, 33n.4. See also Credit; Middlemen; Raffia cloth; Sales

Basketmaking enterprises, 62. See also Masowe Apostles

Basketweavers: designs of, 180; government sup­port of, 92n.8; in Kenya, 92, 92n.8; in Ma­chakos district and Nairobi, 92. See also Informal economic sector; Women

Batik, use of cowrie motif in, 36. See also Tex­tiles; Tie-dye cloth

Baule (of Ivory Coast) carvers, 33, 38. 235; statu­ary of, 40. See also Carvers

Beer brewing, 84, 85-87, 91-92; beer parties, 50n.13, 90. See also Shebeen

Beeswax. used in carving, 119, 138, See also Materials; Raw materials

Belief: in art, 140n.18, 195, 195n.2; folk, 158, 171,225; religious, \07, \07n.3. See also Ide­ology; Magic; Mythology; Religion; Spirits; Sys­tem, of belief

Bemba potters (of Zambia), 45, 50, 81n.l, 84, 90, 95; ceremonial ceramics of, 84, 84n.3, 86; ini­tiation among, 45, 86; men compared with, 89, 96; women's initiation figurines, 8In.l, 84. See also Potters; Shebeen. trade of

Benin, 36; Bight of, 35; bronzes, 16; carvers of, 21; city (Nigeria), 21; fish-legged figure in art, 158n.\O; tapestries of, 41n.7. See also Dahomey; Nigeria

Benjamin, Malcolm, 125, 181. 182n.4, 199-200 Ben's furniture shop, 67-68. See also

Cabinetmakers Binadamu. carving form of Makonde, \07, \07n.3.

See also Carving; Makonde, carvings styles of Bingerville Museum (Ivory Coast), 51. 200,

2oon.5. See also Galleries; Museums Bini carvers (of Nigeria), 207; use of middlemen

by, 54. See also Carvers; Nigeria Black velvet paintings, 166, 168, 187. See also

Painting "Blanco" (white typewriter fluid), 190, 190n.12.

See also Materials Boho Dance, 147n.5. See also Criticism. aesthetic;

Evaluation of art Borrowing of styles, 21. 106n.2. \07.182 Bouake (Ivory Coast), 182 Boutiques, paintings in. 208-209 Brazzaville (Congo), art academies in, 169n.11.

See also Academies, art Brideprice, among the Lele, 33. See also Lele Brokers: African, 199; art, 4, 25-27,181,199,

212,217; culture, 26; as evaluators. 212; export. 208n.8; foreign, 199; international, 180, 199; warning about, 4. See also Art critics; Dealers; Middlemen

Buli-style carvings, 150n.8, 151. 154. See also Carving; Luba

Bundu society, 82n.2. See also Poro, society of; Sande society; Secret societies

Burning village, as theme in painting. viii, 147, 153, 155-156. 160-161. See also Genres; Paint­ing; Styles; Themes

Bushong (southwestern Zaire), art of, 150n.7 Buyers: as art critics. 180; for gallery shops, 74,

211; for gift shops. 212; sophisticated, 134. See also Consumers; Middlemen

Bwami secret society, 232. See also Secret societies

Cabinetmakers, 61, 64-68 Calabash carvings. 106. See also Ceremonial art;

Divination Call-response pattern, 41. See also Feedback;

Reception Carpenters. 61; in Hong Kong, 65; in Marrapodi.

64. See also Cabinetmakers Carvers, 21, 138, 201, 214; apprenticeship system

of, 44, 72-73,107.116,122,130.135,138, 140, 182, 185-186, 189.203; Bini (Nigeria), 54, 207; commercial. definition of, 47-48; com­mercialization (see Commercialization, of car­vers); competent, 205; communicative system of, 139; conventional, 50, 68, 200, 203, 207; crafts­manship of, 138; division of labor among, 116; Dogon, 211; East African, 205; of furniture, 136. 185; hack, 202, 205, 213. 228; as image creators, 127, 136, 138, 140, 181-182,227, 236; income of. 114, 120, 12In.12, 131; inde­pendent production of, 135-136; individual ex­pression by, 139; ivory, 21, 182-183. 189-190, 203; in Ivory Coast (see Ivory Coast. carvers in); Kamba (see Kamba carvers); in Lusaka, 203; Makonde style of (see Makonde); of Masai (see Masai); master. 189, 202-203; as men's domain, 81, 129; middlemen of (see Middlemen. of car­vers); in Mombasa, \09. \09n.6, 110, 114: in Nairobi, 109. 117, 123-124; naturalism of, 107-108, 190; in Nigeria, 21; as popular sculptors, 139; self-image of, 139; Senufo (see Senufo. carvers); specialization of, 65. 119; in Tanzania (see Tanzania); in village market, 196; Wamunyu. 135; women, 82, 129. 200n.5; work­shops, 119; work songs of, 118; in Zaire, 151; in Zambia, 183. See also Bangwa carvers; Craftsmanship; Fang carvers; Gola. carvers of; Ivory workshops; Zaramo. carvers of

Carving: aesthetics of, 135-139, 141.202; of animal figures, 18,91, 106, 108, 109. 119, 121, 127, 129, 130n.15. 181; artistic innovations in. 128-130. 135-138, 140; art of, 123, 142n.2, 181, 244; authenticity of, 135; binadamu. \07. 107n.3; Buli-style, 150n.8; calabash, 106; cere­monial, 19, 37-39, 82; cooperatives of, 116-127, 138; electric tools in, 182; in export trade, 121,124-125,127; expression in, 138; folk art techniques of, 22-25, 40, 142n.l; frozen level of technology in, 139, 190; gift, 131,2\0; of human figures, 132, 188-189; intentional distor-

250 INDEX

Carving (cant.) tion in, 138; in Ivory Coast, 206; in Kenya, 221; kisanza, 126; Kuba style, 185; Makonde style (see Makonde); marketing of, 113, 134, 138; mechanization of, 7n.5; of miniatures, 135, 188-189,2\3; motion in, 133-134, 15In.9, 186; ndop, 150n.7; oral traditions of, 139n.17; orna­mental, 182; patterns in, 38; photography and, 128, 183; political themes, 19On.lI; production of, 113, 117-118, 136,203; quality control of (see Quality control); sales of, 12In.12; shetani, 107, 107n.3, 133; soapstone, 21, 47, 126, 195, 237; standardization of, \36, 213-214; styliza­tion of, 108, 114, 133, 139; surplus of, 203; symbolic forms of, 82, 133; tools of, 203n.6; traditions of, 171, 206; of Turkana figurines, 108, 130, \32; wrist techniques of, 185. See also Ivory workshops; Standardization; Tools, hand

Cash/credit/ordering system, 53, 60n.3, 61, 201, 206, 209; definition of, 53. See also Economy; Market

Cash economy, 32-36, 60n.3, 206 Cash payment, 59, 206 Ceramics, 89; Bemba ceremonial, 84, 84n.3, 86;

chisungu rite, 86; figurative statuettes, 85; hyper­realism in, 102; naturalism in, 102; production of, 100; symbolic meanings, 102. See also Clay, sculptors of; Potters

Ceremonial art, 19-20, 33, 37-40, 50, 82, 84n.3, 84-86, 85n.6, 89, 92, 150, 202; of Bemba, 84n.3, 92; commercialized, 89, 96, 102; in painting, 150, 154; in potting, 85n.6; production of, 196-197,202. See also Art, ceremonial purposes of; Painting, ceremonial values in; Rit­ual; Traditional art

Ceremonial payments, 33 Changamwe cooperative, 112-116, 119, 12In.12,

124, 126, 136-137; export sales of, 121. See also Akamba Handicraft Industry Cooperative; Cooperatives

Change: cultural, 9, 30, 37, 54, 217, 229; factors influencing, 21; industrial, I; social, 9, 231, 234; in style, 26. See also Culture; Innovation, cultural; Styles, new

Charcoal drawings, 164, 171 "Charlies," 37. See also Middlemen; Sales Chibolya Township (Lusaka), 97; ceramics of, 89 Chibuku (homebrew beer), 86-87, 164-165; in

painting, 163-164. See also Beer brewing; She­been, trade of

Chibuku Drinkers (painting), 164-165 Chifulia (painter), 50, 185, 185n.6 Children: in apprenticeship system, 87, 184; in

workshops, 72, 91. See also Apprenticeship sys­tem; Cooperatives; Workshops

Chinyanja, 145 Chisel, use of, 73, \38, 182, 189-190. See also

Tools, hand Chisungu (women's initiation rite), 84, 86, 92,

101-102; animal figures in, 91-92; as educa­tional experience, 102. See also Ceremonial art; Mbusa; Nacimbusa

Christophe (painter), 167 Churches: indigenous, 6In.6, 61-62; en­

trepreneurship in, 63n. 9. See also Cults; Lusaka: Masowe Apostles; Religion, in art

Clay, 89, 93-94, 96-103; sculptors of, 98-100; as women's domain, 81-82, 84-85. See also Ce­ramics; Potters

Clothing, production of, 182-183. See also Fashion

Codes: aesthetic, 178, 218-220, 235; artistic, 226, 236; commercial, 89; communicative, 133, 178, 219, 234; cultural, 55, 84, 229-230; elaborated, 220n.2; expressive, 31n.3, 147, 219, 222; inno­vation in, 55; legal, 35n.5; restricted, 84, 84n.3, 234; speech, 220; switching of, 147; symbolic, 28,56, 82, 84, 89,219,230. See also Genres; Themes

Collectors: as evaluators, 212; experienced, 146, 177n.l, 180,201,204,212,236; guide for, 179,201,213; international, 54. See also Buyers; Consumers

Colonialism: in art schools, 170, 192; as founda­tion for genres, 154; language of, 218-219; as theme in painting, 155, 158-159. See also Aca­demies, art; Neocolonialism

Colonie beige, as theme in painting, 158-160, 225. See also Genres; Painting; Styles; Themes

Combs, Charles Alphonse, 51. See also Bingerville Museum

Commercial exchange, 221, 230, 235 Commercialism, 129, 146, 162. See also Con­

sumerism; Materialism Commercialization: of art, 1,8, 15n.I. 16,21-22,

27,31-33,37,41, 44n.lO, 46, 82,133,146, 170, 178, 192-193, 196,200,210,228,230-236; attitudes toward, 192; of carvers, 43, 47-48,72-74, 133, 137, 139, 187,207,234; in ceramics, 102; of ceremonial art, 96; of cottage industries, 103n.12; in pottery, 89, 92; of tourist art, 44n.lO; in women's crafts, 99. See also Art; Art market; Consumerism; Middlemen

Communication, 3-4, 17-18, 23-24; act of, 228; aesthetics of, 30, 229; art as a system of, 8-9, 235-237; of artistic techniques, 177; of art ob­ject, 217; exchange of, 219, 222, 236; inter­cultural, 8-9, 218-219, 236; mass-mediated, 18; process of, 1,234-235; symbolic, 17,226; symbolism of, 226; system of, 3-4, 8, 9n.7, 17, 139, 178,218-219,221-222, 236; in tourist art, 17, 212, 214, 218. See also Codes, commu­nicative; Language; Symbolic exchange

Comparative analysis, 8, 39, 76, 206, 236-237, 237n.12. See also Field research

Connotation, 17. See also Meaning; Semiotics. Consumer connection, 28, 147, 192, 194, 196,

198,204-205, 221, 231,236, 237, 238; defini­tion of, 194. See also Economy; Market; Prices; Trade

Consumerism, 192,225. See also Commercializa­tion; Materialism

Consumers, 1,3, 15, 17-18,27, 140,217,235-236; African elite, 210; attitudes of, I, 17,28, 221,235-236; demand, 16, 138, 140, 147, 162,

Consumers (cont.) 180, 192,226,229, 235; expectations of, 1,3, 180; foreign, 184; international, I, 15, 184, 234; local, 1,23, 184,209; nonelite, 223; preference of, 213; proletarian, 147, 171,210,223; re­sponse of, 18,76,141,147,184,193-194, 196,200,217,227-228,236, 237n.13; role of, 27-28; Third World, 194; tourist as, 192; types of, 23, 53, 74, 14S, 15S. See also Image consumers; Tourists

Context: cultural, 21, 236; historical, 5, 8n.6, 26, 48n.ll, 179; of new figuratist paintings, 180: social, 4, 8, 8n.6, 55,180,221: of tourist art, 3, 105, 231; of traditional art, 20. See also Culture

Contradictions: cultural in painting, 171; structural, 151,155-156: symbolic, 136, 152-153, 160. See also Culture; Painting; Symbols

Conveyor-belt production, 7, 118, 136, 140, 183, 212. See also Assembly-line production; Man­ufacture; Mechanization; Production; Standardization

Cooperatives, 7, 6In.6, 189, 228, 233, 237; for agriculture, 122; Akamba Handicraft Industry (see Akamba Handicraft Industry Cooperative); apprentices in, 204; carving, 116-127, 138; Central Committee of, 115, 115n.ll; Changamwe (see Changamwe cooperative); and consumer connection, 204-205; creativity in, 135-136, 140; division of labor in, 204; export trade of, 208, 210; foreign aid to, 126; govern­ment grants to, 115; history of, 108; income of, 120-121; intercooperative society of, 126; inter­national trade of, 115,234; Kamba, 127, 136, 180, 18In.4, 199,210; in Kenya, 113-114, 199, 200n.5, 210; Kenyan handicraft, 199; Ken­yan ministry of, 126; Makindu, 116, 126; man­agement of, 115-116, 127; as marketing enterprises, 61.6; marketing techniques of, 83, ISO-181, 210, 234; membership in, 112,121-122, 126; middlemen in, 136; and Ministry of Cooperatives, 114-118; in Mornbasa, 114, 122, 128; in Nairobi (see Nairobi, cooperatives in); objective of, 112, 118, 125; partnerships in, 122-123, 136; profits of carvers, 120; rural farming, 113n.lO, 122; as social welfare agency, 121-123, 136; standardization in, 213; turnover in, 136; urban craft, 204; Wamunyu (see Wamunyu Handicraft Cooperative); of weavers, 45, 126, 201; women in, 130-132; in Zambia, 233. See also Apprenticeship system; Carvers; Kamba carvers; Nordic Cooperative Project; Waranienie village

Copies: in carving, 189-190,204; of genres, 147, 149n.6; in painting, 55, 164, 168, 179, 180, 190; and processual variation, 180; of traditional African artwork, 4, 180, 212; of Western art, 210. See also Duplication; Processual variation; Repetition; Reproduction

Copperbelt (Zambia), 86, 90, 161. See also Zambia

Copper work (repousee), 65 CorOl, 179

INDEX 251

Cottage industries, 7, 57-77,106,136,139,183, 189, 203-205, 234; advertising in, 68, 72, 74, 203-204; apprentices in, 57, 63-64, 89, 203; carving in, 54, 109; frozen level of technology in, 182; middlemen in (see Middlemen); produc­tivity of, I O3n.ll; quality control in, 204; self­employment in, 62n.8, 184; turnover in, 64, 136; types of, 63; vendors of, 203; workshop heads of, 190, 204; workshops of, 183-184, 190,204, 213; in Zambia, 204. See also Ap­prenticeship system; Home enterprises: Informal economic sector; Workshops

Cowries: as motif in cloth designs, 36; shells of used as money, 35-36

Craftsmanship, 43, 90, 102, 137- 138, 196, 198, 202, 229, 231. See also Quality, of art; Workmanship

Creativity, 79, 135-136, 140, 169; and production processes, 8, 133, 136; tensions in commer­cialism, 134, 146. See also Image creators

Credit, 53-54, 59-60, 6On.4, 68, 206. See also Cash! credit! ordering system

Creole language, 218, 218n.l, 220 Creolization, 217-220. See also Creole language;

Foreigner talk Crisis: in quality of art, 236; in styles of art, 18.

See also Quality, of art; Styles, artistic Criticism: aesthetic, xi, I, 145, 147, 165; art, 163,

178n.2; cultural, I; implicit, 162; by painters, 154, 163, 169; social, 154, 168-169,233,235: veiled, 154. See also Evaluation of art

Cubism, 177n.l, 177-178, 178n.2; influenced by African art, 26. See also European artists; Painting

Cults: of individualism, 140; of the original, 23; religious, 29, 122n.13. See also Churches, indig­enous; Individualism; Religion, in art

Cultural capital, 25n.lO. See also Culture Cultural contact, 3, 8-9, 18,21,30,33,38, 108,

181,192,195-196,209,218, 218n.l, 224; between Europe and Africa, 225; between mis­sionaries and carvers, 107; between producers and consumers, 217; between shopkeepers and consumers, 218; between tourists and Kamba carvers, 108; between Western and African art­ists, 177, 179, 191; between Zaramo and Swahili, 107. See also European artists; Images, Western, in African Art; Innovation, artistic

Cultural diffusion, 21. See also Borrowing of styles; Cultural contact; Innovation, cultural

Cultural innovation, 217, 219 Culturati, 147n.5 Culture: change in, 9, 30, 37, 54, 217, 229;

directness, 152; domination, 219; exchanges, 226; expectations, 180; expressive (see Ex­pressive culture); folk, 22-23; values of, 4, 222. See also Belief; Contradictions, cultural; Value

Cuna Indians (Panama): cooperative of, 47; molas of,47

Curios, 5, 184; format of, 133; market for, 184, 197,207,211; popularity of, 213; production of, 142, 142n.l, 184,213; trade in, 184,213,219. See also Airport art; Souvenirs; Tourist art objects

252

Curios factory, 124. See also Nairobi Handicraft Cooperative

Currency: exchange of, 198n.4; symbolic, 195, 195n.2. See also Exchange, of art

Dahomey, 36; social and economic innovation in, 35n.5; use of cowrie money in, 35-36. See also Benin

Dailey, Larry, (Afro-American painter), 171n.12 Damas, Yebo Gnali Nicolas, 45 Dance, African styles of, 38, 38n.6, 185, 185n.7.

See also Rhythmic patterns Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), 106, 106n.2. See also

Tanzania Dealers, 42, 52, 186, 195, 206, 212; as art critics,

212, 213. See also Brokers; Middlemen Decorative styles in carving, 108, 119; contempo­

rary, 26-17, 54; in painting, 149, 153, 171, 173; of traditional African art, 26-27. See also Art, decorative

Demand, market, 15,28,31,59, 186, 195,227, 236; external, 24, 28, 74, 181, 213; lag of, 227; local, 58-59, 72, 76, 89, 100, 103, 202, 230; perceived, 15,28, 137, 162-163, 194,220; saturated, 58-59, 227; supply and, 76, 202; in Third World, 194. See also Consumers; Market

Denotation, 17. See also Meaning; Semiotics Depidginization, 218n.1. See also Language, cre­

ole; Pidginization Desfosses, Pierre Romain, 49, 49n.12. See also

Academies, art; Art schools, colonial Designs, 28, 52, 180, 190,204,219, 223, 236;

aesthetic, 7; in carving, 71-73, 108, 127-129, 133, 135, 138, 182, 203; geometric, 106; of image creators, 6, 190, 204; visual impact of, 214; in weaving, 182-183, 201-202. See also Genres; Motifs; Styles

Development: economic, 111-112, 112n.7, 112n.8, 113n.10; industrial, 237; political, 233; of styles (see Styles, artistic)

Diatonic harmony, 8 Diouf (painter), 74, 143-151, 153, 156, 158, 162-

171, 186-187, 190, 198, 208, 208n.9, 214-215,226,236; interview with, 172-173; pseudonym of Kabamba, 143; pseudonym of Moussa, 144; pseudonym of Muntu, 144, 208. See also Kanyama circle; New figuratism; Painters

Distortion: in carving, 138-139; of communication, 18n.4, 139, 200; cultural, 236; intentional (see Intentional distortion); in painting; 149-153, 159, 167; of style, 41, 154, 236. See also Proportion; Styles; Stylization

Distribution: economic, 51, 194n.1, 199; leading to redistribution, 194; process of, 9, 52, 210; of raffia cloth, 33-35, 196; system of, 199. See also Exchange, of art; Trade

Diversification, 28, 58, 136, 183, 192, 203; of market, 202. See also Variation

Divination: among Kamba, 105; paraphernalia for, 32. See also Magic; Sorcery

Division of labor: in art distribution, 5n.3; in art production, 5n.3, 7,31,233; in carving, 65, 73;

INDEX

Division of labor (cant.) in cooperatives, 6, 136; in cottage industries, 47, 65, 203; in ivory workshops, 69; in technicians' workshops, 52; in tourist art enterprises, 5-6, 11, 219; in transitional economy, 31. See also Cooperatives; Cottage industries; Labor force; Workshops

Djellabas, 202 Djere coco (weaving design), 201. See also De­

signs, in weaving Dogon carvers, 211. See also Carvers Doily making, 85n.6, 93; sale of, 87, 93. See also

Embroidery; Quiltmaking "Doing," concept of, 228-229. See also Commu­

nication, symbolic; Language; Markers, visual Door-to-door sales. See Sales Double entendre: in carving, 138; in painting, 171.

See also Irony, in painting Double styles, in art, 138, 227 Drawings: charcoal, 164, 171; pastel, 164, 190-

191n.12, 192. See also "Blanco"; Etchings; Ka1ala, Lusengu; Lithography; Painting

Drills, electric, 65, 182, 190,203. See also Tools, electric

Drum-making, 124. See also Kamba carvers Duplication: of crafts, 58, 103, 180, 183; in paint­

ing, 179. See also Copies; Repetition; Reproduction

Dyes, of cloth, 201. See also Batik; Tie-dye cloth Dyula (Ivory Coast): cooperatives of, 46; gender

roles of, 82; village weavers, 46, 50, 83, 182, 196,201-202; women among, 50. See also Ivory Coast

East Africa: business creed of, 184; carvers of, 140,205; painters of, 210; paintings of, 225; tourist art of, 140. See also Kenya; Tanzania

Ebony (mpingo), 107, 119. See also Hardwood Economic dualism, 195. See also Consumer con-

nection; Cultural contact Economic exchange. See Exchange, economic Economic markets, 74-93, 164, 202, 211 Economics, of tourist art system, 15,30-32, 194.

See also Cooperatives; Export trade; Trade Economic surplus, 200-210 Economic system, 201 Economic value, of tourist art, 5, 10,23, 134,

201,214, 221. See also Exchange value; Value, of art

Economy: archaic, 32, 194; barter, 206; cash, 32-36, 6On.3, 206; formal vs. informal, 60n.3; informal, 61; primitive, 194; subsistence, 33; traditional, 32, 37; transitional, 33-36, 59, 194n.1, 201, 234; urban, 196n.3, 210; world, 238. See also Consumer connection; Exchange; Market; Payment, cash; Prices

Ecosystems, for artwork, 219. See also Symbolic environment; Symbols; System

Education: and aesthetic change, 210; traditional, 102; Western, 210. See also Literacy; University

Elaborated code, 220n.2 Elegant woman (L'Eteganle), 151, 153, 158, 164,

166. See also Diouf; Kalala, Lusengu

Elite: as consumers, 22-26, 74, 170,210, 231n,7; contemporary, 23; meanings determined by, 25, 25n,lO; and traditional art, 27-28, 30-31. See also Elite culture; Evaluation of art; Haute culture

Elite culture, 22-25, 25n.lO. See also Culture; Haute culture; Popular culture

Elongation, as stylistic technique in painting, 149, 151-152, 159, 164, 188. See also Stylization

Emblems, 17,209,210; makers of, 19. See also Iconic forms; Totems

Embroidery, 90, 182. See also Doily making; Quiltrnaking

Emitai (book), 149, 172. See also Novels, African Emotion, as theme in art, 37, 132, 187,229,236.

See also Expression by artists; Expressive culture; Sentiment, in an

Employment: in informal economic sector, 57, 61n.6, 84, 223n.10; and self-employment, 85-86; of women, 85-92. See also Labor force; Manpower

Entrepreneurship: in African businesses, 184-185; attitudes towards, 63n.9; definition of, 88; as innovative form, 93; in potting, 103; in souvenir art, 142. See also Experimentation; Innovation, artistic; Innovation, technological

Etchings, 143. See also Drawings; Lithography; Painting

Ethnic art. See An, ethnic Ethnic identity, 210, 230, 235n.II, 237 Ethnic markers, in painting, 152, n-I, 210. See

also Markers, in an Ethnoaesthetics, 16, 204, 230, 230n.6, 231; of the

moment, 229; standards of, 228. See also Aesthetics

European artists, 16, 129, 172, 178; an circles of, 177, 226, 236; images of, 235-236; pop art of, 212. See also Anists; Images, Western

Evaluation of art: by artists, 5-6; by audience, 42; by critics, 4-5, 16n.2, 18, 20n.6, 28, 188, 233; of.painting, 214; by producers, 102; standards of, 233; tourist, 5, 15, 178, 194-195,210,221, 231,233; traditional, 212. See also Aesthetics; An critics; Authenticity; Criticism, art

Ewe (of Ghana), 32, 209. See also Ghana Exchange: of art, 8-9, 30, 179, 198,222, 235-

236; commercial, 221, 230, 235; commodity scale of, 199; communicative, 222-236; cultural, 226; currency of, 198n.4; economic, 59-61, 195-196,225-226,230, 234, 237-238; fixed systems of, 199; of gifts, 194, 194n.l; of goods and services, 206; raffia, 196; symbolic, 9, 17, 28,148, 194n.I, 198,217,220,225-227,231: system of, 179, 194n.I, 199,200,222,225. See also Communication, exchange of; Exchange value; Symbolic exchange; System, of an ex­change; Tourist an system

Exchange value, of art object, 54, 217, 222. See also Economic value; Value, of an

Exhibitions, of art, 198, 232. See also Galleries; Museums

Exotic art, 15, 147, 153, 192, 194, 200, 205, 221. See also An; Tourist art

INDEX

Expatriates, 112, 166, 171. See also Tourism; Tourists

253

Experiences: and aesthetic distance, 228n.5; exotic, 18, 194; symbolic, 229. See also Expression by artists

Experimentation: in carving, 129, 133-134, 140, 185; by consumers, 147; in painting, 147, 162-163, 165-169, 171, 190; stylistic, 25, 143, 147, 184; technological, 103n.12. See also Innova­tion, technological; Processual variation

Expon trade, 9, 15, 208, 213; of Akamba Indus­try, 114, 123; of carvers, 121, 121n.12, 124, 127, 210; at Changamwe, 163; of cloth, 121; of cooperatives, 139, 195, 210; of Curios Factory, 166; of handicrafts, 15, 24; market of, 201; of national treasures, 232; sales of, 137, 204: small scale, 232; of tourist art, 9; of traditional art, 197; at Wamunyu, 121. See also Art market; Market, international; Trade

Expositions, gallery. See Galleries, expositions of Expression by artists, 37, 229; in carving, 138,

185n.7; cultural, 227, 229, 234; of identity, 171, 205, 230; individual, 231; interpretation of, 225n.3; modified, 230; new conventions of, 223; of nostalgia, 231; symbolic, 17,56,229,237. See also Artists; Image creators

Expressionists, 16. See also Painters Expressive culture, 7-8, 92; new forms of, 226,

237; role of, 231; theory of, 225-226, 229, 231. See also Culture; Emotion; Functionalist theory; Symbolism

Expropriation, of traditional art treasures, 232. See also Colonialism; Neocolonialism

Factory, clothing from, 183. See also Clothing; Textiles

Fads, 197, 214,227; madras cloth, 28; in popular art, 27, 48. See also Consumers, attitudes of; Consumer connection; Fashion

Fakhaha village (Ivory Coast), 201. See also Senufo

Falou (painter), 74, 163-165, 170, 186-188 Fang carvers (of Gabon), 5. See also Carvers Farming, cooperatives of, 113, 113n.lO. See also

Kamba Fashion, as communication, 26, 197. See also Fads Feather images, 3 I Feedback, from consumers, 27, 41. See also Com­

munication; Exchange; Reception Festivals, organized for tourists, 36. See also Exhi­

bitions; Tourism Fetish, 195n.2. See also Magic; Sorcery Field research, 6-7, II, 237. See also Comparative

analysis Films: African, 230n.6; German, 25; narration in,

117n.4; as reflection of culture, 26, 222; in Third World, 24-25

Fish-legged figure, in Yoruba and Benin an, 158n.lO. See also Benin: Nigeria

Fishmongering, 87. See also Market, local; Street vending

Folk art, viii, 22, 23-25,27,40-41 Folk beliefs. See Belief

254 INDEX

Folk culture, 22-23 Folklore, 40. See also Folktales; Mythology; Oral

history Folk societies, 22 Folktales: about animals, 128n.14; Kamba, 128,

128n.14, 138; as medium of communication, 26. See also Kamba; Mythology, in contemporary art; Oral history

Foreign aid: from Ministry of Cooperatives, 126; from Nordic Cooperative Project, 118. See also Government, assistance by

Foreign consumers. See Consumers Foreign contact, 6, 31, 144, 180,225. See also

Cultural contact; Cultural diffusion Foreigner talk, 220n.2, 220-221. See also Com­

munication; Creolization; Language, creole; Pidginization

Foreign themes, in African art, 38 Foreign trade, 5, llO, 213 Forests: Kilifi and Kwabe areas, 120; Ngong, 120-

123. See also Kenya; Regulation, of wood by government; Wood

Fourth World: definition of, 24; tourist art in, 237. See also Third World

Frauds: artistic, 179; ethnokitsch, 137. See also Authenticity; Evaluation of art

Free indirect style, 227 Frozen level of technology, 58, 62-66, 69, 77,

103n.12; in carving, 140, 189, 190; in cottage industries, 103n.12, 139, 183; definition of, 62; in tinsmithing, 52-66. See also Innovation, tech­nological; Technology

Functional arts, 25n.5, 210; in carving, 108, 123; produced by traditional artists, 29, 206. See also Ceremonial art; Traditional art

Functional giftware, 18In.4. See also Gift; Kamba carvers, giftware of

Functionalist theory, 225-226; and expressive culture, 225, 229, 231

Functional producers, 58-60, 65-68; compared with tourist art producers, 58-60; and local markets, 60, 75-77; and standardization, 103; women as, 103. See also Artisans; Image pro­ducers; Producers; Technicians

Functional products, 10, 41, 58, 123, 206. See also Artisans; Functional producers; Technicians

Functions: advertising, 227; aesthetic, 136; of co­operatives, 121-123; definitional, 235; social function of art objects, 19,40; symbolic function of art objects, 29; of tourist art objects, 17. See also Aesthetics; Cooperatives; Ritual

Furniture: art-carved, 7, 7n.5, 32, 73-74; carving of in Nigeria, 186n.8; in Hong Kong, 7n.5, 32, 136, 183, 203n.6, 208n.8; ornamental, 48, 186; production of, 67-68. See also Cabinetmakers; Hong Kong

Galleries: art, 45, 74, 124, 144, 146, 162, 181n.9, 191,207-208,210,214, 219; consumerism of, 74-75, 162; exhibits of, 191, 198,207,209; expositions of, 54, 163, 165, 19On.12, 207, 208n.9, 232; recognition of, 49-50; trade of, 49-50, 146, 197-198,207, 208n.8, 209, 214,

Galleries (cant.) 219. See also Exhibitions; Museums; Patronage; Sponsorship

Game parks, in Kenya, 26, 112, ll2n.7, 129. See also Tourism

Gam (indigo tie-dying), 82. See also Textiles; Tie­dye cloth

Gender: and art content, 8In.l; and art production, ll, 56, 81, 81n.I, 85, 90; and commercializa­tion, 85; and conceptions of work. 103; and differences in marketing techniques, 89; and differences in productivity, 90; relationships of, 84; stereotypes of, 81n.1, 96,103. See also Themes; Women

Generalizations, culturally codified, 229. See also Codes; Functionalist theory; Rationalization; Symbols

Genres, 6n.4, 17,27-28, 31n.3, 38, 147, 178-179, 195,231; in art market, 213-214, 227; of colonie beige, 158-160, 225; new, 227; in painting, 28, 38, 50, 55, 146-147, 153-156, 158, 160-161, 167, 169-171,225,231; repeti­tion of, 147; subgenres, 154, 159, 169, 223, 225. See also Motifs; Styles; Themes

Gerontocracy, of Kamba carvers, 115. See also Hierarchy, social; Kamba carvers

Ghana, 210; craftsmen of, 27; potters of, 96n.9. See also Akan; Ashanti; Ewe

Gift: concept of, 194; exchange, 194n.1; shop, buyers for, 205, 210-212; system of giving, 194n.1. See also Exchange

Gigantism, 39, 46, 226; definition of, 39. See also Proportion; Styles

Gikomba, ll8, 122, 127. See also Nairobi Hand­icraft Cooperative

Gola (of Liberia): carvers of, 82, 84; patronage among, 21; Sande society among, 82. See also Carvers; Sande society

Gouges, 190. See also Tools, hand Government: agricultural board of, 88; assistance

by, 232, 232n.8; attitudes toward art, 232; as consumer, 61, 64; forests, 120, 123; grants for cooperatives by, ll5; loans by, 122; role in marketing, 61n.5, 64, 108, 116; sponsorship of painters, 143n.3, 164; support of tourism by, lll, ll2n.7; support of women's commerce, 92-93n.8; wood regulations of, ll7, 120. See also Ivory Coast; Kenya; Zambia

Grammar, and codes, 218, 220. See also Codes; Language; Syntax

Graphic art, 40, 217, 222 Gris, Juan, 178, 178n.2 Guava wood, 119. See also Hardwood; Muhugu Guernica, 148, 172. See also Picasso Guro (of Ivory Coast), 33

Hack carvers, 202, 205, 213, 228 Hallmark, of tourist art, 195, 236. See also Pro­

cessua1 variation; Standardization Handicrafts: export of, 24; unions of, 228. See also

Curios; Tourist art objects Harare (Zimbabwe). See Salisbury Hardwood, 53, 119, 186. See also Ebony; Muhugu

INDEX 255

Hannony: diatonic, 8; prediatonic, 8; visual, 38. See also Music; Rhythmic patterns

Hausa traders, 37, 54, 198n.4, 207. See also Nigeria

Haute culture, artistic standards of, 22-23, 170. See also Culture

Headdresses, in tourist art, 37. See also Cere­monial art

Heller, Ben, 213. See also Collectors; Dealers; Evaluation of art

Hidden messages: in carving, 129, 134; in paint­ing, 149, 152-154, 161, 164. See also Implicit messages; Innuendo; Messages, artistic

Hierarchy: in cottage industries, 62, 68; social, 33; in work environment, 62, 183-184. See also Gerontocrarcy; Payments, status

High art, 219 High culture, 23. See also Culture; Haute culture Hindu influence in African painting, 224. See also

Religion, in art Historical reconstruction, in art, 8, 139, 139n. 17 ,

154. See also Art historians; Historical themes; Idyllic landscape; Retention, artistic

Historical themes: in carving, 151; in painting, 152,154,158-159,161,171-172,225; as symbolism, 226; and transformation of genres, 227. See also Ceremonial art; Genres; Idyllic landscape; Styles; Retention, artistic; Ritual

Historicity, and meaning, 5, 25, 139n.17, 225. See also Art history; Historical reconstruction; Reten­tion, artistic

History, art, 25, 140; African social, 234. See also Colonialism; Historical themes

Home enterprises, 5, 57-58, 69, 96, 185; of carvers, 109. See also Cooperatives; Cottage industries; Protocottage industries; Village enterprises

Hong Kong, 7; apprenticeship system in, 203n.6; art-carved furniture industry in, 7, 7n.5, 32, 136, 183, 208n.8; art market in, 32; Chinese pidgin of, 218. See also Cabinetmakers; Furniture

Horizon: change of, 228n.5; of expectations, 228n.5; technological, 100. See also Aesthetic distance; Innovation, cultural; Innovation, technological

Human form, image of in African art, 38, 128, 165, 188-189. See also Masai; Turkana

Humanism, ideology of, 233. See also Ideology Hwegbadja (King), 35n.6; introduction of cowrie

money by, 35. See also Cowries; Shell money Hyperrealism: in carving, 134, 138; in ceramics,

102; influenced by photography, 41, 128, 138; in painting, 151, 153, 166; as technique in tourist art, 236. See also Photography; Realism

latmul (of New Guinea), borrowing of masking styles, 21. See also Cultural contact; Styles, borrowing of

Iconic forms, 17; encoding of, 84; and meanings in tourist art, 225. See also Meaning; Semiotics; System, of belief

Identity: of artists, 171,205; ethnic, 210,230,

Identity (cont.)

235n.II, 237; in flux, 230; group, 20, 192, 229; national, 29, 235n.ll. See also Artist's, sig­natures of; Pseudonyms, of artists

Ideological commentary, in art, 233. See also Aesthetic criticism; Criticism, cultural

Ideological protest in art, 223. See also Messages, ideological

Ideology: in art, 19, 165, 192, 223, 232-234; of authenticity, 232; and group identity, 192. See also Belief; Rationalization; System, of belief

Idyllic landscape, as theme in art, viii, 28, 55, 73, 99-IOOn.II, 133-134, 147, 152-157, 160, 165. See also Historical themes; Landscape paintings; Waterscapes

Image consumers, viii, 1,5,12, 15, 17,27-28, 205, 224, 226. See also Consumers; Tourists

Image creators, viii, 1,6, 11, 17,25-27, 184, 198, 228-230; in carving, 127, 136, 138, 140, 181-182, 189,204,228; in cooperatives, 127-128, 204; creating new images, 27; designs of, 182, 204, 236; disseminating ideas, 25-26, 236; elite, 25; genres among, 213; images of society by, I, 29n.ll; interaction of with brokers and consumers, 1,5, 11,26-28,184; in painting, 142, 147, 167, 170. See also Artists; Carvers; Cooperatives; Painters; Processual variation

Image producers: in carving, 181, 204, 228; in cooperatives, 204; in painting, 147, 170; repeti­tion of styles by, 147, 184, 189, 236; in tourist art, viii, 5-6, 27-28, 205, 228, 236. See also Art producers; Cooperatives; Producers; Workshops

Images: borrowed, 18, 107; changed, 27; commer­cialization of, 37-43, 89, 92, 100, 102, 139; control of, 182; feather, 31; foreign, 223; idyl­lic, 55-56, 73, 99-100n.II, 102, 139; of mod­ernity, 55-56, 129, 161; modified, 100; in painting, 149, 161; received by consumers, viii, 5,27-28, 204, 208; as relics, 195, 195n.2; of sights, 205; in tourist art system, 10, 16; of tourists, 235; traditional, 32, 55, 73; Western, in African art, 37-38, 235; of women, 81n.I, 223-224. See also Genres; Idyllic landscape; Signs; Symbols; Themes

Imitation: by apprentices, 189; by external en­trepreneurs, 17. See also Copies; Reproduction

Implicit messages, in painting, 153, 162, 164-165. See also Hidden messages; Innuendo; Messages, artistic

Importers, 199. See also Brokers, international; Middlemen

Imp6ts (taxes), 159. See also Taxation Impressionist painters, 179. See also Painters Income: of carvers, 115, 131; of cooperatives, 118;

of craft producers, 66-68; of painters, 164; supplemental, 68, 93. See also Employment; Informal economic sector

Indigenous churches. See Churches, indigenous Individual expression: in carving, 109, 136; in

contemporary arts, 19; in folk culture, 22; in painting, 192. See also Expression by artists; Individualism

256

Individualism: in art, 139-140, 140n.IS, 155, ISS, 204; of carvers, 109, 139-140, 140n.18; cult of (see Cults); of painters, 140. See also Individual expression

Indonesia, local markets in, 5S. See also Bali Informal economic sector, 24, 57, 60n.3, 61,

6In.6, S6, 92n.8, 194, 233. See also Appren­ticeship system; Cottage industries; Income; La­bor force; Manpower

Initiation, S6. See also ChislIn/?u Innovation, artistic: in aesthetics, 43, IS6; in com­

mercial carving, 74, 129, 133, 135, 140-141, 189,228; and commercialization, 136; of cubism, 179; by image creators, 13S; limited, 140; in painting, 75,143,153,171, 17In.12, 186, 188; in potting, 93; stylistic, 56, 171, 177, 179, 181,233,236; in tourist art system, IS, 27-28,76, 177, 179-181: in traditional an, 21. See also Art; Carving; Experimentation; Painting; Processual variation

Innovation, cultural, 217, 219. See also Culture, change in; Symbols, of change

Innovation, technological, 11,58,63,77, S5, 103, 153,181-182, 182n.5, 184, 189, 191-193, 199, 234; by apprentices, 179; by carpenters, 64; in carving, 141, IS5; in ceramics, 98; and en­trepreneurship, 63n.9; in ivory workshops, 70, 71: in potting, S5, 92, 96; by tinsmiths, 65; and tools, 65. See also Experimentation; Technology; Variation

Innuendo: in carving, 138-139; in painting, 149. 152. See also Hidden messages; Implicit mes­sages; Irony; Messages, artistic

Integrated ans, 19, 19n.5, 22,47. See also Art Intentional distortion: in carving, 13S-139; in

painting. 152-153, 167. See also Distortion Intercooperative society. See Cooperatives International agencies. 61 n.6 International art market. See Art market,

international International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop­

ment, 111-112, 112n.7, 113n.lO. See also World Bank

International trade, 115. 203n.6. See also Expon trade; Trade

Interpretants, 18n.4. See also Semiotics Inuit (of Canada), innovation in soapstone carving

among, 21. 195. 237. See also Carving, soapstone

Irony, in painting. 55. 149-150, 162. See also Hidden messages; Implicit messages; Messages, artistic

Itshishabuamana (painter), 163, 166 Ivory carvers. See Carvers Ivory Coast: carvers in. 22, 137, 185n.6, 200,

202, 206; commercialization in, 22; European middlemen of, 206; ivory workshops in. 69, 200; marketing in, 37; tailors of. IS2; trade in, 44; weavers of, 82, 182-IS3, 201-202. See also Abidjan; Dyula; Senufo; West Africa

Ivory workshops. 69-72. 182; commercialization in, 52-53, 189-190; in West Africa. 52, 200-203; in Zambia, 52, 69-72,181-184. See also Carvers, ivory; Workshops

INDEX

Java, proletarian drama in, 26, 29n.11 Jewelry: in carving, 189; in Lusaka, 70; Navajo,

21,27; in painting, 158; produced by techni­cians, 51: from traditional art, 27; in West Africa, 32

Journey: sacred. 3; tourist's, 18. See aim Tourism Journeymen, 105n.1, 121. See also Anisans;

Technicians

Kachiasu (illicit gin), 86. See also Beer brewing; Chibuku

Kalala. Lusengu (painter). 74. 75n.13, 146, 164-168, IS7, 187n.9, ISS. 190n.12. 190-191, 208n.9, 214-215. See also Kanyama circle; New figuratism

Kamba (of Kenya): age-set system of, 116; clans of, 115; council of elders among, 115n.ll, 115-116; farms of, 113, 113n.lO, liS; folktales of, 12S. 130n.15, 139n.17; gerontocracy, 115; histo­ry of, 52n.14, 106-107, 109-110; identity of, 230; population of, 109n. 6; territory of. 116-117. See also Kamba carvers; Kenya

Kamba carvers (of Kenya): aesthetics of. 115, 129. 136. 139, 230; apprenticeship system among, lOS, 122, 13S; commercialism of. lOS, 129, 140; comparative analysis of. 206; craft cooper­atives of. 60. 105, 108, 112-127, 140-141, 180-ISI. 18In.4, 199.204; creativity of, 140; district commissioner among. 108; gerontocracy of. 115; giftware of. 18In.4, 210, 213; identity of. 141,230-231; income of, 112, 114-115; individualism of, 109, 115n.ll, 140-141, 146; market of, 105, IOS-109, 113, 116, 134, 140; middlemen among, 106n.2, 107n.5, 117-IIS, 125, 130, 140- 141, 22 I: social organization of, liS; street trade among. 52n.14, 135; styles used by. 48, 107n.4, 126.230; techniques of. 41. 126, 139, 188. See also Carvers; Cooper­atives; Farming; Identity, ethnic; Street vending; Tourist art

Kamisa, Norbert (carver), 73 Kampala (Uganda), beer brewing in, 86. See also

Prostitution; Shebeen, trade of Kanyama circle (Lusaka), 50. 74, 96n.10, 99.

142-145, 147n.5, 152, 156, 159, 20S, 20Sn.8, 214, 222-223; apprenticeship system of, 162-167; demise of, 167-171: marketing techniques of, 54; network of. 142. 145, 165, 20Sn.S. See also New figuratism

Kariba dam, as theme in painting, 162. See also Genres; Painting; Themes

Kaunda, Kenneth (President of Zambia), 234. See also Zambia

Kave, Mrs., 68, 90-96; apprentices of. 90-92; potting techniques of, 92, 93-95, 96n.9, 98; use of middlemen by, 91. See also Women

Kayembe, Joseph (painter), 74, 160, 163-164, 166, 168, 170. See also Kanyama circle; Velvet paintings

Kenya, vii; animal figures in. 205-206; basket­weavers in, 92-93; commercial carvers of. 112-137, 142, 145; cooperatives in, 113-114, 199, 200n.5, 210; demand for products in, 59; devel­opment plan of 1970-1974, 112; economic de-

Kenya (cont.) velopment in. 111-112. 112n.7, 113n.lO; game parks of, 26, 112, 112n.7, 129; handicraft ex­ports by, 24; independence of, 52n.14, III; Kamba carvers of (see Kamba carvers); Karura forest of, 120; Kilifi forest of, 120; Kitui district of, 130; Kwabe area of, 120; labor force of, 85; Machakos district of, 106; Ministry of Cooper­atives in, 114, 126; Ngong forest of, 120; presi­dent of, 19On.ll; shillings, value of, 112n.9, 120, 132, 134; tourism in, 108, III. See also Basketweavers; Development; Forests; Kamba carvers; Nairobi

Kenya External Trade Authority (KETA), 118, 125-126,180-18I,18In.4

Kinshasa (Zaire), 144, 197; art academy of (see Academy of Fine Arts, Kinshasa). See also Zaire

Kinship, role in workshop organization, viii, 52, 69,72,91, 115. See also Children

Kioko, Jonathan (carver), 127-129, 135, 138, 140, 146; as image creator, 129. See also Image creators

Kisanza (Kamba style of carving), 126. See also Makonde, carving forms of

Kisii, soapstone enterprises, 126. See also Carving, soapstone; Cooperatives

Kiswili, Moli (carver), 130, 130n.15, 131-132, 136

Kitwe (Zambia), 168 Knives, 190; palette (see Palette knife). See also

Tools, hand Kongo, Kingdom of, 36; potters of, 96. See also

Angola; Potters, Bakongo Korhogo cloth, themes in, 41-42, 201. See also

Textiles Korsten basketmakers. See Masowe Apostles Kuba (of Zaire): art of, 150n.7; figurines of, 40,

147, ISO, 152; ndop statuettes of, ISO, 150n.7, 154,167, 17In.12; king, 150n.7; style of car v­ing and painting used in Zambia, 48, lSI, 185

Kulebele carvers (of Ivory Coast), 202, 206. See also Senufo

Kwacha, 214-216; value of, 74n.12. See also Zambia

Kyowa (hardwood), 119. See also Hardwood

Labor force: in Abidjan, 24; in carving, 116, 136; in ceramics, 97, 100; in clothing production, 182; in cooperatives, 204; in craft enterprises, 24, 203; and industrial capitalism, 5; in Kenya, 84; of men, 84; migratory, 77, in Nigeria, 24; in potting, 92; pricing based on, 208n.9; projection of statistics on, 85n.4, 85n.5; self-employed, 57; in Sierra Leone, 24; of women, 35n.5, 85-86; of women in manufacturing, 92-93n.8; in Zam­bia, 57, 85, 142n.1. See also Economy; Infor­mal economic sector; Manpower

La Coste, Charles, 178 Landscape paintings, 55, 75, 96n.IO, 133-134,

147, 153-155, 160, 165-167, 187-188. See also Idyllic landscape

Language: aesthetic, 218; creole, 218, 218n.I, 220; European, 218; model of, 218; pidgin, 38, 218, 218n.I, 219-220; syntactic properties of, 219;

INDEX 257

Language (cant.)

visual, 38-39, 56, 171, 188. See also Codes; Communication; Creolization; Foreigner talk; Pidginization; Speech acts; Visual metaphors

Leadership, in workshop, 68, 189. See also Coop­eratives, management of; Workshops

Lega (of Zaire), carvings by, 232, 232n.8. See also Carving

Lele (of Zaire): Brideprice of, 34; raffia cloth of (see Raffia cloth); tourist art of, 35; weavers, 34-35, 201

Leopards, carved, 106. See also Animal figures Liberia, 21; ivory workshops in, 69, 182; tailors

of, 182-183. See also West Africa Licensing: and home trading, 87; of market stalls,

87. See also Home enterprises; Market Life force: concept of, 15In.9; as theme in paint­

ing, 151-152. See also Painting Lilanda (township of Lusaka), 73. See also Lusaka Linguistic register, 220n.2, 221. See also Foreigner

talk Literacy, of women, 86. See also Education;

Women Lithography, 43n.8, 50. See also Drawings; Etch­

ings; Printmaking Livingstone (Zambia), wood-carvers in, 22. See

also Carvers Looms: electric, 182; traditional, 182. See also

Tools, electric; Tools, hand Loren, Sophia, 196 Luba (of Zaire): Buli-style carvings of, 150n.8,

lSI, 154; carvings by, 40; caryatid stools of, 150, 150n.8, 151; figurines of, 149, 151-152, 171n.12. See also Zaire

Lubumbashi (Zaire), 159,210; art academy in, 40, 49, 49n.12, 51, 97,143,159,185. See also Zaire

Lusaka (Zambia), 57, 59, 61-63, 65, 84, 90-91, 142-144, 168, 210, 250n.lO; art market of, 143; art scene of, 142, 154; carvers of, lSI, 185n.6, 203; ceramics of, 97; churches in, 61-62, 85n.6; commercial painters in, 72, 142-143, 146, 154, 160, 168, 208, 208n.8; curio production in, 142; image of in painting, 153; ivory workshops in, 69-72; middlemen of, xiii, 142, 146; migrant artists in, 142n.1, 169; migrant generation of, 86; painters' circle in (see Kanyama circle); sale of artwork in, 208; sale of crafts in, 88-89; shortages in, 168; tourist art scene in, 169; workShops in, 183-184. See also Bemba potters; Kanyama circle; Taya1i, Henry; Zambia; Zairians, in Lusaka

Lusengu (painter). See Ka1ala, Lusengu Luvale (of Zambia), carvings of, 38-39. See also

Carving; Images, Western, in African art

Machakos (district), 106, 116--117; basketweavers in, 92; carvers in, 109, 125

Machakos Integrated Development Programme, 118 Madras cloth, as fad, 28. See also Consumers;

Fads; Textiles Maendeleo ya Wanawake (Women's Progress As­

sociation), 92-93n.8

258 INDEX

Magic, in art, 73, 187, 187n.9, 195, 195n.2, 224. See also Belief; Divination; Religion, in art

Makindu, cooperative of, 116, 126. See also Cooperatives

Makonde (of Tanzania), 106-107; artists among, 142; carving forms of, 107, 107n.3, 126, 133; carving styles of, 48, 126, 133, 137, 185n.7; religious traditions of, 107n.3

Makonde Carving Shop, 124. See also Nairobi Handicraft Cooperative

Malachite workshops, 52-53, 203 Mali, ancient empire of, 35 Mami wata (mermaid figure), as theme in painting,

158n.lO, 160, 165, 187, 187n.9, 208, 210, 222-225. See also Genres; Mermaid; Themes

Management, of cooperatives, 115-116, 127 Maneromanga (Tanzania), commercial carving cen­

ter of, l06n.2 Manpower, 62, 85, 112. See also Apprenticeship

system; Informal economic sector; Labor force Manufacture: Africa in period of, 105; in carving,

134, 140; history of in Europe, 105n.l; imported concepts of, 9; techniques of, 182-189. See also Assembly-line production; Conveyor-belt produc­tion; Mechanization; Standardization

Manufactured art, 10,21,24,27,31, 127-128, 134, 181-182, 200, 211; used in traditional life, 9. See also Manufacture; Mechanization; Standardization

Marc-Stanislas, Reverend Frere, 49. See also Academy of Fine Arts, Kinshasa

Markers: in art, 17, 209, 222-223, 226; cultural in carving, 151; drawings with felt, 171n.12; eth­nic, 152, 171,210; graphic, 205; regional, 152; visual, 17, 18,205, 209, 222-223, 226, 229. See also Art, as marker

Market: African curio, 214; archaic, 197, 199; art, 201, 213-214; commercial, 202, 204; conven­tional urban art, 196-197,213; for cooperative trade in, 201; curio, 197,207; for divine images in Bali, 196; economic, 74-93, 164,202,211; export, 202; external, 207-208; fixed, 183; in­ternational, 37, 192, 197, 205, 207, 208n.9, 209; local, 37, 74, 184, 196,205, 208n.8, 208n.9, 213-214; outlets, 191; popular art, 207; professional art, 214; reforms in, 185; souvenir, 197; tourist art (see Tourist art market); urban, 197,207,219; village, 197,213,219; Western, 199. See also Art market; Cash/credit/ordering system; Economy

Market demand. See Demand Marrapodi (Lusaka), 61-68, 90; demand for prod­

ucts in, 59; entrepreneurship in, 63n.9, 93; pay­ment in, 59. See also Lusaka

Masai, images of in carving, 108, 130, 132-133, 137, 189, 219. See also Human form

Masks, 21, 38,40,41, 138, 172, 189, 202, 211; Bakwele, 171n.12; in Bali, 32; New Guinea, 21; Sande, 84, 103n.12. See also Ceremonial art; Headdresses; Scarification marks

Masowe Apostles, 61-62, 66; cottage industries of, 183; entrepreneurship among, 62n.7, 62n.8, 93. See also Churches, indigenous; Ncube, Abel; Tinsmithing

Mass production, 27, 30, 197,212,236; of akuaba dolls, 26-27; by commercial carvers, 48, 72-73, 118-119; of Navajo jewelry, 17; in painting, 147; of souvenir pieces, 43, 221; of tourist art, 203, 206. See also Production; Reproduction

Master carvers, 189, 202-203 Materialism, 158. See also Consumerism Materials: availability of, 75n,I4, 76, 100, 173,

179, 182, 191; raw (see Raw materials); re­cycled, 65. See also Clay; Copper work; Tools, electric; Tools, hand; Wood

Matingi, Samson (carver), 138, 189 Matisse, Henri, 178 Mbai (Kamba agnatic descent groups), 115. See

also Kamba Mbai, Safari (carver), 132-135, 138-139,

139n.17, 140, 146, 189-190. See also Image creators

Mbusa (ceremonial figures), 81n.1. See also Chisungu; Nacimbusa

McEwen, Frank, 49 Meaning, 18, 156, 218, 220, 222, 225; in art, 188,

214; changes in. 27; of iconic forms (see Iconic forms); multiple levels of, 18n.4. 102; symbolic, 103; theories of. 25; of tourist art. 26; unstated, 139, 165. See also Signification; Symbolic meaning

Mechanization. 7n.5, 47, 52, 183, 186. See also Manufacture; Reproduction; Routinization; Standardization

Mediators, 9, 204, 221. See also Middlemen Melanesia, tourist art of, 7. See also New Guinea;

Oceania Mermaid. as theme in painting, 147, 158, 158n.IO,

222, 225. See also Mami wata Messages: artistic, 56, 129, 133. 139. 152, 154,

160. 162, 169; hidden (see Hidden messages); ideological. 152, 165, 223, 233; implicit (see Implicit messages); indirect, 154; political, 154. 162, 165, 233; social, 164; subliminal. 153; symbolic, 154, 169; of tourist art. 217. See also Innuendo; Irony; Meaning; Semiotics

Middle-income tourist, 109, 112, 112n.7 Middlemen, xiii. 16-17,87.89,201,235; Af­

rican. 52-53, 60, 74, 99. 198,200-201,206; as art critics, 180,212; Asian, 117; brokers as, 181; of carvers, 107n.2, 117-118, 120. 128-129, 136, 141. 189; in cooperatives, 120, 125, 129-130. 136, 141, 146; in cottage industries, 22,203; dealers as, 212; in exchange, 17, 22. 60; expectations of, 204; exploitation by, 125; foreign, 52-53, 60, 74. 206; functions of, 227; in Hong Kong, 208n.8; influence on art produc­tion by. 212; for ivory carvers. 22, 52; in Lusaka, 142, 146; in marketing, 52, 199, 204; as mediators, 9, 204, 221; in painting, 144, 180, 190-191; in potting, 91; role of, 194, 199,212; in Senegal, 142; shebeen king, 87; shebeen trade, 86-89; in stylistic innovation, 9, 219, 222, 229, 236; in tourist art system, 199; tourist contact of, 209; in weaving. 201. See also Art critics; Brokers; Buyers; Dealers; Importers

Migrant artists: in Lusaka, 142n.1, 169; popular painters of Zaire as. 160

INDEX 259

Migration, 57n.I, 77; international, 57, 142; pat­terns of, 57n.I, 142n.l; rural, 142; seasonal as theme in painting, 156; urban, I, 57, 88, 90, 126; of women, 84-85, 87-88. See also Lusaka; Urban scene

Mikotokoto (beer drinking circle), 87. See also Shebeen, parties of

Miniatures, in carving, 135, 188-189,213 Ministry of Cooperatives, 114, 118, 125; foreign

aid from, 126. See also Cooperatives Miranda (painter), 163, 166. See also Kanyama

circle Missionaries, \07, 107n.2, 188n.\O, 192,213. See

also Cultural contact Mobuto, Sese Seko (President of Zaire), 144. See

also Zaire Modernity, images of in painting, 55, 76, 153,

161, 172. See also Painting; Themes Modernization: in carving, 183, 185; in cottage

industries, 63; of styles in painting, 151, 163; theory of, 226. See also Functionalist theory

Moi, Daniel (President of Kenya), 19On.ll. See also Kenya

Mombasa (Kenya), 109-110, 112, 126, 1900.11; cooperatives in, 114, 122, 128. See also Cooperatives

Monetary standard, art object as, 33, 36 Monetary system, 194 Money, 35; cloth, 36; raffia used as, 34-35; shell,

35-36,1% Monrovia (Liberia), 41, 65; ivory workshops in,

69. See also Liberia; West Africa Motifs, 38, 41, 65, 136; in painting, 147, 149,

180; traditional, \0; in weaving, 201. See also Genres; Styles; Themes

Motion: in carving, 133-134, 15In.9; in painting, 153, 191,204. See also Styles

Motives: art, 6, 16, 18n.4, 20n.6, 179; economic, 227; of producers, 23. See also Art motive

Moujaph. See Mpinda Moussa. See Diouf Mpinda, Joseph (painter), 147-148; pseudonym

Moujaph, 208. See also Kanyama circle Mpungu, Simon (carver), 44, 185-186 Muhugu (mahogany), 119; carvings in, 129. See

also Hardwood Muia, Peter (carver), 121, 127 Mukendi (ivory carver), 70-71, 182-183,

189 Mulii, Joseph (carver), 132 Muntu. See Diouf Muoya, Matthieu (sculptor), 97, 99 Musau, Mulindi (middleman), 117, 120. See also

Partnerships Museums, 51, 20\, 205; carvers for, 72; directors

of, 51, 235; orders of, 207; patronage by, 22; role in commercialization, 51; workshops of, 72, 201. See also Exhibitions; Galleries; Patronage; Sponsorship

Music, African, 38, 38n.6. See also Dance; Rhyth­mic patterns

MUlamayo, (hardwood), 119. See also Hardwood Mutisya wa Munge, (carver), 106- \09, \o7n.4,

\o7n.5, 127, 129, 19On.11

Mutua Brothers Partnership, 123. See also Partnerships

Mutwale (painter), 163, 165, 191 Mwambetu (carving dealer), \07n.5 Mwania, Kimani (carver), 130 Mwaniki, Damson (carver), \08 Mythology, in contemporary art, 41, \07, 140n.18,

201. See also Belief; Folktales; Religion, in art

Nacimbusa (ceremonial mistress), 90. See also Bemba potters; Chisungu; Kave, Mrs.: Mbusa

Nairobi (Kenya), 116- 118; African Heritage Shop of, 128; basketweavers of, 92-93; carvers in, 109, 117, 123-124; cooperatives in, 116, 120, 122, 124-127, 133, 138; galleries in, 135, 198; sales of art objects in, 75n.14; trade connections to countryside from, \08; University of, xiii; urban migration in, 127; Women's Progress As­sociation of, 92-93n.8. See also Kenya

Nairobi Handicraft Cooperative, 121-127. See also Gikomba

National Agricultural Marketing Board (Zambia), 61, 61n.5, 64, 66. See also Government; Zambia

National Gallery of Arts (Zimbabwe), 49 Nationalism: in art, 2\0; in business, 184. See also

Identity, national Naturalism: in carving, 129, 200; in ceramics, 138;

in painting, 155. See also Genres; Realism; Styles; Themes

Navajo: artistic innovation of, 21; jewelry of, 27; silversmiths, 43, \07n.5. See also Amerind artifacts

Ncube, Abel (tinsmith), 66, 67. See also Masowe Apostles

Ndaka, James (carver), 118, 188 Ndavu, Eva, 122n.13 Ndop (Kuba statuettes), 150, 1500.7, 154, 167,

171n.12 Neocolonialism: in economic policies, 154; threat

of, 224; in training of artists, 192. See also Academies, art; Colonialism

Networks: of artisans, 37; of carvers, 136, 208n.8; of painters, 142, 145, 165, 208, 208n.8; so­cioeconomic, 30, 54, 61n.6, 88-89, 142, 23In.7. See also Social relationships

New art, in Africa, 143, 151, 171, 195. See also Art, popular forms of; Popular art

New figuratism: definition of, 146; school of, 77, 133-134, 145-146, 149, 151-152, 186-188, 190-191, 204, 209, 223; stylistic principles of, 151-153, 171n.12; in tourist art system, 180. See also Kanyama circle; Painting

New Guinea: Abelam of, 21; borrowing of masking styles, 21: Iatmul of, 21. See also Cultural contact: Melanesia, tourist art of; Oceania

Ngandu, Aaron (sculptor), 97-100: work tech­niques of, 100- \02

Nganza Partners, 120, 122, 130-131. See also Nairobi Handicraft Cooperative; Wamunyu Handicraft Cooperative

Nigeria: Bini carvers of (see Bini carvers); carving of modem furniture in, 186n.8; labor force in, 24: painters of, 143: public policy toward art in,

260 INDEX

Nigeria (cont.) 232; secular arts in, 21, 232. See also Benin, bronzes; West Africa

Nordic Cooperative Project, 118. See also Cooper­atives; Foreign aid; Government, grants for co­operatives by

Nortbwest Coast Indians, sculpture of, 20n.8. See also Amerind artifacts

Nostalgia, as theme: in carving, 73, 137; in ce­ramics, 98; in painting, 152-154, 158, 160, 231. See also Expression by artists

Novels: African, 149, 172; European, 227 Nthuku, David, xii, 129 Nzama (Kamba council of elders), 115, 115n.ll,

116, 137. See also Kamba

Oba (divine king), 21, 207. See also Bini carvers; Nigeria

Occidental arts, 225. See also European artists; Images, Western, in African art

Oceania, shell money in, 36. See also Melanesia; Polynesia; Shell money

Old Kanyama township, 143. See also Kanyama circle

Old Wememu (ivory carver). See Wememu, Albert Onobrakpeya, Bruce, 143 Oral history, of Kamba, 139n.16. See also

Folklore; Folktales, Kamba; Mythology Ordering: of art, 207; bulk, 54, 60, 117; museum,

207; special, 54; wholesale, 53-54, 60, 206. See also Cash/credit/ordering system; Prices

Ornamental furniture, 48, 186. See also Furniture

Painters: apprenticeship system of, 162-167; com­mercial, 43, 49-50, 74; creating new styles, 214; expressionist, 16, 143; government spon­sorship of, 164; impressionist, 179; income of, 164; individualism of, 146; innovation (see Inno­vation, in painting); interviews of, 145n.4; Kan­yama circle of, 143-151, 156-158, 208n.9, 214; new figuratist; 142-173, 208; Zairian in Lusaka, 55, 142-143, 146, 160, 167. See also Appren­ticeship system; Artists; Kanyama circle; Painting

Painting: abandoned village theme In, viii, 155-156, 160; abstract expressionist, 16, 143; aes­thetics, 164, 170,209; Africanity in, 148; an­cestors as theme in, 171; as art form, 142n.2; authentic, 149n.6, 154, 162, 163; bucolic theme of, 171; burning village theme in (see Burning village); ceremonial values in, 150, 153; cultural contradictions in, 151, 171; cultural directness in, 152; genres in (see Genres); historical themes .in (see Historical themes); hyperrealism in (see Hyperrealism); of idyllic landscapes (see Idyllic landscapes); images in, 55, 161, 209; Indian Brahmin, 168; innovations in, 75, 143, 153, 17l, 17In.12, 186, 188; innuendos in, 149, 152; legends in, 159; life force as theme in, 151-152; in Lusaka, 55, 98-99, 142, 146, 160, 167, 170, 208n.8; magic in, 223-224; mami wata in, 147, 158, 158n.lO, 160, 165, 187, 187n.9, 208; marketing techniques of, 54, 214; meanings in,

Painting (cont.)

147, 151, 153,225; messages in, 148, 152-154, 160, 165, 223; modernization in (see Moderniza­tion); monument theme in, 160, 163, 171,209; motifs in, 149, 180; motion in, 153; naturalism in, 155; nostalgia in; 152-154, 158-159; patron­age of, 144, 146-147, 156, 165, 167; peasant woman theme in, 153, 158, 166; photography in (see Photography); political themes in, 148, 150, 152, 154, 158-160, 171n.12; popular, 154, 160; of portraits (see Portraits); quality control in, 180; realism in (see Realism); reproductions in (see Reproduction); river people theme, 188; seasonal migrations as theme in, 156; semiotic codes in, 160; social themes of, 150, 152, 154, 156, 164; spirits in, 158, 158n.lO, 171,225; standardization of, 96n.lO, 165; stylization in (see Stylization); subliminal messages in, 153; symbolic exchange value of, 149; symbolism in, 149, 152, 160-161, 171; three-dimensional style in, 151; traditional forms in, 49, 65; velvet, 166, 168, 187; vendors of (see Vendors); warrior's theme in, 154, 156; women in, 150, 154, 158; in Zaire, 55, 142-143, 143n.3, 146, 167-169, 223, 225; in Zambia, 159. See also Aesthetics; Art; Genres; Hyperrealism; Innovation, artistic; Kanyama circle; New figuratism; Painters; Styles; Symbolic exchange; Symbols; Themes

Palette knife, 153, 155, 164, 166-167, 186, 188. See also Tools, hand

Palm tree and canoe scenes, 75. See also Idyllic landscape; Landscape paintings; Waterscapes

Paradigms, creative, 6. See also Art motive Partnerships, in cooperatives, 122-123, 136. See

also Mutua Brothers Partnership; Nganza Partners Pastels, drawings with. See Drawings, pastel Patois, 218. See also Language, creole;

Pidginization Patronage, 21, 23n.9, 53; in elite art, 23; in

painting, 144, 146-147,207. See also Art pa­trons; Consumers; Galleries; Museums

Pattems, of weaving, 180, 182, 201 Payments: cash, 59, 206; ceremonial, 33; status,

194. See also Exchange; Symbolic exchange Peasant woman, as theme in painting, 153, 158,

166. See also Genres; Painting; Styles; Themes Perception: of artists by consumers, 4; of con­

sumers by artists, 1, 3-4, 17, 204. See also Aesthetic distance; Criticism, aesthetic; Demand, perceived

Periurban population, 59, 84n.3 Personalization, of art pieces, 4-5, 192. See also

Artists; Expression by artists; Individual expression

Phenomenology, ix, 8 Phonemics, 222. See also Language Photography: in art, 41, 45, 89, 138, 179n.3; in

carving, 138, 183; in painting, 183; in tourist art, 37. See also Hyperrealism; Realism

Picasso, 177; Guemica by, 148, 172 Pidginization, 38, 217-218, 220-221. See also

Communication; Creolization; Depidginization; Foreigner talk; Language, creole

Plastic art, 140. See also Art Politics, as theme in art, 55, 148, 150, 152, 154,

159, 165, 17ln.12, 190n.11, 192. See also Aulhenticity; Government

Polynesia, 7; bark cloth in, 31; use of shell money in, 36. See also Airport art; Shell money

Popular art, 2, 22, 23n.9, 25, 29, 29n.11, 84n.3, 139, 158n.\O, 170,217,233,235; of artists in Zaire, 143; history of. 171; markets of, 207; as reflection of society, 29n.11; relation to folk art, 22; and social values, 9; and tourist art, 9; and traditional art, 23. See also Art; Kanyama circle; New figuratism; Tourist art

Popular culture, 22-23; in France, 25n.lO; as imitation, 25n.lO. See also Culture; Elite culture; Haute culture

Poro: dancers of as images in weaving, 201; soci­ety of, 82n.l. See also Sande society; Secret societies

Portraits, 171; commissions of, 209; in painting, 160, 164; as status symbols, 2\0; velvet, 166, 187. See also Painting; Velvet paintings

Poster realism, 152, 168 Postindustrial societies, 194n.1 Postmodern styles, 147 Potters: Akan, 96n.9; as art form, 142n.l;

Bakongo, 96; Bemba (see Bemba potters); as entrepreneurs, 88-89, 93; in New Guinea, 95; in Tonga, 95; women, 68-69, 81n.I, 86n.7, 95-96, 102-104. See also Ceramics; Clay; Sculptors

Potting: as adaptation of ceremonial artistry, 85n.6; commercialization of, 84-85, 88-89, 92-93; in Lusaka, 84-85, 90; production phases in, 93-95, 97-99, 100-104; standardization of, 95, 99-102; techniques of, 93-95, 96n.9; as women's craft, 81-88, 90-96. See also Ceramics; Clay

Prices: in carving, 207; of ceramics, 97-98; of commodities, 204n. 7, 208n.9; control of, 53; in cooperatives, 204; differences of, 206; fixed, 60, 85n.4, 85n.5, 207; import, 221; of international market, 204-205, 208; labor-based, 199, 204n.7; local, 204; of oil paintings, 204, 204n.4, 214, 216; and production, 199; retail (see Retailers, pricing of tourist art by). See also Economic value; Exchange, of art; Trade

Primitive art, 18,25,210, 232n.8 Primitivism: in art, 16, 134, 149, 151; in carving,

134; in painting, 146, 149, 152. See also Primi­tive art

Printmaking, 43, 62n.8, 99, 143, 179n.8. See also Lithography

Processual variation, 180-182, 190, 202, 213, 220. See also Innovation, technological; Styles; Variation

Producers: art, 3, 8, 28, 190n.11, 196,211,220, 227; conventional, 196; functional (see Func­tional producers); goals of, 3; image (see Image producers); self-image, 70. See also Art pro­ducers; Image producers; Production; Reproduction

Production: assembly-line techniques, 48, 92, 118, 186; of carving, 113, 118-119, 134, 136, 203; of clothing, 182; conveyor-belt (see Conveyor-

INDEX 261

Production (cont.)

belt production); independent, 92, 135; indi­vidual, 92; of jewelry, 27, 184; mechanization of, 182; methods in painting, 146, 188; process of, 181, 189, 196; standardization of, 72-74, 179; techniques of, 45, 196n.3, 203-204; in tourist art market, 47, 198-204, 209. See also Carving; Manufacture; Mechanization; Painting; Standardization

Productivity: of Akamba Industry, 114; in cabinet­making, 67; of carving, 120, 134, 200, 207; of ceramic workers, 97; of commercial painting, 74; in commercial wood carving, 72-73; in cottage industries, 58, 77, 103n.12; in furniture production, 68; gender differences in, 89; in ivory workshops, 69-72; in pottery, 91-93; and quality, 18; in tinsmithing, 62, 65; tools and, 63. See also Cooperatives; Cottage industries; Workshops

Proletarian artists, 192 Proletariat, African, as consumers, 37, 147, 149,

159, 171, 2\0, 223. See also Consumers Proportion, 204; exaggerated, 37; rhythmic, 38-39;

standards of, 38-39. See also Intentional distor­tion; Rhythmic patterns; Styles

Prostitution, 86-87. See also Beer brewing; She­been, trade of

Protocottage industries, 68, \03, \09; in carving, 109. See also Home enterprises

Pseudonyms, of artists, 144-149, 149n.6, 208. See also Artists, signatures of; Identity, of artists

Quality: of art, 32, 112, 121,205,211,214,220, 231, 235; crisis in, 236; decline in, 200; of production, 182; of tourist art, 204, 207, 212. See also Art; Criticism, art; Evaluation of art; Tourist art

Quality control: in art, 180, 202-204, 229; in carving, 119, 120-121, 136; in cottage indus­tries, 203-204; exercised by middlemen in tour­ist art trade, 180; standards of, 229. See also Manufacture; Production

Quiltmaking, viii, 62, 93, 237. See also Embroi­dery; Masowe Apostles

Raffia cloth: Lele weavers of, 34-35, 201; as monetary standard, 33n.4, 33-35, 196-197, 201. See also Barter; Exchange; Lele; Money

Rationalization, process of, 225. See also Belief; Ideology

Raw materials: restricted access to, 58; substitution for, 180; used in payment, 60. See also Clay; Materials, availability of; Wood

Realism: in carving, 108, 138; poster, 152, 168; stylistic elements in painting, 152-153; in tourist art, 37. See also Genres; Hyperrealism; Natu­ralism; Photography; Styles; Themes

Reception, concept of, 198,220,225,227, 228n.5, 230. See also Aesthetic distance; Con­sumers, response of

Reciprocity, 194. See also Exchange, of gifts; Gift; Trade

Reconstruction, hIstorical. See Historical reconstruction

262

Recycled materials, 65 Reduction, concept of, 219. See also Abbreviation;

Simplification Referents, and meaning, 18n.4, 224. See also

Semiotics; Signification, process of; Signs Regulation: in religion, 61; of wood by govern­

ment, 117, 120; of Zambian tourist art market, 142. See also Wood

Reintegrated arts, 19n.5, 47. See also Art; Inte­grated arts

Relics: medieval, 195, 195n.2; as souvenirs, 205 Religion: in art, 40, 195, 195n.2, 228, 230-231;

belief in (see Belief). See also Churches; Cults; Magic; Mythology; Spirits

Religious cults. See Cults, religious Renaissance, role of women in, 81. See also

European artists; Women Repertoire, stylistic. See Styles Repetition: by image creators, 147; by image pro­

ducers, 147; of techniques, 185; in Western pop art, 147, 212. See also Copies; Duplication; Reproduction

Representational art, 20, 209-210, 217, 222-223; system of, 209, 222-225. See also Genres; Styles; Themes

Reproducers, of tourist art, 217. See also Image producers; Producers

Reproduction: creating surplus, 197; of genres, 147, 179, 214; mass, 192; mechanical, 179n.3, 212; in painting, 147, 164, 179-180; in tourist art, 18, 84, 213; in Western art, 147. See also Copies; Duplication; Production; Repetition; Surplus

Restricted code, 84, 84n.3, 234. See also Codes Retailers, 135, 139-140, 194, 199-200, 206, 210-

213; pilferage from, 200; pricing of tourist art by, 119-120, 164, 166; stores of, 210. See also Buyers; Dealers; Prices; Wholesalers

Retention, artistic, process of, 38, 139, 139n.17. See also Historical reconstruction; Historical themes; Idyllic landscape; Nostalgia

Reversal: of color, 152, 164; symbolic, 134. See also Contradictions, symbolic; Language, visual; Ritual

Rhythmic patterns, in African art, 38, 96, 118, 185, 185n.7. See also Dance

Ritual: as basis for coloring in art, 37; in prohibi­tions on women, 81-82, 84-85. See also Cere­monial art; Chisungu

River people, as theme in painting, 155, 188. See also Genres; Styles; Themes

Rose d'/voire, gallery of, 4, 198. See also Galleries

Routinization, of work, 92, 96, 98, 179. See also Manufacture; Mechanization; Reproduction; Standardization

Rubens, 179

Safari (carver). See Mbai, Safari Sales: by apprentices, 52, 91; in carving, 123;

door-ta-door, 52, 74, 97; gallery, 208, 208n.9; home, 87, 92; international, 54, 199, 203-204; market stall, 87; middlemen, 52-54, 91, 146,

INDEX

Sales (cant.) 199, 203-204; street, 49, 52, 75, 87, 89, 91-92, 97; street, banned, 52, 52n.14, 75n.14, 97; street, of paintings, 49, 74, 208. See also Gal­leries, trade of; Middlemen; Prices; Retailers; Tourist art trade; Trade

Salisbury (Zimbabwe), National Gallery of Arts in, 49

Sambi, Stephen (carver), 110-111, 114, 190, 19On.11. See also Akamba Handicraft Industry Cooperative; Tools, hand

Sande society: masks in, 82, 82n.2; women of, 81. See also Bundu society; Poro, society of; Secret societies

Scarification marks, in tourist art, 37 Sculptors: artist, 133; of clay, 98-100 Secret societies, 82, 82n.l, 232. See also Bundu

society; Sande society Secular arts: forms of, 195, 228; as source of

innovation, 21 Self-criticism, by painters. See Criticism, by

painters Semiotics, viii, 3, 8, 18n.4, 152-153, 218, 220,

225; codes in, 160; ERC model of, 225, 225n.3; of tourism, 3, 8, 18n.4, 31, 3In.3, 220. See also Codes; Connotation; Iconic forms; Meaning; Signification; Signs; Symbols

Senegal: art academies in, 49; middlemen of, 142; tapestries of, 4In.7; Wolof of (see Wolof). See also West Africa

Sentiment, in art, 152, 205, 210, 236. See also Emotion

Senufo (of Ivory Coast), 32, 137,201-202, 204; carvers, 16n.2, 41, 69n. II , 137,202; themes used by, 41, 69n.11. See also Kulebele carvers; Textiles; Waranienie village

Sewing machine, electric, 182-83. See also Tools, electric

Shebeen: definition of, 50n.13; houses of, 86; kings of, 87; middlemen of trade, 87; parties of, 50, 86; potters of, 89-90; queens of, 86-87; trade of, 86-87, 90. See also Beer brewing; Lusaka

Shell money, 35-36, 196. See also Cowries; Sys­tem, monetary

Sheriff, Oumar (ivory carver), 69, 183 She/ani, carving form of Makonde, 107, 107n.3,

133. See also Kisanza; Makonde, carving styles of Sidime, Bandian (ivory carver), 182-183 Signatures, of artists, 17, 147, 149, 205 Signification: process of, 209, 222; symbolic, 17,

96; system of, 225. See also Signs; Symbols Signs, 3-4, 15-18,222; cultural, 54, 197; defini­

tion of, 17; distinguished from symbols, 17, 17n.3, 130; economic values of, 54; in painting, 159, 223; in semiotics, 18n.4; in tourist art system, 31; visual, 217. See also Codes; Mark­ers, visual; Semiotics; Symbols; Tourist art ob­jects, as signs

Sign system, 15-18, 99, lOOn. 1 , 230. See also Codes; Semiotics; Symbols

Sign value, of art object, 17, 19,54,222. See also Symbolic meaning; Value

Simplification: in art, 196,219,221; ofcommu­nication, 221; grammatical, 220; of linguistic register, 220, 220n.2, 221. See also Foreigner talk

Soapstone carving, 21, 47, 126, 195,237 Social context, 4, 8, 8n.6, 55, 180, 221 Social criticism, 154, 168-169,233, 235 Social relationships, 194n.l; in beer trade, 87;

expressed in art, 39, 84; in workshops, 52, 203. See also Hierarchy; Networks; Socioeconomic factors

Social value, 150 Social welfare, as function of cooperatives, 121-

123, 136. See also Cooperatives Societies: archaic, 194; folk, 22; industrializing,

194n.1; postindustrial, 194n.l; traditional, 21; transitional, 76-77. See also Culture, change in; Modernization, theory of; Symbols, transitional

Socioeconomic factors: in cottage industries, 52-58; and cultural expression, 30-32. See also Economy; Informal economic sector; Networks, socioeconomic

Sorcery, in painting, 187. See also Divination; Magic; Talisman

Souvenirs: animal figures (see Animal figures); and art, 142, 196, 235; carvings as, 133; as effigies, 209; exotic, 16, 18, 205; images in, 196, 205, 219; reasons for buying, 196-197,209-210; as replicas, 209. See also Airport art; Copies; Curi­os; Tourist art objects

Specialization: of carvers, 65, 119; of painters, 165; of potters, 95; of tinsmiths, 64; in work­shops, 62-65. See also Division of labor; Standardization

Speech acts, 17, 139. See also Codes; Communica­tion; Language; Utterance

Speech codes, 220 Spirits, represented in painting, 158, 158n.lO, 171,

225. See also Mami wata Spiritual essence, represented in art, 151n.9, 152 Sponsorship: of galleries, 214; of painters, 144,

165. See also Art patrons; Galleries; Museums; Patronage

Standardization, 184; of animal figurines, 213; in art forms, 37, 219; of carving, 136,201,213, 230; in cooperatives, 204, 213; of painters, 96n.lO, 165; of potting, 95-96; of production, 52,63, 179; by Senufo carvers, 69n.l1; of souvenir arts, 196; of styles, 201; tools and, 69; of tourist art, 22, 183, 219, 236; in visual arts, 204; of women's pots, 102; of work process, 98. See also Duplication; Mechanization; Production; Reproduction

Steatite carving, 21,47, 126, 195, 237 Stools: Ashanti, 210; Luba, 40, 150. See also

Carving Street haWking. See Street vending Street vending, 49, 52, 75, 75n.14, 87-92, 208.

See also Sales, street Structural contradictions, 151, 155-156 Structuralism, 8 Studios: for art-carved furniture, 73; for ceramics,

97; for ivory, 69-72, 182-183; for painting,

INDEX

Studios (cont.) 143-145. See also Art circles; Ateliers; Workshops

263

Styles: artistic, 7-8, 18,41-42,65, 135, 147, 152-153, 167, 169-171, 195,201,208,218, 226,231; borrowing of, 21, I06n.2, 107, 182; and content, 133; double, in art, 138, 227; figurative, 132; free indirect, 227; modification of, 37, 43; new, 137, 147, 170, 189, 195,237; postmodem, 147; standard in carving, 129. See also Cultural contact; Experimentation; Genres; Images; Innovation, artistic, stylistic; New Guinea; Stylization; Themes

Stylistic variation. See Variation, stylistic Stylization, 20n.8; of body shapes, 39; in carving,

108, 114, 133, 139; in painting, 147, 157, 167, 170, 197; in sculpture, 39; in textiles, 77n.7; in wood carving, 73. See also Genres; Styles; Themes

Surplus, 89, 200; in advertising, 42; in carving, 200-202; commodity, 210; economic, 200-210; goods, 197; production, 42-52, 92-93, 196, 199. See also Demand

Symbolic codes. See Codes, symbolic Symbolic communication, 17, 226. See also

Communication Symbolic contradictions, 136, 152-153, 160. See

also Contradictions Symbolic currency, 195, 195n.2. See also

Currency Symbolic environment, 219, 222 Symbolic exchange, 9, 17, 19,28, 149, 194,

194n.l, 198,217,219-220,226-227,230-231; aesthetics of, 227. See also Exchange; Value, of art

Symbolic forms, of carving, 82. See also Ieonie forms

Symbolic meaning, 27, 55, 96, 102-103. See also Symbolism; Symbols

Symbolic messages, 154, 169. See also Messages Symbolic reversal, 134. See also Reversal Symbolic signification, 17, 96. See also

Signification Symbolic synthesis, in art, ix, 151-152, 180,209,

234. See also Symbolism; Symbols Symbolic units, 5, 188,219,222-223. See also

Aesthetic idiolect; Signs Symbolic value, 10, 17, 19. See also Value Symbolism: in carving, 136; cultural, 194, 225;

customary, 230; expressive, 229; in painting, 152, 160, 171; political, 149, 151. See also Signification; Signs

Symbols, 17, 19,79, 102,223-224; of change, 226; and consumers, 18, 204; definition of, 17, 229; of mami wata (see Mami wata); of modern­ity, 71; as representations of localities, 99, 100n.ll; and signs, 17, 17n.3, 233; status, 18; transitional, 161,223,226; vehicles of, 195n.2. See also Generalizations; Meaning, symbolic; Mythology; Religion; Signification; Signs; Symbolism

Symmetry. 204. See also Proportion; Stylization Syncretism, concept of in art, 224, 237. See also

264

Syncretism (cont.) Culture, change in; Meaning, in art; Universalization

Syntax, 17, 19On.12, 219. See also Grammar; Language

System: of art exchange, 8-9, 30, 179, 198,222, 235,236; of belief, 107, 107n.3, 225, 231; cash/credit/ordering (see Cash/credit/ordering system); commercial, 214; of communication, 17, 179, 219, 221-222; distribution, 299; eco­nomic, 201; of exchange, 179,194n.I,199, 200, 222; of expression, 225; of gift-giving, 194, 194n.l; of meaning, 5; monetary, 194; of representation, 225; of signification, 17, 224; of symbolism, 225; of tourist art (see Tourist art system). See also Codes; Communication; Eco­systems; Exchange, of art; Language; Networks; Semiotics

Tailors: of Ivory Coast, 182-183; of Liberia, 182. See also Fashion

Talisman, as theme in painting, 187, 224. See also Magic

Tanzania: artists from, 142; carvers of, 107, 107n.3; government sponsorship of art in, 211; imports from, 126; traders from, 142. See also East Africa

Tapestries: Abomey, 4In.7; from the Thies School of Senegal, 4In.7; of Waranienie village, 202. See also Waranienie village

Taxation: reference to in popular painting, 159; use of cowrie money in, 36

Tayali, Henry (Zambian artist), 143, 143n.3, 233n.9

Technicians: definition of, 43, 47-48; in ivory studios, 69-72; and organization of workshops, 52; production of curios by, 2 \3. See also Artisans; Journeymen

Techniques: of carving, 185, 203, 203n.6; in folk art, 142n.2; of painting, 191. See also Carving; Craftsmanship; Painting; Potting; Routinization; Workmanship

Technological innovation. See Innovation, technological

Technology: as change in art, 105n.I, 172, 180, 191, 226; frozen level of (see Frozen level of technology); and influence on productivity, 7, 63, 182. See also Experimentation; Innovation, technological; Tools, electric; Variation

Textiles: decorative, 142n.2; government sponsored projects with, 92n.8; madras cloths as, 28; pat­terns in, 36, 41, 42, 201; use of cowrie motifs in, 36; as women's domain, 86, 92n.8. See also Tapestries; Tie-dye cloth; Waranienie village

Themes: in carving, 133; classic used in contempo­rary art, 40, 74; commercialization of, 37-43; foreign in African art, 38; historical (see Histor­ical themes); in new figuratist painting, 50, 153-161, 167; and technology, 7; variation of, 213. See also Cultural contact; Genres; Images; Mes­sages, artistic; Styles

Thiaka, Gedeon (carver), 127 Third cinema, 25. See also Films; Third World,

films in

INDEX

Third World: artisans of, 136; craft enterprises of, 24; definition of, 24; filmmakers of, 25; films in, 24-25; growth of tourist art in, 194; image creators of, 24; urbanization process in, 231. See also Films; Fourth World

Tie-dye cloth: gara technique, 82; use of cowrie motif in, 36. See also Textiles

Timbuktu, use of cowrie money in, 35. See also Cowries; Shell money

Tinsmithing, 62-66; apprentices in, 62-64. See also Cottage industries; Frozen level of tech­nology; Masowe Apostles; Workshops

Toiles de Korhogo. See Korhogo cloth Tools: availability of, 65; in carving, 190,203,

203n.6; in potting, 92; and productivity, 68, 183; quality of, 198; steel, 185. See also Productivity

Tools, electric, 7, 182-183, 203; in carpentry, 63; in cottage industries, 62, 182-183; in furniture production, 67-68; in ivory workshops, 70-71, 182-183, 203. See also Drills; Mechanization; Routinization

Tools, hand: in carving, 3, 138, 182, 189-190, 203; in ceramics, 97, 100; in cottage industries, 63, 203, 203n.6; in exchange, 32, 188n.lO; in furniture production, 67-68, 73; in painting, 186-188; in potting, 91, 93-95; in tinsmithing, 62-63, 66; types of, 64. See also Adze; Axes; Chisel; Cottage industries; Furniture, production of; Gouges; Workshops

Totalizing symbol, 223-224. See also Mami wata; Symbolism; Symbols

Totems, as representations of group identity, 20n.7, 21. See also Emblems

Toto (painter), 145-146, 155, 163, 168, 170, 187, 191. See also Kanyama circle

Tourism: anthropology of, 3; economics of, I, 231; government support of, III; history of, 2n.l; impact of, 196,231; in Kenya, III; proponents of, 234; semiotics of (see Semiotics, of tourism); vicarious, 194. See also Tourists

Tourist art: as communication, I, 158, 193, 214, 219,221,223,226-228,230,234-237; and cultural change, 231; definition of, I, 9; as economic commodity, 30-32, 196, 226, 228, 231, 237; evaluation of (see Evaluation of art, tourist), history of, 171; industry of, I; and modernity, 225-226; packaging of, 200; produc­tion of, 3, 58-59, 105, 143, 206, 228; quality of, 212; reproduction of, 212-213; scene in Lusaka, 168; signification in, 17, 158,221-222, 224,230,237; as sign system, 18,31; social context of, 3, 105,231; sociology of, 5n.3, 226; standardization of (see Standardization, of tourist art); styles of, 218, 227. See also Airport art; Art; Evaluation of art; Quality, of art; Signs; Tourist art system

Tourist artists. See Artists Tourist art market, 16-19,74-75, 196,202,

203n.6, 204, 213, 214. See also Art market; Demand; Urban art

Tourist art objects: popular meanings of, 228; as signs, 3, 17-18, 196,222,224, 230; as surplus production, 196, 204; as symbols, 3, 17, 30,

INDEX 265

Tourist art objects (cont.) 226. See also Art, as marker; Markers; Signs; Symbols

Tourist art system, 3-4, 16, 19, 23, 31, 74-75; aesthetic elements in, 18; communication in, 16-19, 147, 225, 22S; definition of, 3; innovation in, 43, 147, ISO; middlemen in, 180, 19S, 204; new figuratist contributions to, ISO; in painting, 147, ISO; production in, 106, 206; as symbolic and economic exchange, 17-IS, 147, ISO, 212, 227-22S; symbolic transformation in, 106. See also Exchange, of art; System, of art exchange; Tourist art

Tourist art trade: economic support for, 195, 202, 234: of Kanyama circle, 142, 167; middlemen in, 198; role of critic in, IS-19, 180; sense of pathos in, 234. See also Consumers; Market: Middlemen: Prices; Tourist art; Trade

Tourists: as consumers, 112, 196, 210-212, 218, 226, 225; definition of, 2; drifter, 3; goals of, 2-3; images of, 235; middle-income, 109, 112, 112n.7; policy toward, 112n.7; as symbol, 3: and travel, 112; vs. travelers, 2n.1: types of, 3. See also Consumers; Elite, as consumers

Trade: within Africa, 32, 44; export, 207; external, 194; foreign, 5, 110, 213; gallery (see Galleries, trade of); intemational, 203n.6, 204, 208n.S, 213; petty, S4, SS, 103, 116; of tourist art (see Tourist art trade). See also Exchange, of art

Traders, Hausa, 37, 54, 19Sn.4, 207. See also Nigeria

Traditional art, 16, 18-19; carving forms of, 107, 204, 206; combined with contemporary designs, 2S; cultural context of, 21;' elements of in con­temporary art, 3S-41, 230n.6; in painting, 172: as source of innovation, ISO. See also Art, traditional forms of; Ceremonial art

Traditional artists. See Artists, traditional Transitional generation, S6n.7. See also Culture,

change in Transitional societies, 76-77. See also Societies Transitional symbols, 161, 223, 226. See also

Symbols Transmission of knowledge, IS9-190. See also

Apprenticeship system; Cooperatives; Processual variation; Technology

Transportation, in wood-carving cooperatives, 119, 122. See also Cooperatives; Regulation, of wood by government; Wood

Travelers. See Tourists Turkana, carved figurines, lOS, 130, 133. See also

Human form; Masai Twins Seven Seven, 143.

Uganda, beer brewing in, 86. See also Prostitution; Shebeen, trade of

Ukambani, territory of, 115-116. See also Kamba; Kamba carvers

United States: handicraft imports by, 24; Peace Corps of, 169. See also Importers

Universalization, process of, 38, 231, 23In.7. See also Cultural diffusion; Culture, change in

University: of Louvain, 144; of Nairobi (see Nairo­bi); of Zambia (see Zambia). See also Education

Urban art, market for, 51-52, 107. See also Art market; Market, urban; Tourist art market

Urban migration. See Migration, urban Urban scene, in Africa, 30. See also Market,

urban; Urban art Urban village, 122 Urban women. See Women, urban Utterance, performative, 17S, 217. See also Com­

munication; Language; Speech acts

Value: aesthetic (see Aesthetic value); of art, 154, 214; conventional, 154; cultural, 4, 222; eco­nomic (see Economic value); exchange (see Ex­change value); sign, 17,222; social of painters, 150; symbolic, 10, 17, 19. See also Aesthetics; Culture; Evaluation of art

Variation: commercial, 22S; processual (see Pro­cessual variation); stylistic, IS7, 192-193; of themes (see Themes); in tourist art, IS, 222, 22S. See also Communication; Experimentation; Innovation; Tourist art system

Veiled criticism, 154 Velvet paintings, 166, 16S, IS7. See also Painting Vending: street (see Street vending); vegetable, S7 Vendors, 61, 194, 199,204-207,221; African,

59-60, 6In.5, 221; in cottage industries, 203-204; foreign, 60, 213; as mediators, 221,236; in painting, 190; roles of, 59-60, 212, 221; of tourist art, 206. See also Sales; Street vending

Videotape: of carvers, IS5n.6; of painters, 145n.4, 190n.12; of potters, 93; as research method, 2, II, 145n.4, 190n.12; of sculptors, 100. See also Comparative analysis; Field research

Village enterprises, use of middlemen by, 21. See also Home enterprises

Visibility, 204. See also Aesthetics; Eth-noaesthetics; Themes

Visual documentation, 93, 224. See also Videotape Visual imagery. See Images Visual language. See Language, visual Visual markers. See Markers, visual Visual metaphors, 152, l7I, 229. See also Lan-

guage, visual; Markers, visual Visual signs. See Signs, visual Visual statements, 133-134,223,225 Visual units, 222. See also Markers, visual; Signs,

visual Voluntary associations, 61n.6

Waita, Solomon Joel (carver), 126 Wakati ya wa Beige (time of the Belgians), 158.

See also Colonie beige Wamunyu (location), 106-107, 110, 116-119,

128, 130, 190n.11. See also Kamba; Kenya Wamunyu Handicraft Cooperative, 116-121, 126-

127,130-131: carvers of, 108-109, 118, 135; export sales of, 121, 12In.12; women in, 130-132. See also Cooperatives

Waranienie village (Ivory Coast), 46, 50, 201-202; tapestries of (see Tapestries); weavers of, 45, 50, 83, 182, 202. See also Dyula, village weavers; Senufo; Textiles

Warhol, Andy, 212

266

Warriors, as theme in painting, 154, 156. See aLso Genres; Painting; Themes

Waterscapes, 55, 187. See aLso Idyllic landscape; Landscape paintings

Water spirits, as theme in painting, 158, 158n.lO, 225. See aLso Mami wata; Mermaid; Mythology; Spirits

Wayang figures (shadow puppets), 196 Weavers: Dyula (see Dyula, village weavers); of

Lele raffia (see Lele, weavers); master, 197, 219; of Waranienie village (see Waranienie vil­lage, weavers of). See aLso Cooperatives; Tapes­tries; Textiles

Weaving: cooperatives in, 126,201; designs of, 201, 202; in Ivory Coast, 82; motifs of, 201; patterns of, 180, 182, 201. See also Cooper­atives; Tapestries; Textiles

Welch, Rachel, 196 Wememu, Albert (ivory carver), 69-70, 182-183 West Africa: art of, 29; cottage enterprises in, 203;

crafts in, 81-82; creole language of, 218; Hausa traders of, 198n.4; interview data from, 201; ivory workshops in (see Ivory workshops); tie­dyeing in, 32; use of cowrie money in (see Cowries). See also Batik; Benin; Hausa traders; Ivory Coast; Nigeria; Senegal

Western art, 168; history of women in, 81; influ­ence of, 108; representation of, 178; reproduc­tion of, 147; Third World attitudes toward, 24. See aLso Art circles; European artists; Women

Western education, 210 Western images, in African art, 37-38, 235 Western influences, in African art, 38, 140n.18,

235. See aLso Colonialism; European artists Western knowledge, of African art, 16, 29, 179.

See also European artists Western markets. See Market Wholesale orders. See Ordering, wholesale Wholesalers, 26. See also Brokers; Dealers; Galler-

ies; Importers Wolof (Senegal), as art dealers, 37. See also

Dealers; Middlemen; Senegal; West Africa Women: basketweavers in Kenya, 92; in beer

brewing, 84; as carvers, 82, 130, 2oon.5; cere­monial art forms of, 96; chisungu initiation rites of, 84, 86, 92, 102; and commercialization in crafts, 103; and cooking, sale of, 86; in craft enterprises, 81-83, 85n.5, 103; government sup­port for crafts of, 92-93n.8; images of, 154, 223-224; in labor force, 85, 85n.5; literacy of, 86; in manufacturing, 85n.5; as migrants, 6In.6, 86-88; organization of by workshop, 68-69; as refinishers in carving, 117; role of expression in art by, 82; in rural population of Kenya, 85n.5; secret societies of, 82, 82n.2; self-employment of, 126; as theme in painting, 150, 154, 158; urban, 85-86, 92-93n.8; in Western art, 81. See aLso Akan, potters among; Bemba potters; Renaissance

Women's Progress Association (Maendeleo ya Wanawake) , 92-93n.8

Wood: government forests for, 119; government regulation of, 117, 120; hard (see Hardwood); lightweight, 186; shortage of, 120; soft, 120; supply of, 120-133; type of, 119.

INDEX

Wood-carvers. See Carvers Wood carving. See Carving Workmanship, 102, 137, 189, 192,204. See also

Craftsmanship; Quality, of art Workshops: of carvers, 72, 183-184; commer­

cialization in, 200-204; cottage industry, 183, 185,204, 213; craft, 212; heads of, 184, 190, 201; history of, 202; ivory (see Ivory work­shops); leadership in (see Leadership); malachite, 52-53, 203; marketing techniques of, 183; orga­nization of, 212; in period of manufacture, 105; subsidized by galleries and museums, 72, 198; tinsmithing (see Tinsmithing); variation within, 180. See also Apprenticeship system; Art circles; Ateliers; Cooperatives; Cottage industries; Gal­leries; Processual variation; Productivity

World bank, 233n.lO. See also International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

Wrist techniques, in carving, 185. See also Tech­niques, of carving

Writers, African, 148-149, 172

Yamwa (painter), 163, 166. See also Kanyama circle

Yir Yoront (Australia), 188n.lO. See also Axes; Technology; Trade

Youth, role of among Kamba carvers, 122, 127-128; as theme in art, 38. See also Appren­ticeship system; Children

Zaire, 21; art academies in, 48-49, 49n.12, 51, 97,143-144,151,164; censorship in, 233; colonie beige paintings of, 158-160; commercial carvers of, 151; Kasai Province of, 33; painters from, 43, 142-143, 143n.3, 145n.4, 146, 154, 168, 223, 225; popular arts of, 143, 232-233; popular painting in, 168-169; president of, 232; raffia cloth in, 33-35; tourist art market in, 231; urban sculptors of, 97. See also Carvers; Kinshasa; Lubumbashi; Painters

Zairians, in Lusaka, 55, 65, 69, 142-143, 146, 160, 167. See also Lusaka; Migrant artists

Zambia: Bemba potters of (see Bemba potters); bureaucratic centralization in, 233; carvers of, 22,48-49, 183-184,200-201; commercializa­tion in, 22, 233; cooperative movement in, 233; cottage industries in, 182n.5, 204, 234; craft production in, 234; economy of, 142; evaluation of arts in, 20n.6; government-assisted cooper­atives in, 233; government support for artists in, 143n.3; ivory workshops in, 69-71; Kwacha in (see Kwacha); labor force of, 85-86; literacy in, 86; Luvale of (see Luvale); migration in, 57; president of, 234; social history of, 234; so­ciologists in, 234; tourist art market in, 142, 202; University of, 143n.2; wage labor in, 142n.1. See also Carvers; Cooperatives; History, African social; Lusaka; Painters

Zaramo (of Tanzania), 106-107; carvers of, I06n.2. See also Makonde

Zimbabwe, art academy in, 49-50; soapstone carv­ing in, 21, 195

Zuni, innovation in silversmithing of, 21. See also Amerind artifacts; Navajo