References

Ahn EK, Jeon HJ, Lim EJ, Jung HJ, Park EH. 2007. Anti-inflammatory and anti- angiogenic activities of Gastrodia elata Blume. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 110: 476-482.

Akhondzadeh S, Noroozian M, Mohammadi, Ohadinia S, Jamshidi AH, Khani M. 2003. Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Clinical pharmacy and therapeutics 28: 53–59.

Alexander B.1998. The role of nitric oxide in hepatic metabolism.Nutrition 14(4):376-90. Review.

Aloisi F, Penna G, Polazzi E, Minghetti L, Adorini L. 1999. CD40- CD154 interaction and IFN- γ are required fo r IL-12 but not prostaglandin E2 secretion by microglia during antigen presentation to Th1 cells. Journal of Immunology 162:1384-91.

Ambrosini E, Aloisi F. 2004.Chemokines and glial cells: a complex network in the central nervous system. Neurochemical Research 29(5):1017-38.

Anekonda, TS.2006. Resveratrol-a boon for treating Alzheimer's disease? Brain Research Reviews 52:316-326.

Aquilano K, Baldelli S, Rotilio G, Ciriolo MR.2008. Role of nitric oxide synthases in Parkinson's disease: a review on the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of polyphenols. Neurochemical Research 33(12):2416-26.

Araki E, Forster C, Dubinsky JM, Ross ME, Iadecola C. 2001. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor ns-398 protects neuronal cultures from lipopolysaccharide-induced neurotoxicity. Stroke 32(10):2370-5.

Arimoto T, Choi DY, Lu X, Liu M, Nguyen XV, Zheng N, Stewart CA, Kim HC, Bing G. 2007.Interleukin-10 protects against inflammation-mediated degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra. Neurobiology of Aging 28:894-906

Ariza D, Lima MM, Moreira CG, Dombrowski PA, Avila TV, Allemand A, Mendes DA, Da Cunha C, Vital MA.2010. Intranigral LPS administration produces dopamine,glutathione but not behavioral impairment in comparison to MPTP and 6-OHDA neurotoxin models of Parkinson’s disease. Neurochemical Research 35:1620–1627.

Ashton JC, Friberg D, Darlington CL, Smith PF. 2006. Expression of the cannabinoid CB2 receptor in the rat cerebellum: an immunohistochemical study. Neuroscience Letters 396:113-116.

Babes V.1892. Sur certains caractères des lesions histologiques de la rage. Ann Inst Pasteur Lille 6:209-223.

Badie B, Schartner JM, Paul J, Bartley BA, Vorpahl J, and Preston JK. 2000. Dexamethasone-induced abolition of the inflammatory response in an experimental glioma model: a flow cytometry study. Journal of Neurosurgery 93:634–9.

Bagasra O, Michaels FH, Zheng YM, Bobroski LE, Spitsin SV, Fu ZF, Tawadros R, Koprowski H.1995.Activation of the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase in the brains of patients with multiple sclerosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 92(26):12041-5.

Baker PM, Fortes CC, Fortes EG, Gazzinelli G, Gilbert B, Lopes JN, Pellegrino J, Tomassini TC, Vichnewski W.1972. Chemoprophylactic agents in schistosomiasis: eremanthine, costunolide, cyclocostunolide and bisabolol. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 24(11):853-7.

Banati RB, Gehrmann J, Schubert P, Kreutzberg GW.1993. Cytotoxicity of microglia. Glia 7: 111-118.

Banati RB. 2002. Visualising microglial activation in vivo. Glia 40, 206-217.

Banati, R. B. 2003. Neuropathological imaging: in vivo detection of glial activation as a measure of disease and adaptive change in the brain. British Medical Bulletin 65, 121- 131.

Barrero AF, Oltra JE, Alvarez M, Raslan DS, Saúde DA, Akssira M. 2000. New sources and antifungal activity of sesquiterpene lactones. Fitoterapia 71(1):60-4.

Basu A, Krady JK, Enterline JR, Levison SW.2002. Transforming growth factor beta1 prevents IL-1beta-induced microglial activation, whereas TNFalpha- and IL-6- stimulated activation are not antagonized. Glia 40: 109–120.

Bavarva JH, Narasimhacharya AV.2008.Antihyperglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of Costus speciosus in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Phytotherapy Research 22(5):620-6.

Beal MF. 2002. Oxidatively modified proteins in aging and disease. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 32: 797-803.

Becher B, Antel JP. 1996.Comparison of phenotypic and functional properties of immediately ex vivo and cultured human adult microglia. Glia 18:1–10.

Begley D J. 1996. The blood-brain barrier: Principles for targeting peptide and drugs to the central nervous system. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 48:136-40.

Belmadani A, Tran PB, Ren D, Miller RJ. 2006. Chemokines regulate the migration of neural progenitors to sites of neuroinflammation. Journal of Neuroscience 26: 3182-3191.

Benacerraf B, McCluskey RT. 1963. Methods of immunologic injury to tissues. Annual Review of Microbiology 17:263-84.

Berlin C. 2001. Herbal medicine. Clinical Pediatrics (Phila) 40 : 271–272.

Bernardo A, Ajmone-Cat MA, Gasparini L, Ongini E, Minghetti L. 2005.Nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-γ is activated in rat microglial cells by the anti-inflammatory drug HCT1026, a derivative of flurbiprofen. Journal of Neurochemistry 92(4): 895–903.

Bernardo A, Gasparini L, Ongini E, Minghetti L. 2006. Dynamic regulation of microglial functions by the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug NCX 2216: implications for chronic treatments of neurodegenerative diseases. Neurobiology of Disease 22(1):25-32.

Bernardo A, Levi G, Minghetti L. 2000. Role of the Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) and its natural ligand 15-deoxy-D-12,14- prostaglandin J2 in the regulation of microglial functions. European Journal of Neuroscience 12: 2215–2223.

Betmouni S, Perry VH, Gordon JL. 1996. Evidence for an early inflammatory response in the central nervous system of mice with scrapie. Neuroscience 74(1):1-5.

Bhattacharya SK, Parikh AK, Debnath PK, et al. 1972. Anticholinesterase activity of Costus speciosus alkaloids. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 4(3):178-9.

Bhattacharya SK, Parikh AK, Debnath PK, et al.1973.Pharmacological studies with the alkaloids of Costus speciosus (kemuka). Journal of Research Indian Medicine 8(1):10-9.

Binny K, Sunil Kumar G, Dennis Thomas.2010. Anti-inflamatory and antipyretic properties of the rhizome of Costus speciosus (Koen.Sm). Journal of Basic and Clinical Pharmacy 1(3): 177- 181.

Bishop-Bailey D and Warner TD. 2003. PPAR γ ligands induce prostaglandin production in vascular smooth muscle cells: indomethacin acts as a peroxisome proliferator- activated receptor-gamma antagonist. FASEB Journal 17: 1925–1927.

Bjorkman S. 2002. Prediction of the volume of distribution of a drug: which tissue plasma partition coefficients are needed? Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 54:1237- 45.

Blasi E, Barluzzi R, Bocchini V, Mazzolla R, Bistoni F. 1990. Immortalization of murine microglial cells by a v-raf/v-myc carrying retrovirus. Journal of Neuroimmunology 27:229-237.

Block ML, Wu X, Pei Z, Li G, Wang T, Qin L, Wilson B, Yang J, Hong JS, Veronesi B.2004. Nanometer size diesel exhaust particles are selectively toxic to dopaminergic neurons: the role of microglia, phagocytosis, and NADPH oxidase. FASEB Journal 18:1618-1620.

Bluethmann H, Rothe J, Schultze N, Tkachuk M, Koebel P. 1994.Establishment of the role of IL-6 and TNF receptor 1 using gene knockout mice. Journal of Leukocyte Biology 56(5):565-70.

Bocca C, Gabriel L, Bozzo F, Miglietta A.2004. A sesquiterpene lactone, costunolide, interacts with microtubule protein and inhibits the growth of MCF-7 cells. Chemico-Biological Interactions 147(1):79-86

Boje KM, Arora PK.1992. Microglial-produced nitric oxide and reactive nitrogen oxides mediate neuronal cell death. Brain Research 587(2):250-6.

Bonifati DM, Kishore U.2007. Role of complement in neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. Molecular Immunology 44:999-1010.

Boring L, Gosling J, Cleary M, Charo IF.1998. Decreased lesion formation in CCR2–/– mice reveals a role for chemokines in the initiation of atherosclerosis. Nature 394: 894-897.

Bown Deni. 1995. The Royal Horticulture Society Encyclopedia of Herbs and Their Uses. London: Dorling Kindersley, distributed by Houghton Mifflin, 424 p.

Breidert T, Callebert J, Heneka MT, Landreth G, Launay JM, Hirsch EC. 2002. Protective action of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonist pioglitazone in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neurochemistry 82:615–24.

Brochard V, Combadière B, Prigent A, Laouar Y, Perrin A, Beray-Berthat V, Bonduelle O, Alvarez-Fischer D, Callebert J, Launay JM, Duyckaerts C, Flavell RA, Hirsch EC,Bronstein DM, Perez-Otano I, Sun V, Mullis Sawin SB, Chan J, Wu GC, Hudson PM, Kong LY, Hong JS, McMillian MK. 1995. Glia-dependent neurotoxicity and neuroprotection in mesencephalic cultures. Brain Res 7 04(1):112-6.

Brooks BR, Brooks CL, Mackerell AD, Nilsson L, Petrella RJ, Roux B, Won Y, Archontis G, Bartels C, Boresch S, Caflisch A, Caves L, Cui Q, Dinner AR, Feig M, Fischer S,Gao J, Hodoscek M, Im W, Kuczera K, Lazaridis T, Ma J, Ovchinnikov V, Paci E, Pastor RW, Post CB, Pu JZ, Schaefer M, Tidor B, Venable RM, Woodcock HL, Wu X, Yang W, York DM, Karplus M 2009. CHARMM: The biomolecular simulation program. Journal of Computational Chemistry 30 (10): 1545–1614.

Buisson A, Nicole O, Docagne F, Sartelet H, Mackenzie ET, Vivien D.1998. Up- regulation of a serine protease inhibitor in astrocytes mediates the neuroprotective activity of transforming growth factor beta1.FASEB Journal. 12: 1683–1691.

Burns KA, Vanden Heuvel JP.2007. Modulation of PPAR activity via phosphorylation. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1771:952–60.

Cagnin A, Myers R, Gunn RN, Lawrence AD, Stevens T, Kreutzberg GW, Jones T, Banati RB. 2001. In vivo visualization of activated glia by [11C] (R)-PK11195- PET

following herpes encephalitis reveals projected neuronal damage beyond the primary focal lesion. Brain 124, 2014-2027.

Campbell IL, Abraham CR, Masliah E, Kemper P, Inglis JD, Oldstone MB, Mucke L. 1993. Neurologic disease induced in transgenic mice by cerebral overexpression of interleukin 6. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 90:10061- 10065.

Candelario-Jalil E, de Oliveira AC, Gräf S, Bhatia HS, Hüll M, Muñoz E, Fiebich BL.2007.Resveratrol potently reduces prostaglandin E2 production and free radical formation in lipopolysaccharide-activated primary rat microglia. Journal of Neuroinflammation 10;4:25.

Castro V, Murillo R, Klaas CA, Meunier C, Mora G, Pahl HL, Merfort I. 2000. Inhibition of the transcription factor NF-kappa B by sesquiterpene lactones from Podachaenium eminens. Planta Medica 66(7):591-5.

Cattaneo E, Conti L, De-Fraja C.1999. Signalling through the JAK-STAT pathway in the developing brain.Trends in Neurosciences 22: 365–369.

Chang HS, Lee SJ, Yang CW, Chen IS. 2010. Cytotoxic sesquiterpenes from Magnolia kachirachirai. Chemistry and Biodiversity 7(11):2737-47.

Chao CC, Hu S, Molitor TW, Shaskan Eg, Peterson PK. 1992. Activated microglia mediate neuronal cell injury via a nitric oxide mechanism. Journal of Immunology 149:2736-2741.

Chawla A, Barak Y, Nagy L, Liao D, Tontonoz P, Evans RM. 2001. PPAR-gamma dependent and independent effects on macrophage-gene expression in lipid metabolism and inflammation. Nature medicine 7: 48–52.

Chen C, Yin H.1995. Steroidal saponins from Costus speciosus. Chinese Academy of Science 7(4), 18-23.

Chen HC, Chou CK, Lee SD, Wang JC, Yeh SF. 1995. Active compounds from Saussurea lappa Clarks that suppress hepatitis B virus surface antigen gene expression in human hepatoma cells. Antiviral Research 27(1-2):99-109.

Chen MK, Baidoo K, Verina T, Guilarte TR. 2004. Peripheral benzodiazepine receptor imaging in CNS demyelination: functional implications of anatomical and cellular localization.Brain 127, 1379-1392.

Chen P, Li J, Barnes J, Kokkonen GC, Lee JC, Liu Y.2002. Restraint of proinflammatory cytokine biosynthesis by mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages. Journal of Immunology 169: 6408- 6416.

Chen QC, Zhang WY, Youn U, Kim H, Lee I, Jung HJ, Na M, Min BS, Bae K. Iridoid glycosides from Gardeniae Fructus for treatment of ankle sprain. Phytochemistry 70(6):779–84.

Chen-Izu Y, Xiao RP, Izu LT, Cheng H, Kuschel M, Spurgeon H, Lakatta EG.2000. G(i)- dependent localization of beta(2)-adrenergic receptor signaling to L-type Ca(2+) channels. Biophysical Journal 79(5):2547-56.

Choi JH, Lee KT.2009.Costunolide-induced apoptosis in human leukemia cells: involvement of c-jun N-terminal kinase activation. Biological and Pharmaceutical bulletin 32(10):1803-8.

Choi JY, Choi EH, Jung HW, Oh JS, Lee WH, Lee JG, Son JK, Kim Y, Lee SH.2008. Melanogenesis inhibitory compounds from Saussureae radix. Archives of Pharmacal Research 31(3):294-9.

Choi SH, Aid S, Bosetti F. 2009. The distinct roles of cyclooxygenase -1 and –2 in neuroinflammation: implications for translational research. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 30:174–181.

Choi SH, Im E, Kang HK, Lee JH, Kwak HS, Bae Y T, Park HJ, Kim ND.2005. Inhibitory effects of costunolide on the telomerase activity in human breast carcinoma cells. Cancer Letters 227(2):153-62.

Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chpora IC. 2006. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources, 79.

Chu SC, Marks-Konczalik J, Wu HP, Banks TC, Moss J. 1998. Analysis of the cytokine- stimulated human inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) gene: characterization of differences between human and mouse iNOS promoters. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 248(3):871-8.

Chu JW, Trout BL, Brooks BR. 2003. A super-linear minimization scheme for the nudged elastic band method. Journal of Chemical Physics 119(24):12708-12717.

Colangelo V, Schurr J, Ball MJ, Pelaez RP, Bazan NG, Lukiw WJ. 2002. Gene expression profiling of 12633 genes in Alzheimer hippocampal CA1: transcription and neurotrophic factor down-regulation and up-regulation of apoptotic and pro- inflammatory signaling. Journal of Neuroscience Research 70:462–473.

Cole GM, Teter B, Frautschy SA.2007. Neuroprotective effects of curcumin. Advances in Experimental and Medical Biology 595: 197-212.

Combs CK, Johnson DE, Karlo JC, Cannady SB, Landreth GE.2000.Inflammatory Mechanisms in Alzheimer’s Disease: Inhibition of b- Amyloid-Stimulated Proinflammatory Responses and Neurotoxicity by PPARg Agonists Journal of Neuroscience 20(2):558–567.

Corradin SB, Mauël J, Donini SD, Quattrocchi E, Ricciardi-Castagnoli P. 1993. Inducible nitric oxide synthase activity of cloned murine microglial cells. Glia 7:255-262.

Cory AH, Owen TC, Barltrop JA, Cory JG. 1991. Use of an aqueous soluble tetrazolium/formazan assay for cell growth assays in culture. Cancer Communications 3(7):207-12.

Cragg GM, Newman DJ, Snader KM. 1997. Natural products in drug discovery and development. Journal of Natural products 60: 52–60.

Cristiano L, Bernardo A, Cerù MP. 2001. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and peroxisomes in rat cortical and cerebellar astrocytes. Journal of Neurocytology 30(8): 671–683.

Cronet P, Petersen JF, Folmer R, Blomberg N, Sjöblom K, Karlsson U, Lindstedt EL, Bamberg K.2001. Structure of the PPARalpha and -gamma ligand binding domain in complex with AZ 242; ligand selectivity and agonist activation in the PPAR family. Structure 9: 699–706.

Crosby MB, Svenson J, Gilkeson GS, Nowling TK. 2005. A novel PPAR response element in the murine iNOS promoter. Molecular Immunology 42: 1303–10.

Cross AK and Woodroofe MN.1999.Chemokines induce migration and changes in actin polymerization in adult rat brain microglia and a human fetal microglial cell line in vitro.Journal of Neuroscience Research 55: 17–23.

Cullingford TE, Bhakoo K, Peuchen S, Dolphin CT, Patel R, Clark JB. 1998. Distribution of mRNAs encoding the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α, β, and γ and the retinoid X receptor α, β, and γ in rat central nervous system. Journal of Neurochemistry70(4): 1366–1375.

D’Acquisto F, May M.J, Ghosh S. 2002. Inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB): an emerging theme in anti-inflammatory therapies. Molecular Interventions 2: 22–35.

D'Acquisto F, Maiuri MC, de Cristofaro F, Carnuccio R. 2001. Nitric oxide prevents inducible cyclooxygenase expression by inhibiting nuclear factor-kappa B and nuclear factor- interleukin-6 activation. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Archives of Pharmacology 364(2):157-65.

Dalafave DS, Prisco G.2010.Inhibition of antiapoptotic BCL-XL, BCL-2, and MCL-1 proteins by small molecule mimetics. Cancer Informatics 9: 169–177.

Dasgupta B, Pandey VB.1970. A new Indian source of diosgenin: Costus speciosus. Experientia. 26 (5):475-476.

De Marino S, Borbone N, Zollo F, Ianaro A, Di Meglio P, Iorizzi M.2005. New sesquiterpene lactones from Laurus nobilis leaves as inhibitors of nitric oxide production. Planta Medica 71(8):706-10.

del Rio-Hortega P.1932. Microglia, p. 483-534. In W. Penfield (ed.), Cytology and cellular pathology of the nervous system. P. B. Hoebaer, New York, N.Y

Delgado M, Ganea D. 2003.Vasoactive intestinal peptide prevents activated microglia- induced neurodegeneration under inflammatory conditions: potential therapeutic role in brain trauma. FASEB Journal 17(13):1922-4.

Desvergne B, Wahli W. 1999. Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors: Nuclear Control of Metabolism. Endocrine Reviews 20(5): 649–688.

Dheen ST, Jun Y, Yan Z, Tay SS, Ling EA. 2005. Retinoic acid inhibits expression of TNF-alpha and iNOS in activated rat microglia. Glia 50(1):21-31.

Dheen ST, Kaur C, Ling EA. 2007. Microglial activation and its implications in the brain diseases. Curent Medicinal Chemistry 14: 1189–1197.

Dhillon RS, Kalsi PS, Singh WP, Gautam VK, Chhabra BR.1987. Guaianolide from Saussurea lappa. Phytochemistry 26: 1209-1210.

Diab A, Deng C, Smith JD, Hussain RZ, Phanavanh B, Lovett-Racke AE, Drew PD, Racke MK. 2002. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonist 15-deoxy- Delta(12,14)- prostaglandin J(2) ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.Journal of Immunology 168: 2508–2515.

Dick AD, Ford AL, Forrester JV, Sedgwick JD. 1995. Flow cytometric identification of a minority population of MHC class II positive cells in the normal rat retina distinct from CD45lowCD11b/c+CD4low parenchymal microglia. Britsih Journal of Ophthalmology 79: 834–40.

Dickinson RJ, Keyse SM. 2006. Diverse physiological functions for dual-specificity MAP kinase phosphatases. Journal of Cell Science 119: 4607-4615.

Dickson DW, Lee SC, Mattiace LA, Yen SH, Brosnan C. 1993. Microglia and cytokines in neurological disease, with special reference to AIDS and Alzheimer's disease. Glia: 75-83.

Diller DJ, Merz KM Jr. 2001. High Throughput Docking for Library Design and Library Prioritization. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Genetics 2001 43: 113-124.

Ding J, Li QY, Wang X, Sun CH, Lu CZ, Xiao BG.2010. Fasudil protects hippocampal neurons against hypoxia-reoxygenation injury by suppressing microglial inflammatory responses in mice. Journal of Neurochemistry 114(6):1619-29.

Donnelly DJ, Popovich PG.2007. Inflammation and its role in neuroprotection, axonal regeneration and functional recovery after spinal cord injury. Experimental Neurology 209:378-88.

Dringen R. 2005. Oxidative and antioxidative potential of brain microglial cells. Antioxidants Redox Signal 7: 1223-1233

Egan WJ, Merz KM Jr, Baldwin JJ. 2000. Prediction of drug absorption using multivariate statistics. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 43: 3867-3877.

Egger T, Schuligoi R, Wintersperger A, Amann R, Malle E, Sattler, W.2003. Vitamin E (alpha- tocopherol) attenuates cyclo-oxygenase 2 transcription and synthesis in immortalized murine BV-2 microglia. Biochemical Journal 370: 459-467.

Eikelenboom P, Bate C, Van Gool WA, Hoozemans JJ, Rozemuller JM, Veerhuis R, Williams A.2002. Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease and prion disease. Glia 40(2):232-9.

Eikelenboom P, Veerhuis R, Scheper W. Rozemuller AJ, van Gool WA, Hoozemans JJ.2006.The significance of neuroinflammation in understanding Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neural Transmission 113:1685-95

Elenkov IJ, Wilder RL, Chrousos GP, Vizi ES. 2000. The sympathetic nerve-an integrative interface between two supersystems: the brain and the immune system. Pharmacological Reviews 52 (4): 595–638.

el-Feraly FS, Chan YM.1978. Isolation and characterization of the sesquiterpene lactones costunolide, parthenolide, costunolide diepoxide, santamarine, and reynosin from Magnolia grandiflora L. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 67(3):347-50.

Eliza J, Daisy P, Ignacimuthu S.2008.Influence of Costus speciosus (Koen.) Sm. Rhizome Extracts on Biochemical Parameters in Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic Rats. Journal of Health Sciences 54(6): 675-681.

Eliza J, Daisy P, Ignacimuthu S, Duraipandiyan V. 2009. Normo-glycemic and hypolipidemic effect of costunolide isolated from Costus speciosus (Koen ex. Retz.)Sm. in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Chemico Biological Interactions 179(2-3):329-34.

Eliza J, Daisy P, Ignacimuthu S, Duraipandiyan V.2009. Antidiabetic and antilipidemic effect of eremanthin from Costus speciosus (Koen.)Sm., in STZ-induced diabetic rats. Chemico-Biological Interactions 182(1): 67-72.

Eliza J, Daisy P, Ignacimuthu S. 2010. Antioxidant activity of costunolide and eremanthin isolated from Costus speciosus(Koen ex. Retz) Sm. Chemico-Biological Interactions 88(3):467-72.

Eljaschewitsch E, Witting A, Mawrin C, Lee T, Schmidt PM, Wolf S, Hoertnagl H, Raine CS,Schneider-Stock R, Nitsch R, Ullrich O. 2006. The endocannabinoid anandamide protects neurons during CNS inflammation by induction of MKP-1 in microglial cells. Neuron 49:67–79.

Eming SA, T Krieg and JM Davidson.2007.Inflammation in wound repair: molecular and cellular mechanisms. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 127(3): 514-525.

Emsley HC, Smith CJ, Georgiou RF, Vail A, Hopkins SJ, Rothwell NJ, Tyrrell PJ; Acute Stroke Investigators. 2005. A randomised phase II study of interleukin- 1 receptor antagonist in acute stroke patients. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 76: 1366–1372.

Engelbrecht Y, de Wet H, Horsch K, Langeveldt CR, Hough FS, Hulley PA. 2003. Glucocorticoids induce rapid up-regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 and dephosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and impair proliferation in human and mouse osteoblast cell lines. Endocrinology 144:412–422.

Ertl P, Rohde B, Selzer P.2000. Fast calculation of molecular polar surface area as a sum of fragment-based contributions and its application to the prediction of drug transport properties. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 43:3714–7.

Faggioli L, Costanzo C, Donadelli M, Palmieri M.2004. Activation of the Interleukin-6 promoter by a dominant negative mutant of c-Jun. Biochimica and Biophysica Acta 1692: 17-24.

Farina C, Aloisi F, Meinl E. 2007. Astrocytes are active players in cerebral innate immunity.Trends in Immunology 28: 138-145.

Farmer P, Pugin J.2000. beta-adrenergic agonists exert their "anti-inflammatory" effects in monocytic cells through the IkappaB/NF-kappaB pathway. American Journal of Physiology, Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology 279(4):L675-82.

Faulkner JR, Herrmann JE, Woo MJ, Tansey KE, Doan NB, Sofroniew MV. 2004. Reactive astrocytes protect tissue and preserve function after spinal cord injury. Journal of Neuroscience 24(9):2143-55.

Felton LM, Cunningham C, Rankine EL, Waters S, Boche D, Perry VH. 2005. MCP-1 and murine prion disease: separation of early behavioral dysfunction from overt clinical disease. Neurobiology of diseases 20: 283-295.

Fernandez-Vizarra P, Fernandez AP, Castro-Blanco S, Encinas JM, Serrano J, Bentura ML, Munoz P, Martinez-Murillo R, Rodrigo J. 2004. Expression of nitric oxide system in clinically evaluated cases of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiology of diseases 15(2):287- 305.

Fischer NH, Lu T, Cantrell CL, Castañeda-Acosta J, Quijano L, Franzblau SG.1998. Antimycobacterial evaluation of germacranolides. Phytochemistry 49(2):559-64.

Fischer NH, Olivier EJ and Fischer HD. 1979. The Biogenesis and Chemistry of Sesquiterpene Lactones. In Herz W, Grisebach, Kirby GW, eds, Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products, Vol 38.Springer Verlag,Vienna.

Fischer NH.1990. Sesquiterpene lactones: biogenesis and biomimetic transformations. in Biochemistry of the Mevalonic Acid Pathway to Terpenoids. eds Towers G, Towers H (Plenum Press, New York),161–201.

Fitzpatrick D, Purves D, Augustine G. 2004. "Table 20:2". Neuroscience (Third ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer. ISBN 0-87893-725-0.

Forman BM, Tontonoz P, Chen J, Brun RP, Spiegelman BM, Evans RM.1995. 15-Deoxy- delta 12,14-prostaglandin J2 is a ligand for the adipocyte determination factor PPAR gamma. Cell 83:803– 812.

Frei K, Siepl C, Groscurth P, Bodmer S, Schwerdel C and Fontana A.1987. Antigen presentation and tumor cytotoxicity by interferon-y-treated microglial cells. European Journal of Immunology 12:237-243.

Fuenzalida K, Quintanilla R, Ramos P, Piderit D, Fuentealba RA, Martinez G, Inestrosa NC, Bronfman M.2007. Peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor γ up- regulates the Bcl-2 anti-apoptotic protein in neurons and induces mitochondrial stabilization and protection against oxidative stress and apoptosis. Journal of Biological Chemistry 282:37006–15.

Fukuda K, Akao S, Ohno Y, Yamashita K, Fujiwara H.2001. Inhibition by costunolide of phorbol ester-induced transcriptional activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase gene in a human monocyte cell line THP-1. Cancer Letters 164(1):7-13.

Gampe RT, Montana VG, Lambert MH, Miller AB, Bledsoe RK, Milburn MV, Kliewer SA, Willson TM, Xu HE. 2000. Asymmetry in the PPARgamma/RXRalpha crystal structure reveals the molecular basis of heterodimerization among nuclear receptors. Molecular Cell 5: 545–555.

Gao HM, Liu B, Hong J S. 2003. Critical Role for Microglial NADPH Oxidase in Rotenone-Induced Degeneration of Dopaminergic Neurons. Journal of Neuroscience 23: 6181-6187.

Garcia-Alloz M, Dodwell L, Borelli A, Raju S, Backskai B. 2006. In vivo reduction of plaque size in APPswe/PS1D9 mice treated with curcumin. Alzheimer's Dementia 2: S617.

Garden GA. 2002. Microglia in human immunodeficiency virus-associated neurodegeneration. Glia 40(2):240-51.

Geissman TA, 1973. The biogenesis of sesquiterpene lactones of the Compositae. In VC Runeckles, TJ Marby, eds, Recent Advances in Phytochemistry, Vol 6.Academic Press,New York, 65-95.

Ghirnikar RS, Lee YL, Eng LF.1998. Inflammation in traumatic brain injury: role of cytokines and chemokines. Neurochemical Research 23:329-40.

Ghisletti S, Huang W, Ogawa S, Pascual G, Lin ME, Willson TM, Rosenfeld MG, Glass CK.2007. Parallel SUMOylation-dependent pathways mediate gene- and signal- specific transrepression by LXRs and PPARgamma. Molecular Cell 25:57–70.

Ghose AK, Viswanadhan VN, Wendoloski JJ. 1998. Prediction of hydrophobic (lipophilic) properties of small organic molecules using fragmental methods: an analysis of AlogP and ClogP methods. Journal of Physical Chemistry 102: 3762- 3772.

Ghosh S, Michael K. 2002. Missing pieces in the NF-kappaB puzzle. Cell: 109:S81-96.

Glass CK, Saijo K, Winner B, Marchetto M.C, Gage FH. 2010. Mechanisms underlying inflammation in neurodegeneration. Cell 140, 918-934.

Gu JQ, Gills JJ, Park EJ, Mata-Greenwood E, Hawthorne ME, Axelrod F, Chavez PI, Fong HH, Mehta RG, Pezzuto JM, Kinghorn AD. 2002. Sesquiterpenoids from Tithonia diversifolia with potential cancer chemopreventive activity. Natural Products 65(4):532-6.

Gu L, Okada Y, Clinton SK, Gerard C, Sukhova GK, Libby P, Rollins BJ.1998. Absence of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 reduces atherosclerosis in low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice. Molecular Cell 2: 275-281.

Guilian D, Li J, Bartel S,Broker J,Li X, Kirkpatrick JB.1995. Cell surface morphology identifies microglia as a direct class of mononuclear phagocyte. Journal of Neuroscience 15:7712-7726.

Gupta AK, Tondon N, Sharma M.2008. Quality Standards of Indian Medicinal Plants, Medicinal Plants Unit, Published by Indian Council of Medical Research, Vol VII,48.

Gupta MM, Verma RK, Akhila A. 1986. Oxo acids and branched fatty-acid esters from rhizomes of Costus speciosus. Phytochemistry 25(8), 1899-1902.

Gupta RK. 2010. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, CBS Publishers and Distributors, 234: 499.

Hanisch UK. 2002. Microglia as a source and target of cytokines. Glia 40(2):140-55.

Hao C, Parney IF, Roa WH, Turner J, Petruk KC, and Ramsay D A. 2002.Cytokine and cytokine receptor mRNA expression in human glioblastomas: evidence of Th1, Th2 and Th3 cytokine dysregulation. Acta Neuropathologica (Berl) 103:171–8.

Hauss-Wegrzyniak B, Vannucchi MG, Wenk GL.2000. Behavioral and ultrastructural changes induced by chronic neuroinflammation in young rats. Brain Research 859(1):157-66.

He LF, Chen HJ, Qian LH, Chen GY, Buzby JS.2010. Curcumin protects pre- oligodendrocytes from activated microglia in vitro and in vivo. Brain Research 1339:60-9.

Heneka MT, Klockgether T, Feinstein DL.2000. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma ligands reduce neuronal inducible nitric oxide synthase expression and cell death in vivo. Journal of Neuroscience 20(18):6862-7. Erratum in: 20(22):1a.

Henn A, Lund S, Hedtjärn M, Schrattenholz A, Pörzgen P, Leist M. 2009. The Suitability of BV2 Cells as alternative model system for primary microglia cultures or for animal experiments examining brain inflammation. ALTEX 26(2):83-94.

Henrich-Noack P, Prehn JH, Krieglstein J.1996. TGF-1 protects Hippocampal neurons against degeneration caused by transient global ischemia: dose-response relationship and potential neuroprotective mechanisms. Stroke 27: 1609–1614.

Hensley K, Mhatre M, Mou S, Pye QN, Stewart C, West M, Williamson KS.2006. On the relation of oxidative stress to neuroinflammation: lessons learned from the G93A- SOD1 mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Antioxidants and Redox Signaling 8:2075-87.

Hess DC, Abe T, Hill WD, Studdard AM, Carothers J, Masuya M, Fleming PA, Drake CJ, Ogawa M. 2004. Hematopoietic origin of microglial and perivascular cells in brain. Experimental Neurology 186:134–44.

Hibasami H, Yamada Y, Moteki H, Katsuzaki H, Imai K, Yoshioka K, Komiya T.2003. Sesquiterpenes (costunolide and zaluzanin D) isolated from laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) induce cell death and morphological change indicative of apoptotic chromatin condensation in leukemia HL-60 cells. International Journal of Molecular Medicine 12(2):147-51.

Hinkerohe D, Smikalla D, Schoebel A, Haghikia A, Zoidl G, Haase CG, Schlegel U, Faustmann PM. 2010. Dexamethasone prevents LPS-induced microglial activation and astroglial impairment in an experimental bacterial meningitis co-culture model. Brain Research 1329:45-54.

Hirt UA, Leist M. 2003. Rapid, noninflammatory and PS-dependent phagocytic clearance of necrotic cells. Cell Death and Differentiation 10:1156-1164.

Hoffmann JJ, Torrance SJ, Widehopf RM, Cole JR.1977. Cytotoxic agents from Michelia champaca and Talauma ovata: parthenolide and costunolide. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 66(6):883-4.

Hsu JL, Pan SL, Ho YF, Hwang TL, Kung FL, Guh JH. 2011. Costunolide induces apoptosis through nuclear calcium(2+) overload and DNA damage response in human prostate cancer. Journal of Urology 185(5):1967-74.

Huang D, Han Y, Rani MR, Glabinski A, Trebst C, Sørensen T, Tani M, Wang J, Chien P, O'Bryan S, Bielecki B, Zhou ZL, Majumder S, Ransohoff RM.2000. Chemokines and chemokine receptors in inflammation of the nervous system: manifold roles and exquisite regulation. Immunological Reviews 177: 52-67.

Huang NK, Chern Y, Fang JM, Lin CI, Chen WP, Lin YL.2007. Neuroprotective principles from Gastrodia elata. Journal of Natural Products 70(4):571-4.

Huffman, JW. 2005. CB2 receptor ligands. Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry 5: 641- 9.

Hunot S. 2009. Infiltration of CD4+ lymphocytes into the brain contributes to neurodegeneration in a mouse model of Parkinson disease. Journal of Clinical Investigation 119:182–192.

Hwang SY, Shin JH, Hwang JS, Kim SY, Shin JA, Oh ES, Oh S, Kim JB, Lee JK, Han IO. 2010. Glucosamine exerts a neuroprotective effect via suppression of inflammation in rat brain ischemia/reperfusion injury. Glia 58(15):1881-92.

Inoue K, Kobayashi S, Noguchi H, Sankawa U, Ebizuka Y. 1995. Spirostanol and furostanol glycosides of Costus speciosus (Koenig) Sm. Natural Medicines 49: 336-339.

Ito K, Ishikawa Y, Skinner RD, Mrak RE, Morrison-Bogorad M,Mukawa J, Griffin WST. 1997. Lesioning of the inferior olive using a ventral surgical approach: characterization of temporal and spatial responses at the lesion site and in cerebellum. Molecular and Chemical Neuropathology Journal 31:245-264

Jander S, Schroeter M, Stoll G.2002. Interleukin-18 expression after focal ischemia of the rat brain: association with the late-stage inflammatory response. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism 22:62-70.

Jellinger KA. 2000. Cell death mechanisms in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neural Transmisssion 107:1-29.

Jeong SJ, Itokawa T, Shibuya M, Kuwano M, Ono M, Higuchi R, Miyamoto T.2002. Costunolide, a sesquiterpene lactone from Saussurea lappa, inhibits the VEGFR KDR/Flk-1 signaling pathway. Cancer Letters 187(1-2):129-33.

Ji H, Wang H, Zhang F, Li X, Xiang L, Aiguo S.2010. PPARγ agonist pioglitazone inhibits microglia inflammation by blocking p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways. Inflammation Research 59(11):921-9.

Jiang C, Ting AT, Seed B. 1998. PPAR-gamma agonists inhibit production of monocyte inflammatory cytokines. Nature 391: 83–86.

Jung HW, Yoon CH, Park KM, Han HS, Park YK. 2009. Hexane fraction of Zingiberis Rhizoma Crudus extract inhibits the production of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines in LPS- stimulated BV2 microglial cells via the NF-kappaB pathway. Food and Chemical Toxicology 47: 1190-1197

Kanno S, Kitajima Y, Kakuta M, Osanai Y, Kurauchi K, Ujibe M, Ishikawa M. 2008. Costunolide-induced apoptosis is caused by receptor-mediated pathway and inhibition of telomerase activity in NALM-6 cells. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 31(5):1024-8.

Kao TK, Ou YC, Lin SY, Pan HC, Song PJ, Raung SL, Lai CY, Liao SL, Lu HC, Chen CJ. 2011. Luteolin inhibits cytokine expression in endotoxin/cytokine-stimulated microglia. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 22(7):612-24.

Karin M, Greten FR. 2005. NF-kappaB: linking inflammation and immunity to cancer development and progression. Nature Reviews Immunology 5(10):749-59. Review.

Kassel O, Sancono A, Kratzschmar J, Kreft B, Stassen M. and Cato AC. 2001. Glucocorticoids inhibit MAP kinase via increased expression and decreased degradation of MKP-1. EMBO Journal 20:7108–7116.

Kassuya CA, Cremoneze A, Barros LF, Simas AS, Lapa Fda R, Mello-Silva R, Stefanello ME, Zampronio AR.2009. Antipyretic and anti-inflammatory properties of the ethanolic extract, dichloromethane fraction and costunolide from Magnolia ovata (Magnoliaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124(3):369-76.

Kaur C, Sivakumar V, Ang LS, Sundaresan AJ. 2006. Hypoxic damage to the periventricular white matter in neonatal brain: role of vascular endothelial growth factor, nitric oxide and excitotoxicity. Journal of Neurochemistry 98: 1200-1216.

Kaur C, Dheen ST, Ling EA.2007. From blood to brain: amoeboid microglial cell, a nascent macrophage and its functions in developing brain. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica 28 (8): 1087–1096.

Kaur C, Sivakumar V, Foulds WS. 2006. Early response of neurons and glial cells to hypoxia in the retina. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 47, 1126- 1141.

Kaur C, Hao AJ, Wu CH, Ling EA. 2001. Origin of microglia. Microscopy Research and Technique 54: 2-9

Kawai T, Akira S. 2007. Signaling to NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptors. Trends in Molecular Medicine 11:460-9.

Khare CP. 2007. Encyclopedia of Indian Medicinal Plants. Indian Medicinal Plants, Springer,181-182.

Kielian T, Drew PD.2003. Effects of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonists on central nervous system inflammation. Journal of Neuroscience Research 71:315–325.

Kim HS, Lim JY, Sul D, Hwang BY, Won TJ, Hwang KW, Park SY.2009. Neuroprotective effects of the new diterpene, CBNU06 against beta-amyloid- induced toxicity through the inhibition of NF-kappaB signaling pathway in PC12 cells. European Journal of Pharmacology 622: 25-31.

Kim JH, Yang YI, Lee KT, Park HJ, Choi JH.2011. Costunolide Induces Apoptosis in Human Endometriotic Cells through Inhibition of the Prosurvival Akt and Nuclear Factor Kappa B Signaling Pathway. Biological and Pharmaceutical bulletin 34(4):580-5.

Kim SH, Danilenko M, Kim TS.2008. Differential enhancement of leukaemia cell differentiation without elevation of intracellular calcium by plant-derived sesquiterpene lactone compounds. British Journal of Pharmacology 155(6):814-25.

Kim SO, Kundu JK, Shin YK, Park JH, Cho MH, Kim TY, Surh YJ. 2005. [6]-Gingerol inhibits COX-2 expression by blocking the activation of p38 MAP kinase and NF-kappaB in phorbol ester-stimulated mouse skin. Oncogene 24: 2558-2567.

Kim YC, da S Bolzani V, Baj N, Gunatilaka AA, Kingston DG.1996. A DNA-damaging sesquiterpene and other constituents from Frullania nisquallensis. Planta Medica 62(1):61-3.

Kitamura Y, Taniguchi T, Shimohama S. 1999.Apoptotic cell death in neurons and glial cells:implications for Alzheimer's disease. Japanese Journal of Pharmacology 79(1):1-5. Review.

Kitchen DB, Decornez H, Furr JR, Bajorath J. 2004.Docking and scoring in virtual screening for drug discovery: methods and applications. Nature reviews. Drug discovery 3(11): 935–49.

Kliewer SA, Lenhard JM, Willson TM, Patel I, Morris DC, Lehmann JM.1995. A prostaglandin J2 metabolite binds peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma and promotes adipocyte differentiation. Cell 83:813– 819.

Knerlich F, Schilling L, Gorlach C, Wahl M, Ehrenreich H, Siren AL.1999. Temporal profile of expression and cellular localization of inducible nitric oxide synthase, interleukin- 1beta and interleukin converting enzyme after cryogenic lesion of the rat parietal cortex. Brain Research Molecular Brain Research 68:73–87

Knott C, Stern G, Wilkin GP. 2000. Inflammatory regulators in Parkinson’s disease: iNOS, lipocortin-1, and cyclooxygenases-1 and -2. Molecular and Cellular Neurosciences 16:724–739.

Ko HM, Koppula S, Kim BW, Kim IS, Hwang BY, Suk K, Park EJ, Choi DK. 2010. Inflexin attenuates proinflammatory responses and nuclear factor-kappaB activation in LPS treated microglia. European Journal of Pharmacology 633: 98- 106.

Koo TH, Lee JH, Park YJ, Hong YS, Kim HS, Kim KW, Lee JJ. 2001. A sesquiterpene lactone, costunolide, from Magnolia grandiflora inhibits NF-kappa B by targeting Ikappa B phosphorylation. Planta Medica 67(2):103-7.

Koutsilieri E, Scheller C, Tribl F, Riederer P. 2002. Degeneration of neuronal cells due to oxidative stress--microglial contribution. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders 8: 401-406.

Kreutzberg GW. 1996. Microglia: a sensor for pathological events in the CNS. Trends in Neuroscience 19: 312-318.

Kreutzberg GW.1996. Principles of neuronal regeneration. Acta Neurochirurgica (Wien) Suppl 66:103-106

Lacroix S, Feinstein D Rivest S. 1998. The bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide has the ability to target the brain in upregulating its membrane CD14 receptor within specific cellular populations. Brain Pathology 8: 625–640.

Laskowski R A, MacArthur M W, Moss D S, Thornton J M. 1993. PROCHECK - a program to check the stereochemical quality of protein structures. Journal of Applied Crystallography 26:283-291.

Lawson LJ, Perry VH, Dri P, Gordon S. 1990. Heterogeneity in the distribution and morphology of microglia in the normal adult mouse brain. Neuroscience 39:151– 70.

Lawson LJ, Perry VH, Gordon S. 1992. Turnover of resident microglia in the normal adult mouse brain. Neuroscience 48:405–15.

Lebeau A, Esclaire F, Rostène W, Pélaprat D. 2001. Baicalein protects cortical neurons from β-amyloid induced toxicity. Neuroreport 12: 2199–2202.

Ledeboer A, Breve JJ, Poole S, Tilders FJ, Van Dam AM.2000. Interleukin-10, interleukin-4, and transforming growth factor-β differentially regulate lipopolysaccharide-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide in cocultures of rat astroglial and microglial cells. Glia 30:134-42.

Lee H, Kim YO, Kim H, Kim SY, Noh HS, Kang SS, Cho GJ, Choi WS, Suk K.2003. Flavonoid wogonin from medicinal herb is neuroprotective by inhibiting inflammatory activation of microglia. FASEB Journal 17: 1943–1944.

Lee YB, Schrader JW, Kim SU. 2000. p38 map kinase regulates TNF-alpha production in human astrocytes and microglia by multiple mechanisms. Cytokine 12: 874-880.

Lee YB, Nagai A, Kim SU.2002. Cytokines, chemokines, and cytokine receptors in human microglia. Journal of Neuroscience Research 69:94-103

Lee YS, Choi EM. 2011. Costunolide stimulates the function of osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells.International Immunopharmacology 11(6):712-8.

Lehmann T, Day RO, Brooks PM.1997. Toxicity of antirheumatic drugs.Medical Journal of Australia 166(7):378-83. Review.

Lemberger T, Desvergne B, Wahli W (1996) Peroxisome proliferator activated receptors: a nuclear receptor signaling pathway in lipid physiology. Annual Reviews in Cell and Developmental Biology 12:335–363.

Lengauer T, Rarey M. 1996. Computational methods for biomolecular docking. Current Opinions in Structural Biology 6 (3): 402–6.

Ling EL, Singh J et al.,2008. The Use of Virtual Screening in ALK5 Kinase Inhibitor Discovery and Validation of Orally Active ALK5 Kinase Inhibitors in Oncology. Ed. Jakowlew Sonia. Transforming Growth Factor-β in Cancer Therapy, Volume II. Human Press. Cancer Drug Discovery and Development 685-696.

Lewicki H, Tishon A, Homann D, Mazarguil H, Laval F, Asensio VC, Campbell IL, DeArmond S, Coon B, Teng C, Gairin JE, Oldstone MB. 2003. T cells infiltrate the brain in murine and human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Journal of Virology 77(6):3799- 808.

Qian L, Wei SJ, Zhang D, Hu X, Xu Z, Wilson B, El-Benna J, Hong JS, Flood PM.2008. Potent anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of TGF-β are mediated through the inhibition of ERK and p47phox-Ser345 phosphorylation and translocation in Microglia. Journal of Immunology 181: 660-668.

Li R, Huang YG, Fang D, Le WD. 2004. Epigallocatechin gallate inhibits lipopolysaccharide induced microglial activation and protects against inflammation-mediated dopaminergic neuronal injury. Journal of Neuroscience Research 78: 723-731.

Li S, An TY, Li J, Shen Q, Lou FC, Hu LH.2006. PTP1B inhibitors from Saussrurea lappa. Journal of Asian Natural Products Research 8(3):281-6.

Li Y, Liu L, Barger SW, Mrak RE, Griffin WS. 2001. Vitamin E suppression of microglial activation is neuroprotective. J Neurosci Res 66(2):163-70.

Liang YC, Huang YT, Tsai SH, Lin-Shiau SY, Chen CF, Lin JK. 1999. Suppression of inducible cyclooxygenase and inducible nitric oxide synthase by apigenin and related flavonoids in mouse macrophages. Carcinogenesis 20: 1945-1952.

Lim GP, Yang F, Chu T, Chen P, Beech W, Teter B, Tran T, Ubeda O, Ashe KH, Frautschy SA, Cole GM. 2000. Ibuprofen suppresses plaque pathology and inflammation in a mouse model for Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neuroscience 20:5709–5714.

Lim JY, Won TJ, Hwang BY, Kim HR, Hwang KW, Sul D, Park SY. 2010. The new diterpene isodojaponin D inhibited LPS-induced microglial activation through NF-kappaB and MAPK signaling pathways. European Journal of Pharmacology 642:10-18.

Ling EA, Leblond CP.1973. Investigation of glial cells in semithin sections. II. Variation with age in the numbers of the various glial cell types in rat cortex and corpus callosum. Journal of Comparative Neurology 149: 73-81.

Ling EA, Wong WC. 1993. The origin and nature of ramified and amoeboid microglia: a historical review and current concepts. Glia 7:9–18.

Lipinski CA, Lombardo F, Dominy BW and Feeney PJ. 1997. Experimental and computational approaches to estimate solubility and permeability in drug discovery and development settings. Advance Drug Delivery Reviews 23: 3–25.

Liu B, Hong JS.2003. Role of microglia in inflammation mediated neurodegenerative diseases:mechanisms and strategies for therapeutic intervention. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 304:1–7

Livak KJ, Schmittgen TD. 2001. Analysis of relative gene expression data using real-time quantitative PCR and the 2(-Delta Delta CT) method. Methods 25:402–408.

Lleo A, Galea E, Sastre M.2007.Molecular targets of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in neurodegenerative diseases. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 64:1403-1418.

Loane DJ, Deighan BF, Clarke RM, Griffin RJ, Lynch AM, Lynch MA.2009.Interleukin-4 mediates the neuroprotective effects of rosiglitazone in the aged brain. Neurobiology of Aging. 30(6):920-31.

Lossinsky AS, Shivers RR.2004. Structural pathways for macromolecular and cellular transport across the blood-brain barrier during inflammatory conditions. Histology and Histopathology. 19:535-64.

Lu DY, Tang CH, Chen YH, Wei IH. 2010. Berberine suppresses neuroinflammatory responses through AMP-activated protein kinase activation in BV-2 microglia. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 110:697-705.

Lucas SM, Rothwell NJ, Gibson RM. 2006. The role of inflammation in CNS injury and disease. British Journal of Pharmacology 147: S1:S232–S240.

Luna-Herrera J, Costa MC, González HG, Rodrigues AI, Castilho PC.2007. Synergistic antimycobacterial activities of sesquiterpene lactones from Laurus spp. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 59(3):548-52.

Luna-Medina R, Cortes-Canteli M, Alonso M, Santos A, Martínez A, Perez-Castillo A. 2005.Regulation of inflammatory response in neural cells in vitro by thiadiazolidinones derivatives through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ activation. Journal of Biological Chemistry 280(22); 21453–21462.

Lund S, Porzgen P, Mortensen AL, Hasseldam H, Bozyczko-Coyne D, Morath S, Hartung T, Bianchi M, Ghezzi P, Bsibsi M, Dijkstra S, Leist M. 2005. Inhibition of microglial inflammation by the MLK inhibitor CEP-1347. Journal of Neurochemistry 92: 1439-1451.

Macías FA, Galindo JC, Castellano D, Velasco RF.1999. Sesquiterpene lactones with potential use as natural herbicide models (I): trans,trans-germacranolides. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 47(10):4407-14.

Mahmood U, Shukla YN, Thakur RS.1984. Benzoquinones from Costus speciosus seeds. Phytochemistry 23(8), 1725-1727.

Malabadi RB. 2005. Antibacterial activity in the rhizome extracts of Costus speciosus (Koen.). Journal of Phytological Research 18(1): 83-85.

Mata R, Rivero-Cruz I, Rivero-Cruz B, Bye R, Timmermann BN. 2002. Sesquiterpene lactones and phenylpropanoids from Cosmos pringlei. Journal of Natural Products 65(7):1030-2.

Matsuda H, Kagerura T, Toguchida I, Ueda H, Morikawa T, Yoshikawa M.2000. Inhibitory effects of sesquiterpenes from bay leaf on nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages: structure requirement and role of heat shock protein induction. Life Sciences 66(22):2151-7.

Matsuda H, Shimoda H, Ninomiya K, Yoshikawa M.2002. Inhibitory mechanism of costunolide, a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from Laurus nobilis, on blood- ethanol elevation in rats:involvement of inhibition of gastric emptying and increase in gastric juice secretion. Alcohol and Alcoholism 37(2):121-7.

Matsuda H, Shimoda H, Uemura T, Yoshikawa M.1999. Preventive effect of sesquiterpenes from bay leaf on blood ethanol elevation in ethanol-loaded rat: structure requirement and suppression of gastric emptying. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters 9(18):2647-52.

Matsumoto Y, Ohmori K and Fujiwara M. 1992. Immune regulation by brain cells in the central nervous system: microglia but not astrocytes present myelin basic protein to encephalitogenic T-cells under in vivo-mimicking conditions, Immunology 76: 209-216.

Matsuoka Y, Picciano M, Malester B, LaFrancois J, Zehr C, Daeschner JM, Olschowka JA,Fonseca MI, O'Banion MK, Tenner AJ, Lemere CA, Duff K. 2001. Inflammatory responses to amyloidosis in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Pathology 158(4):1345-54.

McCarty MF. 2006. Down-regulation of microglial activation may represent a practical strategy for combating neurodegenerative disorders. Medical Hypotheses 67: 251– 269.

McGeer EG, McGeer PL.1998. The importance of inflammatory mechanisms in Alzheimer disease. Experimental Gerontology 33(5):371-8. Review.

McGeer EG, McGeer PL. 2003. Inflammatory processes in Alzheimer’s disease. Progress in neuro-psychopharmacological and Biological Psychiatry 27:741–749.

Meistrell ME , Botchkina GI, Wang H, Di Santo E, Cockroft KM, Bloom O, Vishnubhakat JM, Ghezzi P, Tracey KJ. 1997. Tumor necrosis factor is a brain damaging cytokine in cerebral ischemia. Shock: 8(5):341-8.

Meng XL, Yang JY, Chen GL, Wang LH, Zhang LJ, Wang S, Li J, Wu CF.2008. Effects of resveratrol and its derivatives on lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial activation and their structure-activity relationships. Chemico Biological Interactions 174(1):51-9.

Mercurio F , Manning AM. 1999. NF-kappaB as a primary regulator of the stress response. Oncogene 18: 6163–6171.

Merrill JE, Murphy SP, Mitrovic B, Mackenzie-Graham A, Dopp JC, Ding M, Griscavage J, Ignarro LJ and Lowenstein CJ. 1997. Inducible nitric oxide synthase and nitric

oxide production by oligodendrocytes. Journal of Neuroscience Research 48:372– 384.

Michalik L, Auwerx J, Berger JP, Chatterjee VK, Glass CK, Gonzalez FJ, Grimaldi PA, Kadowaki T, Lazar MA, O'Rahilly S, Palmer CN, Plutzky J, Reddy JK, Spiegelman BM,Staels B, Wahli W.2006. International Union of Pharmacology. LXI. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Pharmacology Review 58(4):726-41.

Minghetti L, Polazzi E, Nicolini A, Greco A, Levi G.1999. Possible role of microglial prostanoids and free radicals in neuroprotection and neurodegeneration. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 468:109-19. Review.

Mishra G, Sinha R, Verma N, Khosa RL, Garg VK, Singh P. 2009. Hepatoprotective activity of alcoholic and aqueous extracts of Wedelia chinensis. Pharmacologyonline 1: 343- 356.

Mizuno T, Sawada M, Marunouchi T, Suzumura A. 1994. Production of interleukin-10 by mouse glial cells in culture. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 205:1907-15

Moller AR.2000. Similarities between severe tinnitus and chronic pain. Journal of American academy of Audiology 11: 115-124.

Molnár F, Matilainen M, Carlberg C.2005.Structural determinants of the agonist- independent association of human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors with coactivators. Journal of Biological Chemistry 280(28):26543-56.

Mondranondra IO, Che CT, Rimando AM, Vajrodaya S, Fong HH, Farnsworth NR.1990. Sesquiterpene lactones and other constituents from a cytotoxic extract of Michelia floribunda. Pharmaceutical Research 7(12):1269-72.

Morgan TE, Nichols NR, Pasinetti GM, Finch CE.1993. TGF-beta 1 mRNA increases in macrophage/microglial cells of the hippocampus in response to deafferentation and kainic acid-induced neurodegeneration. Experimental neurology 120: 291– 301.

Mori H.1997. Inhibitory effects of dietary protocatechuic acid and costunolide on 7,12- dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-induced hamster cheek pouch carcinogenesis. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research 88(2):111-9.

Mori H, Kawamori T, Tanaka T, Ohnishi M, Yamahara J. 1994. Chemopreventive effect of costunolide, a constituent of oriental medicine, on azoxymethane-induced intestinal carcinogenesis in rats. Cancer Letters 83(1-2):171-5.

Moro MA, Cárdenas A, Hurtado O, Leza JC, Lizasoain I.2004. Role of nitric oxide after brain ischaemia. Cell Calcium 36(3-4):265-75.Review.

Mosley RL, Benner EJ, Kadiu I, Thomas M, Boska MD, Hasan K, Laurie C, Gendelman HE.2003. Neuroinflammation, Oxidative Stress and the Pathogenesis of Parkinson's Disease. Clinical Neuroscience Research 6(5): 261–281.

Mukherjee D, Nissen SE, Topol EJ.2001. Risk of cardiovascular events associated with selective COX-2 inhibitors. JAMA 286:954-9.

Murakami A, Ohigashi H.2007. Targeting NOX, INOS and COX-2 in inflammatory cells: chemoprevention using food phytochemicals. International Journal of Cancer 121(11):2357-63. Review.

Murphy GJ, Holder JC. 2002. PPAR-gamma agonists: therapeutic role in diabetes, inflammation and cancer. Trends in Pharmacological Science 21: 469–474.

Murphy S and Grzybicki D. 1996. Glial, normal and pathological roles. Neuroscientist 2:90–99.

Mycko MP, Papoian R, Boschert U, Raine CS, Selmaj KW. 2003. cDNA microarray analysis in multiple sclerosis lesions: detection of genes associated with disease activity. Brain 126(5):1048-57.

Nadkarni KM. 2009 Indian Materia Medica, Bombay Popular Prakashan, Vol.1, 385-386.

Nakaya Kazuyasu. 2004. Basic Studies for the Development of Anticancer, Antidementia, and Taste Modifier Drugs. Yakugaku Zasshi 124:371-396 (2004).

Nam KN, Son MS, Park JH, Lee EH.2008. Shikonins attenuate microglial inflammatory responses by inhibition of ERK, Akt, and NF-κB: neuroprotective implications. Neuropharmacology 55(5):819–25

Nedergaard M, Dirnagl U. 2005. Role of glial cells in cerebral ischemia. Glia 50(4):281– 286.

Nencini P, Sarti C, Innocenti R, Pracucci G, Inzitari D.2003. Acute inflammatory events and ischemic stroke subtypes. Cerebrovascular Diseases 15:215-21

Newman DJ, Cragg GM, Snader KM.2000. The influence of natural products upon drug discovery. Natural Product Reports 17(3):215-34.

Niranjan R, Kamat PK, Nath C, Shukla R. 2010. Evaluation of guggulipid and nimesulide on production of inflammatory mediators and GFAP expression in LPS stimulated rat astrocytoma, cell line (C6). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 127:625–630.

Nissl F. 1899. Ueber einige Beziehungen zwischen Nervenzellerkrankungen und gliösen Erscheinungen bei verschiedenen Pschosen Arch. Psych 32:1-21.

Nolte RT, Wisely GB, Westin S, Cobb JE, Lambert MH, Kurokawa R, Rosenfeld MG, Willson TM, Glass CK, Milburn MV. 1998. Ligand binding and co-activator assembly of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma. Nature 395(6698): 137–143.

Nosjean O, Boutin JA.2002. Natural ligands of PPAR-gamma: are prostaglandin J(2) derivatives really playing the part? Cell Signal 14: 573-583.

Nunez E, Benito C, Pazos MR, Barbachano A, Fajardo O, Gonzalez S, Tolon RM, Romero J. 2004. Cannabinoid CB2 receptors are expressed by perivascular microglial cells in the human brain: an immunohistochemical study. Synapse 53:208-213.

O’Neill LA, Kaltschmidt C. 1997. NF-kappa B: a crucial transcription factor for glial and neuronal cell function. Trends in Neuroscience 20: 252– 258.

Ock J, Han HS, Hong SH, Lee SY, Han YM, Kwon BM, Suk K. 2010. Obovatol attenuates microglia-mediated neuroinflammation by modulating redox regulation. British Journal of Pharmacology 159: 1646-1662.

Ogawa S, Lozach J, Benner C, Pascual G, Tangirala RK, Westin S, Hoffmann A, Subramaniam S,David M, Rosenfeld MG, Glass CK. 2005.Molecular determinants of crosstalk between nuclear receptors and toll-like receptors. Cell 2005;122:707–721.

Ohnishi M, Yoshimi N, Kawamori T, Ino N, Hirose Y, Tanaka T, Yamahara J, Miyata H, Mori H.1997. Inhibitory effects of dietary protocatechuic acid and costunolide on 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-induced hamster cheek pouch carcinogenesis. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research 88(2):111-9.

Okawara M, Katsuki H, Kurimoto E, Shibata H, Kume T, Akaike A. 2007. Resveratrol protects dopaminergic neurons in midbrain slice culture from multiple insults. Biochemical Pharmacology 73: 550-560.

Okello EJ, Savelev SU, Perry EK.2004. In vitro anti-beta-secretase and dual anti- cholinesterase activities of Camellia sinensis L. (tea) relevant to treatment of dementia. Phytotherapy Research 18: 624-627.

Okugawa H, Ueda R, Matsumoto K, Kawanishi K, Kato K. 2000. Effects of sesquiterpenoids from "Oriental incenses" on acetic acid-induced writhing and D2 and 5-HT2A receptors in rat brain. Phytomedicine 7(5):417-22.

Onaga L.2001. Cashing in on nature's pharmacy: bioprospecting and protection of biodiversity could go hand in hand, EMBO Reports 2: 263–265.

Ostberg T, Svensson S, Selén G, Uppenberg J, Thor M, Sundbom M, Sydow-Bäckman M, Gustavsson AL, Jendeberg L.2004.A New Class of Peroxisome Proliferator- activated Receptor Agonists with a Novel Binding Epitope Shows Antidiabetic Effects. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 279(39):41124–41130.

Pae HO, Jeong GS, Kim HS, Woo WH, Rhew HY, Kim HS, Sohn DH, Kim YC, Chung HT. 2007. Costunolide inhibits production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 by inducing heme oxygenase-1 in RAW264.7macrophages.Inflammation Research 56(12):520-6.

Pagán OR, Rowlands AL, Azam M, Urban KR, Bidja AH, Roy DM, Feeney RB, Afshari LK. 2008. Reversal of cocaine-induced planarian behavior by parthenolide and related sesquiterpene lactones. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 89(2):160-70.

Palazuelos J, Aguado T, Egia A, Mechoulam R, Guzman M, Galve-Roperh I. 2006. Non- psychoactive CB2 cannabinoid agonists stimulate neural progenitor proliferation. FASEB Journal 20:2405–7.

Palmer RM, Ashton DS,Moncada S.1988. Vascular endothelial cells synthesize nitric oxide from L-arginine. Nature 333: 664–666.

Park CS, Krishna G, Ahn MS, Kang JH, Chung WG, Kim DJ, Hwang HK, Lee JN, Paik SG, Cha YN.2000. Differential and constitutive expression of neuronal, inducible, and endothelial nitric oxide synthase mRNAs and proteins in pathologically normal human tissues. Nitric Oxide 4(5):459-71.

Park EJ, Park SY, Joe E, and Jou I.2003.15d-PGJ2 and Rosiglitazone Suppress Janus Kinase-STAT Inflammatory Signaling through Induction of Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling 1 (SOCS1) and SOCS3 in Glia. Journal of Biological Chemistry 278(17):14747-52.

Park HJ, Jung WT, Basnet P, Kadota S, Namba T. 1996 .Syringin 4-O-beta-glucoside, a new phenylpropanoid glycoside, and costunolide, a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, from the stem bark of Magnolia sieboldii. Journal of Natural Products 59(12):1128- 30.

Park HJ, Kwon SH, Han YN, Choi JW, Miyamoto K, Lee SH, Lee KT.2001. Apoptosis- Inducing costunolide and a novel acyclic monoterpene from the stem bark of Magnolia sieboldii. Archives of Pharmacal Research 24(4):342-8.

Park HW, Lee JH, Choi SU, Baek NI, Kim SH, Yang JH, Kim DK. 2010. Cytotoxic germacranolide sesquiterpenes from the bark of Magnolia kobus. Archives of Pharmacal Research 33(1):71-4.

Park JB, Lee CK, Park HJ.1997. Anti-Helicobacter pylori effect of costunolide isolated from the stem bark of Magnolia sieboldii. Archives of Pharmacal Research 20(3):275-9.

Park JS, Park EM, Kim DH, Jung K, Jung JS, Lee EJ, Hyun JW, Kang JL Kim HS.2009. Anti-inflammatory mechanism of ginseng saponins in activated microglia. Journal of Neuroimmunology 209: 40-49

Park KS, Kim BH, Chang IM. 2010. Inhibitory potencies of several iridoids on cyclooxygenase-1,cyclooxygenase-2 enzymes activities, tumor necrosis factor-α, and nitric oxide production in vitro. Evidence Based Complementary Alternative Medicine 7(1):41–5.

Park KW, Lee HG, Jin BK, Lee YB.2007.Interleukin-10 endogenously expressed in microglia prevents lipopolysaccharide-induced neurodegeneration in the rat cerebral cortex in vivo.Experimental and Molecular medicine39(6): 812-819.

Park SH, Choi SU, Lee CO, Yoo SE, Yoon SK, Kim YK, Ryu SY.2001. Costunolide, a sesquiterpene from the stem bark of Magnolia sieboldii, inhibits the inhibition upon the farnesylation process of human lamin-B by farnesyl-proteintransferase (FPTase), in a dose dependent manner in vitro. Planta Medica 67(4):358-9.

Perez MAC, Gracia AR, Teurel CF, Alvarez IG, Sanz MB.2003. A topological- substructural molecular design (TOPS-MODE) approach to determining pharmacokinetics and pharmacol ogical properties of 6- fluoroquinolone derivatives. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 56: 197-206.

Perez RL, Ritzenthaler JD, Roman J.1999.Transcriptional regulation of the interleukin-1 beta romoter via fibrinogen engagement of the CD18 integrin receptor. American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology 20: 1059- 1066.

Pérez-Ortiz JM, Tranque P, Vaquero CF, Domingo B, Molina F, Calvo S, Jordán J, Ceña V,Llopis J. 2004. Glitazones differentially regulate primary astrocyte and glioma cell survival:involvement of ROS and PPARγ. Journal of Biological Chemistry 279: 8976–8985.

Perry NSL, Bollen C, Perry EK, Ballard C.2003. Salvia for dementia therapy: review of pharmacological activity and pilot tolerability clinical trial. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 75: 651–659.

Perry VH, Cunningham C, Boche D. 2002. Atypical inflammation in the central nervous system in prion disease. Current Opinion in Neurology 15(3):349-54.

Petrova TV, Akama KT, Van Eldik LJ. 1999. Cyclopentenone prostaglandins suppress activation of microglia: down-regulation of inducible nitric-oxide synthase by 15- deoxy- Delta12,14-prostaglandin J2. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U. S. A 96: 4668–4673

Pinto MM, Kijjoa A, Mondranondra IO, Herz W. 1990. Biphenyl Type Lignans and Costunolide from Manglietia garrettii. Planta Medica 56(4):417-8.

Pocock MJ and Kettenmann H. 2007. Neurotransmitter receptors on microglia. Trends in Neurosciences. 30 (10):527-535.

Prehn JH, Bindokas VP, Marcuccilli CJ, Krajewski S, Reed JC, Miller RJ.1994. Regulation of neuronal Bcl2 protein expression and calcium homeostasis by transforming growth factor type confers wide-ranging protection on rat hippocampal neurons. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 91: 12599–12603.

Prentis RA, Lis Y, Walker SR.1988.Pharmaceutical innovation by the seven UK-owned pharmaceutical companies (1964-1985). British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 25(3):387-96.

Qian L, Block ML, Wei SJ, Lin CF, Reece J, Pang H, Wilson B, Hong JS, Flood PM. 2006. Interleukin-10 protects lipopolysaccharide-induced neurotoxicity in primary midbrain cultures by inhibiting the function of NADPH oxidase. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 319:44-52.

Qian L, Hu X, Zhang D, Snyder A, Wu HM, Li Y, Wilson B, Lu RB, Hong JS, Flood PM.2009. Beta2 Adrenergic Receptor Activation Induces Microglial NADPH Oxidase Activation and Dopaminergic Neurotoxicity Through an ERK- Dependent/Protein Kinase A- Independent Pathway. Glia 57:1600–1609.

Qian L, Wei SJ, Zhang D, Hu X, Xu Z, Wilson B, El-Benna J, Hong JS, Flood PM. 2008. Potent Anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of TGF-β1 are mediated through the inhibition of ERK and p47phox-Ser345 phosphorylation and translocation in microglia. Journal of Immunology 181:660-668.

Qiao CF, Li QW, Dong H, Xu LS, Wang ZT. 2002. Studies on chemical constituents of two plants from Costus. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 27(2): 123-5.

Qin L, Liu Y, Wang T, Wei SJ, Block ML, Wilson B, Liu B, Hong JS.2004. NADPH oxidase mediates lipopolysaccharide-induced neurotoxicity and proinflammatory gene expression in activated microglia. Journal of Biological Chemistry 279:1415- 1421.

Ramirez BG, Blazquez C, Gomez del Pulgar T, Guzman M, de Ceballos ML. 2005. Prevention of Alzheimer's disease pathology by cannabinoids neuroprotection mediated by blockade of microglial activation. Journal of Neuroscience 25:1904- 1913.

Rankine EL, Hughes PM, Botham MS, Perry VH, Felton LM.2006. Brain cytokine synthesis induced by an intraparenchymal injection of LPS is reduced in MCP-1- deficient mice prior to leukocyte recruitment. European Journal of Neuroscience 24: 77-86.

Ransohoff RM, Perry VH. 2009. Microglial physiology: unique stimuli, specialized responses. Annual Review of Immunology 27, 119-145.

Rao AS, Kelkar GR, Bhattacharyya SC. 1960. Terpenoids: XXI. The structure of costunolide, a new sesquiterpene lactone from costus root oil. Tetrahedron 9: 275– 283

Rao AS, Paul A, Bhattacharya SC. 1961. Terpenoids—XXV: Structure of Saussurea lactone. Tetrahedron 13(4):319-323.

Rastogi RP, Mehrotra BN.2004.Compendium of Indian Medicinal plants, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow and National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources, New Delhi, Vol 4: 224-225.

Ray B, Lahiri DK.2009.Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease: different molecular targets and potential therapeutic agents including curcumin. Current Opinions in Pharmacology 9(4):434-44. Review.

Rezai-Zadeh K, Shytle D, Sun N, Mori T, Hou H, Jeanniton D, Ehrhart J, Townsend K, Zeng J Morgan D, Hardy, Town T, Tan J.2005. Green tea epigallocatechin-3- gallate (EGCG) modulates amyloid precursor protein cleavage and reduces cerebral amyloidosis in Alzheimer transgenic mice. Journal of Neuroscience 25: 8807-8814.

Ricote M, Li AC, Willson TM, Kelly CJ, Glass CK. 1998. The peroxisome proliferator- activated receptor-gamma is a negative regulator of macrophage activation. Nature 391: 79–82.

Robinson A, Kumar TV, Sreedhar E, Naidu VG, Krishna SR, Babu KS, Srinivas PV, Rao JM.2008. A new sesquiterpene lactone from the roots of Saussurea lappa: structure-anticancer activity study. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters 18(14):4015-7.

Romas E, Gillespie MT, Martin TJ. 2002. Involvement of receptor activator of NFkappaB ligand and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in bone destruction in rheumatoid arthritis. Bone 30(2):340-6.

Romero-Sandoval EA, Horvath R, Landry RP, DeLeo JA. 2009. Cannabinoid receptor type 2 activation induces a microglial anti-inflammatory phenotype and reduces migration via MKP induction and ERK dephosphorylation. Molecular Pain 5:25

Rossi A, Kapahi P, Natoli G, Takahashi T, Chen Y, Karin M, Santoro MG. 2000. Anti- inflammatory cyclopentenone prostaglandins are direct inhibitors of IkappaB kinase. Nature 403: 103–108

Rothwell NJ, Luheshi GN.2000. Interleukin 1 in the brain: biology, pathology and therapeutic target. Trends in Neuroscience 23(12):618-25. Review.

Ruocco A, Nicole O, Docagne F, Ali C, Chazalviel L, Komesli S, Yablonsky F, Roussel S, MacKenzie ET, Vivien D, Buisson A.1999. A transforming growth factor-beta antagonist unmasks the neuroprotective role of this endogenous cytokine in excitotoxic and ischemic brain injury. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 19: 1345–1353.

Sali A, Potterton L, Yuan F, van Vlijmen H, Karplus M.1995.Evaluation of comparative protein modeling by MODELLER. Proteins 23(3):318-26.

Salminen A, Lehtonen M, Suuronen T, Kaarniranta K, Huuskonen. 2008. Terpenoids: natural inhibitors of NF-kappaB signaling with anti-inflammatory and anticancer potential. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 65(19):2979-99.

Sanghvi T, Jain N , Yang G , Yalkowsky SH.2003. Estimation of aqueous solubility by the general solubility equation (GSE) the easy way. QSAR & Combinatorial Science 22:258-62.

Sawada M, Suzumura A, Hosoya H, Marunouchi T, Nagatsu T.1999. Interleukin-10 inhibits both production of cytokines and expression of cytokine receptors in microglia. Journal of Neurochemistry 72:1466-71

Schilling M, Besselmann M, Leonhard C, Mueller M, Ringelstein EB, Kiefer R. 2003. Microglial activation precedes and predominates over macrophage infiltration in transient focal cerebral ischemia: a study in green fluorescent protein transgenic bone marrow chimeric mice. Experimental Neurology 183:25–33.

Schmidt OI, Heyde CE, Ertel W, Stahel PF. 2005. Closed head injury-an inflammatory disease? Brain Research Review 48:388-99

Schroeter M, Jander S, Huitinga I, Witte OW, Stoll G. 1997. Phagocytic response in photochemically induced infarction of rat cerebral cortex. The role of resident microglia.Stroke 28:382–6.

Seaman FC(1982) Sesquiterpene lactones as taxonomic characters in the Asteraceae. Bot Rev 48:124–595.

Selkoe DJ.2002. Alzheimer’s disease is a synaptic failure. Science 298:789 –791.

Selmaj KW, Raine CS.1988. Tumor necrosis factor mediates myelin and oligodendrocyte damage in vitro. Annals in Neurology 23: 339-346.

Sen R, Baltimore D.1986. Multiple nuclear factors interact with the immunoglobulin enhancer sequences. Cell 46:706–716.

Seo DR, Kim KY, Lee YB.2004. Interleukin-10 expression in lipopolysaccharide-activated microglia is mediated by extracellular ATP in an autocrine fashion. Neuroreport 15:1157-61

Seo JJ, Lee SH, Lee YS, Kwon BM, Ma Y, Hwang BY, Hong JT, Oh KW.2007.Anxiolytic- like effects of obovatol isolated from Magnolia obovata: involvement of GABA/benzodiazepine receptors complex. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacolgy and Biological Psychiatry 31: 1363-1369.

Shah V, Lyford G, Gores G, Farrugia G. 2004. Nitric oxide in gastrointestinal health and disease. Gastroenterology, 126: 903-913

Sheng WS, Hu S, Min X, Cabral GA, Lokensgard JR, Peterson PK. 2005. Synthetic cannabinoid WIN55,212-2 inhibits generation of inflammatory mediators by IL- 1beta-stimulated human astrocytes. Glia 49:211-219.

Shepherd E. G., Zhao Q., Welty S. E., Hansen T. N., Smith C. V. and Liu Y. (2004) The function of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 in peptidoglycan- stimulated macrophages. Journal of Biological Chemistry 279:54023–54031.

Shin HR, Kim JY, Yun TK, Morgan G and Vainio H. 2000. The cancer-preventive potential of Panax ginseng: a review of human and experimental evidence. Cancer Causes Control 11: 565-576.

Silverstein FE, Faich G, Goldstein JL, Simon LS, Pincus T, Whelton A, Makuch R, Eisen G,Agrawal NM, Stenson WF, Burr AM, Zhao WW, Kent JD, Lefkowith JB, Verburg KM, Geis GS. 2000. Gastrointestinal toxicity with celecoxib vs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis: the CLASS study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA-Journal of the American Medical association 284:1247-55.

Singh UP, Srivastava BP. 1992. Antifungal activity of steroid saponins and sapogenins from Avena sativa and Costus speciosus. Naturalio Rio Claro 17:71-7.

Sivarajan V, Balachandran I, eds.1994. Ayurvedic drugs and their plant sources. 1st ed. Madras: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co Pvt Ltd, 108.

Slepko N, Levi,G. 1996. Progressive activation of adult microglial cells in vitro. Glia 16:241-246.

Song XK, Tu PF, Wu LJ, Cai Y, Zhu H, Lu Y, Liu XY, Zheng QT. 2001. A new sesquiterpene lactone from Tsoongiodendron odorum Chun. Journal of Asian Natural Products Research 3(4):285-91.

Sparacio SM, Zhang Y, Vilcek J, Benveniste EN. 1992. Cytokine regulation of interleukin- 6 gene expression in astrocytes involves activation of an NF-kappa B-like nuclear protein. Journal of Neuroimmunology 39(3):231-42.

Spiegelman B 1998. PPARg in monocytes: less pain, any gain? Cell 93:153–155.

Sroga JM, Jones TB, Kigerl KA, McGaughy VM, Popovich PG. 2003. Rats and mice exhibit distinct inflammatory reactions after spinal cord injury. Journal of Comparative Neurology 462:223-240.

Stefani R, Schorr K, Tureta JM, Vichnewski W, Merfort I, da Costa FB.2006. Sesquiterpene lactones from Dimerostemma species (Asteraceae) and in vitro potential anti- inflammatory activities. Zeitschrift Fur Naturforschung 61(9- 10):647-52.

Stoll G, Jander S.1999.The role of microglia and macrophages in the pathophysiology of the CNS. Progress in Neurobiology 58:233-47

Stoll G, Schroeter M, Jander S. Siebert H, Wollrath A, Kleinschnitz C, Brück W.2004. Lesion-associated expression of transforming growth factor-beta-2 in the rat nervous system:evidence for down-regulating the phagocytic activity of microglia and macrophages. Brain Pathology 14:51-8

Straus DS, Pascual G, Li M, Welch JS, Ricote M, Hsiang CH, Sengchanthalangsy LL, Ghosh G, Glass CK.2000. 15-deoxy-delta 12,14-prostaglandin J2 inhibits multiple steps in the NF-kappa B signaling pathway. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 97: 4844–4849.

Streit WJ, Semple-Rowland SL, Hurley SD, Miller RC, Popovich PG, Stokes BT. 1998. Cytokine mRNA profiles in contused spinal cord and axotomized facial nucleus

suggest a beneficial role for inflammation and gliosis. Experimental Neurology 152:74-87.

Streit WJ, Walter SA, Pennell NA. 1999. Reactive microgliosis. Progress in Neurobiology 57:563-81.

Streit WJ. 2004. Microglia and Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. Journal of Neuroscience Research 1:77(1):1-8.

Surh YJ, Chun KS, Cha HH, Han SS, Keum YS, Park KK, Lee SS. 2001. Molecular mechanisms underlying chemopreventive activities of anti-inflammatory phytochemicals: down-regulation of COX-2 and iNOS through suppression of NF-kappa B activation. Mutation Research 480-481:243-68

Szczepanik MM, Tutaj K, Bryniarski, Dittel BN. 2005. Epicutaneously induced TGFβ dependent tolerance inhibits experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Journal of Neuroimmunology 164: 105–114.

Tabet N, Feldmand H. 2003. Ibuprofen for Alzheimer’s disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2:CD004031.

Tache J, Selye H, Spielberger JG, Sarason. (Eds.). 1978. Stress and Anxiety, John Wiley & Sons,New York, pp.2.

Tan KS, Nackley AG,Satterfield K, Maixner W, Diatchenko L, and Flood PM. 2007. Beta2 adrenergic receptor activation stimulates pro-inflammatory cytokine production in macrophages via PKA- and NF-kappaB-independent mechanisms. Cell Signal 19:251-260.

Taniguchi M, Kataoka T, Suzuki H, Uramoto M, Ando M, Arao K, Magae J, Nishimura T, Otake N, Nagai K.1995. Costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone as inhibitors of killing function of cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Bioscience Biotechnology and Biochemisty 59(11):2064-7.

Teixeira-Clerc F, Julien B, Grenard P, Tran Van Nhieu J, Deveaux V, Li L, Serriere- Lanneau V, Ledent C, Mallat A, Lotersztajn S. 2006. CB1 cannabinoid receptor antagonism: a new strategy for the treatment of liver fibrosis. Nature Medicine 12: 671-6.

Tinoco MT, Ramos P, Candeias MF.2009. Effects of a hexane extract from Laurus novocanariensis leaves on the ethanol metabolism of Wistar rats. Fitoterapia 80(2):130-3.

Tomozawa YK, Yabuuchi T, Inoue, Satoh M. 1995. Participation of cAMP and cAMP- dependent protein kinase in beta-adrenoceptor-mediated interleukin-1 beta mRNA induction in cultured microglia. Neuroscience Research 22:399-409.

Tracey KJ, Wei H, Manogue KR, Fong Y, Hesse DG, Nguyen HT, Kuo GC, Beutler B, Cotran RS, Cerami A, Lowry SF. 1988. Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor induces cachexia, anemia, and inflammation. Journal of Experimental Medicine 167: 1211–1227.

Turner MR, Cagnin A, Turkheimer FE, Miller CC, Shaw CE, Brooks DJ, Leigh PN, Banati RB.2004. Evidence of widespread cerebral microglial activation in amyotrophic lateral. sclerosis: an [11C](R)-PK11195 positron emission tomography study. Neurobiology Disorders 15,601-609.

Udalova IA, Kwiatkowski D. 2001. Interaction of AP-1 with a cluster of NF-kappa B binding elements in the human TNF promoter region. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 289: 25-33.

Unoh H, Matsuyama T, Akita H, Nishimura H, Sugita M. 1997. Induction of tumour necrosis factor alpha in mouse hippocampus following transient forebrain ischemia. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 17:491-499.

Unsicker K, Krieglstein K. 2002. TGF-betas and their roles in the regulation of neuron survival. Advances in Experimental Biology and Medicine 513: 353–374.

Van Everbroeck B, Dewulf E, Pals P, Lübke U, Martin JJ, Cras P.2002. The role of cytokines, astrocytes, microglia and apoptosis in Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. Neurobiology of Aging 23: 59–64.

Van Wagoner NJ, Benveniste EN. 1999. Interleukin-6 expression and regulation in astrocytes.Journal of Neuroimmunology 100(1-2):124-39.Review

Vargas DL, Nascimbene C, Krishnan C, Zimmerman AW, Pardo CA.2005. Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation in the brain of patients with autism. Annals of Neurology 57(1):67-81. Erratum in: Ann Neurol. 2005 Feb, 57(2):304.

Vaughan DW, Peters A.1974. Neurological cells in the cerebral cortex of rats from young adulthood to old age: an electron microscope study. Journal of Neurocytology 3:405- 429.

Verma N, Khosa RL. 2009. Effect of Costus speciosus and Wedelia chinensis on Brain Neurotransmitters and Enzyme Monoamine Oxidase Following Cold Immobilization Stress. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research 1(2): 22- 25.

Verma N, Khosa RL. 2009. Evaluation of protective effects of ethanol extract of Costus speciosus(Koenig). Sm rhizomes on carbon tetra chloride induced hepatotoxicity in rats.Natural Product Radiance 8(2): 123-126.

Vijayalakshmi MA, Sarada NC.2008. Screening of Costus speciosus extracts for antioxidant activity.Fitoterapia. 79(3):197-8.

Vijitruth R, Liu M, Choi DY, Nguyen XV, Hunter RL, Bing G. 2006. Cyclooxygenase-2 mediates microglial activation and secondary dopaminergic cell death in the mouse MPTP model of Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neuroinflammation 3:6.

Vujanovic NL. 2001.Role of TNF family ligands in antitumor activity of natural killer cells.International Review of Immunology 20(3-4):415-37. Review.

Wacker D, Fenalti G, Brown MA, Katritch V, Abagyan R, Cherezov V, Stevens RC. 2010. Conserved Binding Mode of Human beta2 Adrenergic Receptor Inverse Agonists and Antagonist Revealed by X-ray Crystallography. Journal of American Chemical Society 132(33):11443-5.

Waetzig V, Czeloth K, Hidding U, Mielke K, Kanzow M, Brecht S, Goetz M, Lucius R, Herdegen T, Hanisch UK. 2005. c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) mediate pro- inflammatory actions of microglia. Glia 50: 235-246.

Wang J, Barke RA, Charboneau R, Loh HH, Roy S.2003. Morphine negatively regulates interferon-gamma promoter activity in activated murine T cells through two distinct cyclic AMP-dependent pathways. Journal of Biological Chemistry 278: 37622- 37631.

Wang X, Yue TL, Barone FC, Feuerstein GZ.1995. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 messenger RNA expression in rat ischemic cortex. Stroke 26: 661-666.

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C, eds. Indian Medicinal Plants, a compendium of 500 species.Vol. 2. 1st ed. Madras: Orient Longman Ltd, 201.

Wayman NS, Hattori Y, McDonald MC, Mota-Filipe H, Cuzzocrea S, Pisano B, Chatterjee PK,Thiemermann C. 2002. Ligands of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR-gamma and PPAR-alpha) reduce myocardial infarct size. FASEB Journal 16: 1027–1040.

Wealth of India: First Supplement Series (Raw Materials). 2007. National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources, CSIR 2: 211- 213.

Wedge DE, Galindo JC, Macías FA. 2000. Fungicidal activity of natural and synthetic sesquiterpene lactone analogs. Phytochemistry 53(7):747-57.

Whitton PS.2007. Inflammation as a causative factor in the aetiology of Parkinson's disease. British Journal of Pharmacology 150:963-76.

Wierzba-Bobrowicz T, Gwiazda E, Kosno-Kruszewska E, Lewandowska, E, Lechowicz W,Bertrand E, Szpak GM, Schmidt-Sidor, B.2002. Morphological analysis of active microglia-rod and ramified microglia in human brains affected by some neurological diseases (SSPE, Alzheimer's disease and Wilson's disease). Folia Neuropathologica 40,125-131.

Wilkinson BL, Cramer PE, Varvel NH, Reed-Geaghan E, Jiang Q, Szabo A, Herrup K, Lamb BT, Landreth GE. 2010. Ibuprofen attenuates oxidative damage through NOX2 inhibition in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiology of Aging 10 Aug 7. Epub ahead of print.

Wilson SM, Mansley MK, Getty J, Husband EM, Inglis SK, Hansen MK.2010. Effects of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonists on Na+ transport and activity of the kinase SGK1 in epithelial cells from lung and kidney.British Journal of Pharmacology 159(3):678-88.

Wirenfeldt M, Babcock AA, Vinters HV. 2011. Microglia - insights into immune system structure, function, and reactivity in the central nervous system. Histology and Histopathology 26(4):519-30.

Wishart DS, Knox C, Guo AC, Cheng D, Shrivastava S, Tzur D, Gautam B, Hassanali M.2008.DrugBank: a knowledgebase for drugs, drug actions and drug targets. Nucleic Acids Research 36(Database issue):D901–6.

Wu DC, Jackson-Lewis V, Vila M, Tieu K, Teismann P, Vadseth C, Choi DK, Ischiropoulos H, Przedborski SJ. 2002. Blockade of microglial activation is neuroprotective in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine mouse model of Parkinson disease. Journal of Neuroscience 22: 1763-1771.

Wu SH, Luo XD, Ma YB, Hao XJ, Zhou J, Wu DG.2001. Two new germacranolides from Magnolia grandiflora. Journal of Asian Natural Products Research 3(2):95-102.

Xie QW, Whisnant R, Nathan C. 1993. Promoter of the mouse gene encoding calcium- independent nitric oxide synthase confers inducibility by interferon gamma and bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Journal of Experimental medicine 177(6):1779-84.

Xu HE, Lambert MH, Montana VG, Parks DJ, Blanchard SG, Brown PJ, Sternbach DD, Lehmann JM, Wisely GB, Willson TM, Kliewer SA, Milburn MV. 1999. Molecular recognition of fatty acids by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Molecular Cell 3: 397–403.

Xu HE, Lambert MH, Montana VG, Plunket KD, Moore LB, Collins JL, Oplinger JA, Kliewer SA, Gampe RT Jr, McKee DD, Moore JT, Willson TM.2001. Structural determinants of ligand binding selectivity between the peroxisome proliferator- activated receptors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U. S. A. 98:13919–13924.

Xu J, Barger SW, Drew PD.2008. The PPAR-γ agonist 15-deoxy- D12,14-prostaglandin J2 attenuates microglial production of IL-12 family cytokines: potential relevance to Alzheimer’s disease. PPAR Research 2008:349185.

Xue Y, Wang Y, Feng DC, Xiao BG, Xu LY.2008. Tetrandrine suppresses lipopolysaccharide induced microglial activation by inhibiting NF-kappaB pathway. Acta Pharmacologica Sinca 29: 245-251.

Yang I, Han SJ, Kaur G, Crane C, Parsa AT. 2010. The role of microglia in central nervous system immunity and glioma immunology Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 17: 6–10

Yao BB, Mukherjee S, Fan Y, Garrison TR, Daza AV, Grayson GK, Hooker BA, Dart MJ, Sullivan JP, Meyer MD. 2006. In vitro pharmacological characterization of AM1241: a protean agonist at the cannabinoid CB2 receptor? British Journal of Pharmacology 149: 145-54.

Yates SL, Burgess LH, Kocsis-Angle J, Antal JM, Dority MD, Embury PB, Piotrkowski AM, Brunden KR.2000. Amyloid beta and amylin fibrils induce increases in

proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine production by THP-1 cells and murine microglia. Journal of Neurochemistry 74: 1017–1025.

Yoshihara T, Ishigaki S, Yamamoto M, Liang Y, Niwa J, Takeuchi H, Doyu M, Sobue G.2002. Differential expression of inflammation- and apoptosis-related genes in spinal cords of a mutant SOD1 transgenic mouse model of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Journal of Neurochemistry 80(1):158-67.

Yu K, Bayona W, Kallen CB, Harding HP, Ravera CP, McMahon G, Brown M, Lazar MA.1995.Differential activation of Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors by eicosanoids. Journal of Biological Chemistry 270:23975– 23983.

Zeidler PC, Millecchia LM, Castranova V.2004. Role of inducible nitric oxide synthase- derived nitric oxide in lipopolysaccharide plus interferon gamma induced pulmonary inflammation. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 195: 45–54.

Zeng KW, Fu H, Liu GX, Wang XM. 2010. Icariin attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial activation and resultant death of neurons by inhibiting TAK1/IKK/NF- kappaB and JNK/p38 MAPK pathways. International Immunopharmacology 10: 668-678.

Zhang R, Xu S, Cai Y, Zhou M, Zuo X, Chan P. 2009. Ganoderma lucidum protects dopaminergic neuron degeneration through inhibition of microglial activation. Evidence based Complementary and Alternaive. Medicine. Epub 2009

Zhang SC, Goetz BD, Carré JL, Duncan ID. 2001. Reactive microglia in dysmyelination and demyelination. Glia 34:101–9.

Zhang T, Hamza A, Cao X, Wang B, Yu S, Zhan CG, Sun D. 2008. A novel Hsp90 inhibitor to disrupt Hsp90/Cdc37 complex against pancreatic cancer cells. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics 7(1):162-70.

Zhang W, Hu X, Yang W, Gao Y, Chen J. 2010. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation confers long-term neuroprotection against neonatal hypoxic- ischemic brain injury through anti-inflammatory actions. Stroke 41(10):2341-7.

Zhao Q, Shepherd EG, Manson ME, Nelin LD, Sorokin A, Liu Y. (2005) The role of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 in the response of alveolar macrophages to lipopolysaccharide: attenuation of proinflammatory cytokine biosynthesis via feedback control of p38. Journal of Biological Chemistry 280, 8101–8108.

Zhao Q, Wang X, Nelin LD, Yao Y, Matta R, Manson ME, Baliga RS, Meng X, Smith CV, Bauer JA, Chang CH, Liu Y. 2006. MAP kinase phosphatase 1 controls innate immune responses and suppresses endotoxic shock. Journal of Experimental Medicine 203:131-140.

Zheng LT, Ock J, Kwon BM, Suk K. 2008.Suppressive effects of flavonoid fisetin on lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial activation and neurotoxicity. International. Immunopharmacoogy 8: 484-494.

Zhou Y, Ling EA, Dheen ST. 2007. Dexamethasone suppresses monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 production via mitogen activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 dependent inhibition of Jun N-terminal kinase and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in activated rat microglia. Journal of Neurochemistry 102(3):667-78.

Zhu Y, Bickford PC, Sanberg P, Giunta B, Tan J. 2008. Blueberry opposes beta-amyloid peptide induced microglial activation via inhibition of p44/42 mitogen- activation protein kinase. Rejuvenation Research 11: 891-901.

Zhu Y, Yang GY, Ahlemeyer B, Pang L, Che XM, Culmsee C, Klumpp S, Krieglstein J.2002. Transforming growth factor-1 increases bad phosphorylation and protects neurons against damage. Journal of Neuroscience 22: 3898–3909.

Zilka N, Ferencik M, Hulin I.2006. Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease: protector or promoter?. Bratislava Medical Journal (Bratisl Lek Listy) 107:374-83

Zingarelli B, Sheehan M, Hake PW, O’Connor M, Denenberg A, Cook JA.2003. Peroxisome proliferator activator receptor-γ ligands, 15-deoxy-412, 14- prostaglandin J2 and ciglitazone, reduce systemic inflammation in polymicrobial sepsis by modulation of signal transduction pathways. Journal of Immunology 171:6827–37.