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Reflections of a child

Nele Van den Cruyce Department of Communication Sciences

Centre for the Studies on Media and Culture (Cemeso) Vrije Universiteit Brussel

Pleinlaan 2 - 1050 Etterbeek - Belgium

Tel. +32(0)2 629.23.52

nvdcruyc@vub.ac.be

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Reflections of a child

Abstract Throughout the last century, childhood has undergone some significant changes. Children evolved from miniature adults working in factories to specific actors with rights of their own. This transformation contained an alteration in the way that society perceived childhood and in the way people thought that children should be handled or cared for. The process has been documented on a macro level, cf. industrialization. The transformation of children themselves is somewhat overshadowed by larger study domains, but nevertheless equally interesting. After all, social scientists are increasingly treating children and childhood as specific research topics. This paper focuses on the transformation of children in the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium in two time periods, namely the second half of the 1940’s and the 1960’s. This because of the fact that these two time periods can be seen as opposites regarding their socio-economical and cultural climate. The main research goal is to find out how society perceived the average, healthy child and how much society was concerned with the health of children. How are children portrayed and what can this illustrate about the dominant discourse regarding the health of children. To answer these questions a methodological instrument based on visual content analysis and more specifically rhetorical analysis was created to analyze advertisements in Libelle. A magazine chosen because it is the earliest women’s magazine publishing in Belgium. With attention to the global historical context the transformation in the imaging of the average, healthy child is marked out.

1. Putting children and a healthy childhood on the map

With the rise of the sociology of childhood, research about children and childhood has become known in a wide variety of social sciences. Without ignoring the contributions of the classical child oriented disciplines like pedagogy and psychology, a whole new area of research questions is developed and investigated. In the sociology of childhood, children are seen as social actors who, by the concept of agency, actively take part in the construction of their own lives and contribute to the social world as a whole (Corsaro, 2005). Social life is culturally defined and it depends on the broader temporal and socio economical context (Depaepe, 1999). The social representation of childhood therefore depends on both the collective elaboration, being this larger context, and the dynamic possibility of real, personal interaction on the part of the adults in society with the children (D’Alessio, 1990). Within social life, believes and ideas are shaped into norms. In Western culture many forms of behavior are evaluated on the basis of these norms rather than on direct observation of on actual fact or behavior. This is the same with children and child behavior. Ideas about what a healthy child looks like and what a healthy childhood consists of are part of societal norms. As D’Alessio (1990) mentions:

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“One of the most intriguing aspects of childhood is the manner in which it is located within particular socio-historical contexts. Each culture invents, or constructs, the child as a social object in its own terms.”

The images and norms constructed by society, are part of the collective imagination of society (Emiliani, 1990). Childhood is therefore to be seen as a stage in life that is under the influence of different spheres and as a concept changing through time. Historical research can help to unravel these socio economic and cultural influences that played a role in the construction of childhood throughout different eras, which may in turn help to better understand the meaning of childhood and the perception of adults regarding children today. Reconstructing the historical image of children and childhood to uncover “wie es eigentlich gewesen is”, inevitably entails a construction of a reality. Historical material is per se colored by its temporal setting, the corresponding power relationships of that time and by the way society now looks back at those time periods in history. This however does not mean that a historical gaze in social research can not be of scientific value. To this end, it is useful to fall back on the Foucauldian concept of discourse that allows researchers to investigate the reasons behind the specific, depicting behavior of a society. After all, according to Foucault, due to contextual circumstances, some parties are more capable than others to voice their opinion and shape the ideas in society in order to eventually construct the societal norms (Dupont & Pierce, 2001; Lemke, 2002). It is interesting to discover which discourses exist in which time period under which conditions in order to incorporate the volatile nature of historical material. 1.1 Research Question and material In this paper the focus is set on the discourse of the average, healthy child and a healthy childhood. The main research goal is to find out how society perceives the average, healthy child and how much society is concerned with the health of children. How are children portrayed and what can this illustrate about the dominant discourse regarding the health of children. The interest of society in a healthy childhood can only be raised if there is some societal notion of a child differing from an adult and childhood as a stage in life differing from adulthood. It is only after World War I that this is the case and that children are seen and appreciated as children instead of miniature adults. This mostly because of the fact that the horrors of World War I reinforced the special caring connotation regarding childhood that was setting in because of the changes related to the industrialization of the Western world (Depaepe, 1999; Corsaro,2005). The discourse concerning matters of the child was and mostly still is an affaire with a female bias. Indeed, the topic of childhood is situated in the setting of the family life, the domestic life and the field of upbringing, stereotypical areas of motherly knowledge (Elchardus & Glorieux, 2003). It is because of this that a magazine created for woman was selected as the source of the research material for this paper. In the time period comprising the two World Wars female readers were scarce and mostly approached by

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the market of romantic serial novels. Libelle is the earliest Flemish women’s magazine publishing in Belgium that is going beyond this more literary tradition. The first issue rolled of the press in 1945. Besides this temporal property making Libelle an ideal candidate for research, the magazine was published with the approval of the clergy and the diocese who considered it to be an appropriate women’s magazine. They recommended reading it by putting it on the approved reading list in churches (Eekhout, 2000). Libelle was therefore a popular magazine from the early days onwards and an ideal source for the study of the discourse about children and childhood today. Through the years Libelle assimilated other women’s magazines and became one of the most read magazines among Flemish women. Advertisements, containing information about the appearance of children and the societal concerns surrounding them, whether from commercial or governmental origin, are an ideal source to discover the dominant societal discourse of the average, healthy child and a healthy childhood. After all, published in a women’s magazine, these advertisements are constructed with the intention of spreading an idea of what a mother is expected to buy or to do in regard to her children and thereby raise sales numbers. In the Libelle of 1947 there is special call directed at merchants, claiming that it is important for them to advertise their products in the successful magazine Libelle because purchases are mostly made by women.

Picture 1: Call for advertisements

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For this paper a representative sample of advertisements containing information about children or childhood was taken from the magazines published in the 1940’s and the 1960’s. These two time periods were chosen because of the fact that they can be seen as opposites regarding their socio-economical and cultural climate. The second half of the 1940’s is characterized by picking up the pieces after the horrors of World War II. The 1960’s stand in clear contrast to this post War period and those years are known in the Western world as the golden sixties. In order to be selected, the advertisements had to comply with the following criteria: the display of an actual image of a child/children/ elements related to childhood or the mentioning of a child/children/childhood. In total 188 advertisements were selected from the period 1945 - 1949 and 380 were selected out of the period 1960 - 1969. The difference in numbers is explicable by the difference in published years and the fact that in the sixties more advertisements were liable for selection. Based on deduction from the Foucauldian theory, one would hope to find different discourses about children and childhood in different contexts. The existing historical information regarding the societal topics concerning the health of children and childhood can help to shed a light on possible hypotheses for this research. 1.2 From the struggling forties to the golden sixties When talking about children and childhood, it is impossible not to stress the importance of the development of the modern welfare state. Via the process of differentiation, diverse aspects of life become organized outside of the family and a different mentality about children immerges. Children and childhood become sacralized (Zelizer, 1985). Children stop to have an economical usage and they instead become an object of affection. Taking proper care of children by giving them love, affection and schooling becomes a central focus in society. The effectiveness of this change towards pedagogical thinking and the protection of childhood happened in stages and differed by class (Depaepe, 1999). The pedagogical mentality started at the economical top end of society, because of the fact that they were financially able to separate work and family life. Through their privileged position they had the opportunity to raise their children in a comfortable, even luxurious, manner giving special attention to the particular sacral status of children. The economical less fortunate classes followed behind in this evolution, because it was logically more difficult for them to live up to the new societal standards on raising children. Because of this time laps, the poor were perceived as inferior in comparison to the upper classes and even dangerous in regard to their incapacity to raise children fit for the new modern society. After all, norms existed about what an appropriate education or upbringing entailed (Bryder 1992; Urwin & Sharland, 1992). Throughout the 19th and 20th century, the discourse regarding children’s welfare expanded to the belief that children were not only entitled to schooling but that they also had the right to good health and healthy food. The state and, because of their self proclaimed supremacy regarding matters of raising children conform the ideal standard, the upper classes were thought to be responsible for the supervision of the health

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standard. Mostly rich female volunteers devoted their time to this form of charity. In light of this thought, free school meals were handed out to the poorest children in the beginning of the 20the century in the United Kingdom (Crook, 2007). In this time period the first holiday camps for poor children were developed. In these camps, the poor children were fed to become fatter but they were also taken away from the bad moral influence of their parents, mostly inhabitants from the city slums. The societal effort was directed at improving the standard of life for poor children. The main aim was to give them a fair chance to a better; healthier life, this physically as well as morally. The camps were therefore located in the country houses of the upper class or in state compounds at the seaside or the mountains and supervised by teachers capable of instructing the children the correct attitude to contribute to the modern society (Lovett, 2005; Bakker, 2007; Crook, 2007). Of course one should also recognize the fact that there is more going on than just charity from the rich and the state. In a time period with the threat and occurrence of two World Wars, there is a need for healthy strong young men, preferably from the working class, who are able to serve in the military and women capable of nursing duties, managing of the household without their husbands and even ready to fill in for the men at their workplaces in the factories (Lovett, 2005). The success of the camps was stressed and a lot of importance was put on the weight gain and growth of the children. Reports emphasized their positive impact on the children regarding a range of levels (Bryder, 1992):

“This child had returned home a bonny, merry child, hungry and health coloured, 14lbs heavier, with firm muscles that could pull up her weight on a bar or swing her up on a swing without anyone helping her, able to dig a little, weed carefully, keep places and bright things very clean, wash cups and saucers without breaking them, brush and comb a smaller child’s hair thoroughly, keep her own little body, nails, fingers and teeth clean, mend her clothes, help to cook, and bear adversity in the shape of a wet day or a dismal letter from home with philosophy and unselfish behaviour. She was able to do sums in her head for practical every day needs of life. She was equal to narrating a good story, and singing a pleasant song, willing tot tell you quietly what the “travelers Psalm” meant to her. She was weather-wise and house-wise, and health-wise, a possible little missionary of untold value to her own community at home.”

Children were seen as health ambassadors who would spread the word and thereby influence their community in a positive way. Nevertheless, the statistics kept by camp officials with regard to the weight of the children show a vast amount of children that effectively were malnourished or even underweight (Bryder, 1992). These numbers combined with the images and experiences of the horrors of the World Wars, left society

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startled by the ordeal children were going through. Health and healthy nutrition, most commonly interpreted as gaining weight through ingredients rich in calories, being chubby and having a nice blush, became of high importance to the adult society. Governmental campaigns and commercial marketing were constructed around this societal discourse. Marketers claimed that their product would make children eat a meal happily and that their products were easily available in handy family packages in the stores. Products were even specially designed for children to become healthier and for them to gain weight easily. The figure of Popeye promoting spinach is one of the first commercial health campaigns aimed directly at children with the purpose of establishing a healthy diet. Health education at schools was thereby often sponsored by popular brands (Scholliers, 1993; Lovett, 2005). With the further development of the welfare state, public services and new professions (i.e. school doctor, community nurses, social worker,...) came into existence. From then onwards, there is a continuing medicalization and professionalization of advertisements and the holiday camps for poor children. Commercial advertisements often added a medical flavor to their product claims. Holiday camps became health camps to push back diseases like tuberculoses that more often occurred in poor families than richer families (Bakker, 2007; Crook, 2007). Still, a healthy nutrition and performing exercise in nature were central, now medical, arguments to make poor children attend the holiday camps. It was perceived as a medically correct treatment for diseases and also plainly desirable for children to gain weight and have blushed, full cheeks on their return home. In the Belgium camp “Zeepreventorium” a special sand box playroom was constructed in a solarium in order for the children to get stronger through light exposure and for them to go home with a tan regardless the unpredictable Belgian weather.

Picture 2: Solarium Zeepreventorium

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In the decades after World War Two medical knowledge increases and diseases like tuberculoses almost vanish in the Western world. Societal emphasis is put on the prevention of diseases and the psychological state of children. The boundaries between the rich and the poor classes in society start to fade. According to psychologists, all children suffer from the now hectic modern life and therefore all of them deserve a break. Holiday camps become real holidays for children. This without the medial emphasis, but seen as a healthy way of keeping children busy during their leisure time. The health insurance funds from different ethical backgrounds organized camps for children in Belgium. Children have the right to be active and play. The discourse about gaining weight trough healthy nutrition is pushed into the background and independent play becomes more prominent (Bakker, 2007). With the golden sixties, a time period of free and luscious lifestyle is entered. Healthy nutrition is nutritional but also tasteful. Society has overcome the horrors of World War II and commercial advertisements do no longer strongly focus on the health issue. Children are portrayed in advertisements for different products in a context wider than only health related products. Children themselves begin to form a market of their own. Advertisements with children in them therefore become wider in product scope (Bakker, 2007).

2. Research The review of the historical literature about children’s health from the 1940’s until the 1960’s indicates that there is a shift in societal concern and in the notion of what a healthy childhood entails. In the forties, health is still interpreted as a more or less medical condition and society is occupied with the physical resilience of the children, mostly connected to the children’s weight or lack there off due to the horrible ordeals of World War II. Adults are reminded of their responsibility regarding their children’s medical health. Moving away from this recovering time period a more luscious and carefree lifestyle begins on entering the golden sixties. Health interpreted as weight gain and strength is not that much of an issue anymore and a healthy childhood now also includes play and a broad range of activities. Investigation of the material of Libelle from the 1940’s and 1960’s will therefore be based on the following hypotheses. The first hypothesis is that the image of the child should shift from an adult aided and protected child with the ideal of high weight and strength to an image of a child whereby weight is not the primal concern. In the forties a medical connotation should be noticeable. There are therefore two distinguishable genres of children, each belonging to the discourse specific to a decade. In the forties the child genre is a preferred heavy weight child in need of adult help including medical attention. The genre is the sixties is a child freed from the weight issue and more autonomous in life. A second hypothesis is that advertisements containing information on the way that children are perceived by society, should demonstrate more product diversity in the sixties than in the forties.

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2.1 Research method In order to investigate these hypotheses a research method was needed, capable of handling the research material. Advertisement, like all man made objects or artifacts, are produced and displayed with a certain communicative purpose (Lundsten, 2007). There is more to them than what is factually displayed or directly meets the eye. Advertisements are part of the visual culture which is complex to study. As Banks (2001) emphasizes, it is not enough just to look at an image and interpret it:

“The study of images alone, as objects whose meaning is intrinsic to them is a mistaken method if you are interested in the ways in which people assign meaning to them.”

There is still work to be done for visual methodology to become a fundamental discipline, although researchers of the visual are definitely trying to find a language of their own. For example, instead of using denotation and connotation, concepts that are key for the study of language, Lundsten (2007) proposes to talk about the visible (the image viewed) and the videnda (the image displayed as meant to be seen, the social meaning). Still these concepts are not generally used by visual researchers and there is a lack of oversight with regard to the constructive development of research methods and the advancement of a visual theory. Advertisements have the advantage that an image is mostly combined with textual elements. This implies that the technical research difficulties of using solely visual material are somewhat overcome by the aide of the text and the knowledge about textual research. This however also means that the vocabulary and methods of multiple disciplines are useable in this paper. Nevertheless, an effort is made to be consistent. The goal of this paper is to identify whether a healthy child and a healthy childhood are portrayed in a certain way, as part of a discourse in society. This is the main area of interest of the methodology of generic application as part of the larger research domain of generic criticism. This specific method is used to investigate exactly how well and in which way a genre is used in an artifact or artifacts (Foss Sonja, 2008; Hauser Gerard, 2008). In this paper, the question boils down to how well the historical based genres of children and childhood, specified in hypothesis one, are justifiable by the research material, the advertisements in Libelle. Based on the historical knowledge about a healthy childhood, a conceptual framework of key concepts was constructed in order to obtain some quantitative data and test the existence of the two genres. Advertisements were encoded on the bases of the age of the child, the gender of the child, the action performed by the child, the figure of the child (Children’s Body Image Scale), the presence of a gender specific adult and the type of product advertised. To illustrate the research findings better the most defining cases were selected as visual examples.

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2.2 Research findings The amount of advertisements containing a reference to children or childhood, is larger in the sixties than in the forties. This can be explained by the increase in pages of magazines and the expansion of marketing practices through the years. Boys and girls are both featured in advertisements. The category undefined is solely comprised of babies whose gender was not recognizable.

Figure 1: Gender of child portrayed in %

Gender potrayed Decade

Boy Girl Boy and Girl Unidefined 1940’s 20 34 26 21 1960’s 30 32 15 23

N 568 Results are significant on 0.05level

Girls are somewhat more used in advertisements, but the most important conclusion is that in the 1960’s advertisers significantly prefer gender specific use of children in advertisements. This complies with the development of the children’s market force and the thereby logical need for gender specific products.

Figure 2: Dominant age portrayed in %

Dominant age portrayed Decade

Baby Young child Teenager Young adult 1940’s 21 58 16 5 1960’s 25 36 36 3

N 568 Results are significant on 0.05level

Young children are most commonly portrayed in advertisements in the forties. In the sixties young children as well as teenagers are used in advertisements more than young adults and babies. A young child is typically a model child in the Western world. In the eyes of adults, those children are at the peak of childhood, representative for the threshold of social responsibility and the link between two evaluative trends which go in opposite directions, namely the baby and teenager status (D’Alesiso, 1990). It is therefore understandable that they are commonly used in commercials portraying children or aspects of childhood.

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In regard to figure of the children, the Children’s Body Image Scale was used. This scale consists of seven images related to seven categories of BMI scores. Almost all the children were perceived as being in the upper side of the scale, which corresponds with a normal to high Body Mass Index score. Babies are always portrayed as being chubby and having a lot of hair. This the stereotypical preferred baby image in the Western world (D’Alessio, 1990).

Picture 3: Baby in 1946 Picture 4: Baby in 1967

Figure 3: Children’s Body Image Scale in %

There are no significant differences in the physical appearance of the children portrayed in the advertisements between the two decades. The difference is hidden in the connotation given to the appearance of the children by textual information. Whereas in the 1960’s children are portrayed without comment regarding their weight, children in advertisements from the 1940’s are commonly accompanied by a text message about increasing weight or a positive message towards highly caloric intake. In the 1940’s the advertisements of food, the most common advertised topic in this decade besides that of medication, are almost all promoting butter or products with high nutrition values. The skinny children in the forties are all used as examples of how much children are in need of better nutrition, meaning weight gain.

Children’s Body Image Scale Decade Extremely

Skinny Skinny Normal

to skinny

Normal Normal to

Chubby

Chubby Extremely Big

1940’s 0 1 2 27 31 37 2 1960’s 0 0 3 22 40 35 0 N 568

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Picture 5: Brand of flower in 1946 with weight gain table

Picture 6: Brand of butter in 1948 with positive connotation of the rich colaric value and

vitamines

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In the first Libelle’s there are some references to the war, such as the mentioning of war child (picture 5), rationing food and usage of family packages (picture 6) and limited supply due to the restricted factory capacity during World War II which meant that in the forties the supply still had to be tuned up to post War needs.

Picture 7: Pills that increase appetite and weight

The medical connotation in picture 7 is not an isolated case. In the 1940’s a lot of stress is put on medical care for children, because of their weakness in weight and physical defense against illness. Medication is the most popular advertising category in the forties. Besides weight gaining pills, medication for colds and vitamins are commonly advertised. But even the appearance of children falls under the spell of chemical intervention. An often advertised product during the forties is Friza, a chemical product sold at the pharmacy that curls the children’s hair in order for their faces to be better framed and more expressive.

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Picture 8: Friza

Children portrayed in the advertisements in the forties are mostly depicted as posing without any reference to the context of selling. A lot of advertisements are for clothing patterns where the children serve as no more than an expressionless fitting doll. Next to this posing, children are pictured as being dependent on an adult, this commonly in need off medical attention and the preparation of food. If not posing or in need of adult help, they are mostly playing.

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In the sixties children are portrayed in a range of activities (playing, discovering, being naughty in a childish manner, learning, eating alone,…) for diverse products (cleaning products, washing products, household utilities, toys, food, candy, medicine, …). This is a complete match with the second hypothesis. In less than half of all the advertisements selected for this research, adults are portrayed next to children to demonstrate the depending relationship of children towards adults. There is no significant difference between the 1940’s and 1960’s. Female adults, almost exclusively mothers, are dominantly present in advertisements. The family is the next most important form in which adults accompany children in advertisements.

Figure 4: Adults in advertisement in %

Gender of adults Decade Male Female Both/Family

1940’s 15 63 22 1960’s 6 72 22

N 223 The male figure is almost negligible in both decades and when a male is portrayed, it is mostly in a passive (just posing picture 9) or stereotypical way (fixing a lamp picture 10). Of course the research material consists of advertisements containing information about children or childhood, typically belonging to the female life sphere, and Libelle is a female magazine whereby male topics could logically be found a rarity. Picture 9: Posing for patterns in 1945 Picture 10: Fixing a lamp in 1962

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It should be mentioned that although in both decades adults are scarcely portrayed next to children, there is more to be said about this phenomena. In the 1940’s advertisements are mentioning adults without portraying them. This is mostly done by a direct verbal appeal to the mother figure in her role as caretaker (see picture 7). Mothers are directly spoken to by marketers who remind them literally that their children are depending on them. In the 1960’s this addressing practice is far less common. The mode of address has not been taken into account in the encoding of the research material, but could make a difference in the interpretation of the depending relationship. It most probably would make the mother figure even more important in the 1940’s, possibly at a significant different level in regard to the 1960’s. Further research is needed to verify this. Nevertheless, based on the current results from this research studying the advertisements of Libelle containing information about children or childhood, there are serious grounds on which to accept the notion of the existence of a genre shift in the way that children are being portrayed between the 1940’s and 1960’s. This is inevitably linked with the historical shift in the discourse regarding healthy children and a healthy childhood.

3. Conclusion Based on the historical review of the literature about children’s health, two hypotheses were created. The first hypothesis stated that there would be two genres of children portrayed in the 1940’s and 1960’s because of a shift in the societal discourse about health. A second hypotheses mentioned that in the 1960’s children would be portrayed in advertisements for a wider product range than in the 1940’s. In order to verify these hypotheses, a methodological instrument was based on the method of generic criticism, more specifically the research method of generic application. The results demonstrated that two child genres existed in the two investigated decades. Whereas in both decades the children were encoded on the higher end of the Children’s Body Image Scale, corresponding to a normal to high BMI, only in the 1940’s was the opinion literally voiced for children to gain weight. Butter and food products high in calories were the most commonly advertised products besides medication. In the forties pills and vitamins were promoted literally in order for children to gain weight and the other medications advertised focused on the physical weakness of children, hereby sometimes referring to the ordeals of World War II. Only in less than half of the advertisements, adults were portrayed next to children. Mostly the mother figure was used to define the dependent status of children towards adults. The mode of address was not incorporated into the research questions, which is expected to lead to an understatement of the involvement of adults in the protecting of and caring for children. In the forties children were mostly depicted as posing regardless the context or depending on adults. Medication and food were the two dominant product categories advertised in Libelle. In the sixties children are portrayed in different kind of activities in advertisements for a wide variety of products.

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Based on the current results from this research studying the advertisements of Libelle containing information about children or childhood, there are serious grounds on which to accept the two formulated hypotheses. Nevertheless, it became clear throughout the research that a lot of work still has to be done concerning the development of research methods contributing to the academic body of visual research in general and research of advertisements in particular.

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