Religion, Violence Religion, Violence and Terrorism: and Terrorism:

History, Ideology, and History, Ideology, and GlobalizationGlobalization

James WellmanJames WellmanSIS 201. February 25, 2009SIS 201. February 25, 2009

Associate Professor, Associate Professor, Comparative Religion ProgramComparative Religion Program

Jackson School of International StudiesJackson School of International Studies

Jessica Stern, Jessica Stern, “Terror in the Name of God”“Terror in the Name of God”

““Writing this book has helped me to Writing this book has helped me to understand that religion is a kind of understand that religion is a kind of technology. It is terribly seductive in its technology. It is terribly seductive in its ability to sooth and explain, but it is also ability to sooth and explain, but it is also dangerous. Converts such as the one I dangerous. Converts such as the one I visited as a child (a Christian saint) make visited as a child (a Christian saint) make good people better, but they don’t good people better, but they don’t necessarily make bad people good. They necessarily make bad people good. They might even make bad people worse.” xxvii might even make bad people worse.” xxvii

Religion in the Modern World: Religion in the Modern World: Three Types of Relation to State Three Types of Relation to State

PowersPowers Religion has capacity to sustain states, legitimize Religion has capacity to sustain states, legitimize

their defense, creating forms of just war, preemptive their defense, creating forms of just war, preemptive war (crusades/jihad) (US Iraq War, Umayyad war (crusades/jihad) (US Iraq War, Umayyad Empire)Empire)

Religion has the capacity to mobilize and motivate Religion has the capacity to mobilize and motivate small groups to resist states—that is act as non-state small groups to resist states—that is act as non-state actors (secret cells) to undercut and even overthrow actors (secret cells) to undercut and even overthrow political oppression (Algeria, Iran) political oppression (Algeria, Iran)

Occasionally, religion can mobilize and motivate Occasionally, religion can mobilize and motivate nonviolent resistance in states (Gandhi’s India) or nonviolent resistance in states (Gandhi’s India) or against states, Martin Luther King’s African against states, Martin Luther King’s African American Christian liberation movement for American Christian liberation movement for American Civil Rights against the US governmentAmerican Civil Rights against the US government

My own Definition of ReligionMy own Definition of Religion

Religion is a system of symbols, Religion is a system of symbols, composed of beliefs, composed of beliefs, embodied in ritual practices, embodied in ritual practices, developed in a communal setting, developed in a communal setting, often institutionally legitimated, often institutionally legitimated, which negotiates and interacts with a power or force which negotiates and interacts with a power or force

that is experienced as within and beyond the self and that is experienced as within and beyond the self and group; group;

this power or force is most often referred to as this power or force is most often referred to as god/spirit or gods/spirits. god/spirit or gods/spirits.

The symbolic and social boundaries of religion mobilize The symbolic and social boundaries of religion mobilize group identity; create conflict and, more rarely, group identity; create conflict and, more rarely, violence within and between groups.violence within and between groups.

What are the sources of religion’s What are the sources of religion’s

power?power? Affective events/experienceAffective events/experience Plausible, though non-verifiable truth Plausible, though non-verifiable truth

claims and rewardsclaims and rewards

1. Affective Events: Internal 1. Affective Events: Internal Combustion Engine of ReligionCombustion Engine of Religion

The powerful affective events and The powerful affective events and experiences of religion, embodied in ritual experiences of religion, embodied in ritual action and mystical practice, formulated action and mystical practice, formulated through systems of belief and story. through systems of belief and story. (Creates an engine that never runs out of (Creates an engine that never runs out of fuel). fuel).

This nexus of experience and practice a This nexus of experience and practice a core of religion’s internal combustion core of religion’s internal combustion engine that fuels individual leaders and engine that fuels individual leaders and their groups—whether persecuted their groups—whether persecuted minorities or majorities. minorities or majorities.

2. Truth Claims: Pistons in the Engine2. Truth Claims: Pistons in the Engine

Truth claims are the second piston of the Truth claims are the second piston of the religious enginereligious engine

Claims to truth. What is the truth is based Claims to truth. What is the truth is based on, faith on, faith

Confidence is always the big issue for Confidence is always the big issue for religion/ spiritual experience religion/ spiritual experience

Thus, leadership must nurture confidence, Thus, leadership must nurture confidence, spiced with this worldly and other worldly spiced with this worldly and other worldly rewardsrewards

Rewards are non-empirical but cannot be Rewards are non-empirical but cannot be disconfirmeddisconfirmed

What is the Source of Religious What is the Source of Religious Violence?Violence?

Worldview, Leadership and ContextWorldview, Leadership and Context Complex mixture of religious worldview, cultural Complex mixture of religious worldview, cultural

context and religious leadership. context and religious leadership. Religions are extraordinarily flexible and Religions are extraordinarily flexible and

plastic, depending on context and leadership; plastic, depending on context and leadership; isomorphic—shadowing/dancing with social isomorphic—shadowing/dancing with social systemssystems

David Martin: “Religion and state are David Martin: “Religion and state are isomorphic.” isomorphic.”

Religion often mimics power; partnering with Religion often mimics power; partnering with it and at times resisting it. it and at times resisting it.

Religion/state partnership, powerful Religion/state partnership, powerful aphrodisiac—both become greedy for power.aphrodisiac—both become greedy for power.

What is the Source of Religious What is the Source of Religious Violence?Violence?WorldviewWorldview

Religious Worldview that creates violence:Religious Worldview that creates violence: Religious worldview-cosmology has Religious worldview-cosmology has

symbolic resources to create total religious symbolic resources to create total religious worldworld

Religious worldview can be this-worldly or Religious worldview can be this-worldly or other-worldlyother-worldly

The transcendental demand (hope) that the The transcendental demand (hope) that the cosmic religious vision become embodied, cosmic religious vision become embodied, politically/culturallypolitically/culturally

What is the Source of Religious What is the Source of Religious Violence?Violence?

LeadershipLeadership Religious LeadershipReligious Leadership

Most often led by young and aggressive male Most often led by young and aggressive male leadership that is educated with access to leadership that is educated with access to material resources; second level elitesmaterial resources; second level elites

Belief that they have become agents of the Belief that they have become agents of the visionvision

Belief that the vision demands human Belief that the vision demands human initiativeinitiative

Belief that the cosmic visions rationalizes the Belief that the cosmic visions rationalizes the use of violence for a larger moral imperative; use of violence for a larger moral imperative; Soren Kierkegaard, “Teleological suspension Soren Kierkegaard, “Teleological suspension of the ethical.”of the ethical.”

What is the Source of Religious What is the Source of Religious Violence?Violence?

Cultural ContextCultural Context Cultural Context that facilitates/shapes Cultural Context that facilitates/shapes

violence violence Partnership between religious state and Partnership between religious state and

religion; suppression of any alternative religion; suppression of any alternative forms of religionforms of religion

Secular state with religious majority; Secular state with religious majority; minority other religions are suppressedminority other religions are suppressed

Secular state that enforces a majority Secular state that enforces a majority religion; minority religions are suppressed, religion; minority religions are suppressed, some religions become energized by some religions become energized by persecutionpersecution

Religion: From Tribe to Religion: From Tribe to StateState

Jared Diamond’s Jared Diamond’s Gun, Germs, and Gun, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (Norton, 2005) (Norton, 2005) In bands and tribes (small human In bands and tribes (small human

groups), no need for institutionalized groups), no need for institutionalized religionreligion

But in chiefdoms and states (groups over But in chiefdoms and states (groups over 50,000) division of labor takes over, 50,000) division of labor takes over, specialization, institutionalized religions specialization, institutionalized religions arrives—what’s its purpose?arrives—what’s its purpose?

Religion: From Tribe to Religion: From Tribe to StateState

Jared Diamond’s Jared Diamond’s Gun, Germs, and Gun, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (Norton, 2005) (Norton, 2005) States are forms of kleptocracy: centers States are forms of kleptocracy: centers

of powers that take from margins to of powers that take from margins to sustain/enrich themselvessustain/enrich themselves

This needs justification, for Diamond, This needs justification, for Diamond, institutionalized religions do the work institutionalized religions do the work of legitimationof legitimation

Religion: From Tribe to Religion: From Tribe to StateState

Jared Diamond’s Jared Diamond’s Gun, Germs, and Steel: Gun, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies The Fates of Human Societies (Norton, (Norton, 2005) 2005) Religion creates ritual, temples are built, and a Religion creates ritual, temples are built, and a

hierarchy is sacralized to support the powers hierarchy is sacralized to support the powers that bethat be

Two benefits:Two benefits: Religions provide a reason for a state populace not Religions provide a reason for a state populace not

to kill those who are unrelated by kinship to kill those who are unrelated by kinship Religious ideologies give people a reason to sacrifice Religious ideologies give people a reason to sacrifice

themselves for the sake of the groups (tribes/bands themselves for the sake of the groups (tribes/bands don’t do sacrificial patriotism) don’t do sacrificial patriotism)

Religion, Terror and Public Religion, Terror and Public Policy Policy

““Any policy that seeks to conquer Any policy that seeks to conquer Muslim societies in order, Muslim societies in order, deliberately, to transform their deliberately, to transform their culture is folly.” Robert Pape, culture is folly.” Robert Pape, Dying Dying to Winto Win, (Chicago 2005)., (Chicago 2005).

No suicide terrorism in Iraq in its No suicide terrorism in Iraq in its history;history; 03: 20; 04:50; 05:75; 06/07: hundreds?03: 20; 04:50; 05:75; 06/07: hundreds? Not ideology, but occupationNot ideology, but occupation

What is Suicide Terrorism?What is Suicide Terrorism?

SuicideSuicide EgoisticEgoistic AltruisticAltruistic

What is Suicide Terrorism?What is Suicide Terrorism?

TerrorismTerrorism Violence (verbal/physical) by Violence (verbal/physical) by

organization, other than a national organization, other than a national government to intimidate a targetgovernment to intimidate a target

Gain supporters/ coerce opponentsGain supporters/ coerce opponents DemonstrativeDemonstrative DestructiveDestructive SuicidalSuicidal

Cause of Suicide Cause of Suicide Terrorism?Terrorism?

Political Occupation: control of local Political Occupation: control of local governmentgovernment

Religious Difference:Religious Difference: Demonizing: EnemyDemonizing: Enemy Ideology of us vs. themIdeology of us vs. them Essentializes national identityEssentializes national identity

History of Suicide Terrorism: History of Suicide Terrorism: RareRare

Jewish Zealots, 66 ce – 70 Jewish Zealots, 66 ce – 70 Zealots was also Zealots was also

known in Latin known in Latin

as as sicariisicarii, ,

"daggermen“"daggermen“ Killing collaboratorsKilling collaborators Killing Romans,Killing Romans, Inciting rebellionInciting rebellion

A drawing of Herod's Temple in Jerusalem

Ismaili Assassins: 12Ismaili Assassins: 12thth Century Century

Northern Iran; Muslim order, HashshashinNorthern Iran; Muslim order, Hashshashin Offshoot of Shia orderOffshoot of Shia order Secret underground to destroy Abbasid Secret underground to destroy Abbasid

CaliphateCaliphate Killing Sunni Muslim rulers; Nizam-ul-Mulk; Killing Sunni Muslim rulers; Nizam-ul-Mulk;

attempts on Salidan; finally, decimated by attempts on Salidan; finally, decimated by invading Mongolsinvading Mongols Terrorize and overcome ‘felt’ occupationTerrorize and overcome ‘felt’ occupation Intimidate and create fearIntimidate and create fear De-Throne a corrupt form of religion—collaborators De-Throne a corrupt form of religion—collaborators

or what they called, “impious usurpers.”or what they called, “impious usurpers.”

Statue of Saladin at the Statue of Saladin at the Damascus citadelDamascus citadel

Northern Iran; Muslim order, Northern Iran; Muslim order, HashshashinHashshashin

Shia orderShia order Secret underground destroy Abbasid Secret underground destroy Abbasid

CaliphateCaliphate Killing Muslim rulers; Nizam-ul-Killing Muslim rulers; Nizam-ul-

Mulk; attempts on SalidanMulk; attempts on Salidan

Statue of Saladin at the Statue of Saladin at the Damascus citadelDamascus citadel

Ṣaladan c. 1138 - March 4, 1193) was a Ṣaladan c. 1138 - March 4, 1193) was a Kurdish Muslim who was Sultan of Kurdish Muslim who was Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Egypt and Syria. He led the Islamic opposition to the Third Crusade. He led the Islamic opposition to the Third Crusade.

At the height of his power, the Ayyubid dynasty he At the height of his power, the Ayyubid dynasty he founded ruled over Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Hejaz, and founded ruled over Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Hejaz, and Yemen. Yemen.

He led Muslim resistance to the European He led Muslim resistance to the European Crusaders and eventually recaptured part of Crusaders and eventually recaptured part of Palestine from the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Palestine from the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem.

He did not maim, kill or retaliate against those He did not maim, kill or retaliate against those whom he defeated.whom he defeated.

Japanese Kamikazi’sJapanese Kamikazi’s

1944: Fearing occupation1944: Fearing occupation 3,843 pilots3,843 pilots 375 US naval vessels375 US naval vessels 12,300 American soldier die12,300 American soldier die

Fear of occupation and attempting Fear of occupation and attempting to intimidate the enemyto intimidate the enemy

Japanese Kamikaze: Mitsubishi Japanese Kamikaze: Mitsubishi Zero about to hit the USS Zero about to hit the USS

MissouriMissouri

Are these Group Members Are these Group Members Deranged?Deranged?

Economically deprivedEconomically deprived Social deprivedSocial deprived Cognitively limitedCognitively limited Psychopathological Psychopathological

Costly but not crazyCostly but not crazy Intense but not brainwashedIntense but not brainwashed Social networks importantSocial networks important

Aren’t Suicide Bombers Aren’t Suicide Bombers Irrational/ Suicidal?Irrational/ Suicidal?

No specific type:No specific type: Most often educatedMost often educated Married and singleMarried and single Male and femaleMale and female Isolated and socially integratedIsolated and socially integrated Most don’t exhibit previous suicidal Most don’t exhibit previous suicidal

tendenciestendencies One study found in ME: mostly highly One study found in ME: mostly highly

educated, coming from better paying jobseducated, coming from better paying jobs

Suicide Bombing: Poverty?Suicide Bombing: Poverty?

Most countries associated with Most countries associated with terrorism between 1980 and 2001:terrorism between 1980 and 2001: Mid range GNP per capita:Mid range GNP per capita:

Algeria, 111Algeria, 111 Egypt, 121Egypt, 121 Saudi Arabia, 139Saudi Arabia, 139 India, 162India, 162 West Bank, 112West Bank, 112 Extreme poverty, over 200Extreme poverty, over 200

Suicide Bombings: Islamists?Suicide Bombings: Islamists?

315 attacks, between 1980 and 2003315 attacks, between 1980 and 2003 Islamists associated with halfIslamists associated with half Tamil Tigers, 76/315, Marxists and Tamil Tigers, 76/315, Marxists and

secularsecular Kurdish PKK, guided by secular MarxismKurdish PKK, guided by secular Marxism

Suicide Attacks, Less Rare, Suicide Attacks, Less Rare, more widespreadmore widespread

Less interested in individual Less interested in individual motives/ideologymotives/ideology

Conditions that create attacksConditions that create attacks Strategic logic: aims and goalsStrategic logic: aims and goals Social logic: support by communitySocial logic: support by community Individual logic: persons prepared to Individual logic: persons prepared to

die for greater gooddie for greater good

Attacks SucceedAttacks Succeed

Suicide car bombing by Hezbollah Suicide car bombing by Hezbollah on US Marines barracks, Lebanon, on US Marines barracks, Lebanon, Oct. 23, 1983; killing 241 MarinesOct. 23, 1983; killing 241 Marines

US withdrawsUS withdraws 1985/6 Hezbollah 1985/6 Hezbollah

attacks on Israel attacks on Israel in Lebanon, in Lebanon, partial withdrawalpartial withdrawal

Community Support for Community Support for BombersBombers

Most Iraqi’s/ Palestinians/Most Iraqi’s/ Palestinians/

Saudi Arabians support, Saudi Arabians support,

believe in believe in

Osama Bin Laden and his Osama Bin Laden and his

causecause

Endless supply of Bombers:Endless supply of Bombers:Paradise Now (2005)Paradise Now (2005)

Suicide Bombings: AimSuicide Bombings: Aim

Political coercionPolitical coercion Target states are primarily democratic; felt Target states are primarily democratic; felt

to be vulnerable to coercionto be vulnerable to coercion Different religionDifferent religion

Increases fear other will try to transform Increases fear other will try to transform religionreligion

Increases demonization, makes killing easier vs. Increases demonization, makes killing easier vs. civilianscivilians

Use religion to re-label suicide; overcome taboo Use religion to re-label suicide; overcome taboo against suicideagainst suicide

Creates zero-sum game, no compromiseCreates zero-sum game, no compromise

9/119/11

Hijacked 4 planesHijacked 4 planes Two hit NY Twin TowersTwo hit NY Twin Towers One into the PentagonOne into the Pentagon 44thth crashes in Somerset County, PA crashes in Somerset County, PA 2,985 deaths, including 19 hijackers2,985 deaths, including 19 hijackers Hijackers: 15, Saudi Arabia; 2 UAE; Hijackers: 15, Saudi Arabia; 2 UAE;

1 Egyptian; 1 Lebanese1 Egyptian; 1 Lebanese

1998 Al-Qaeda fatwa1998 Al-Qaeda fatwa

Plunders the resources of the Arabian Plunders the resources of the Arabian PeninsulaPeninsula

Dictates policy to the rulers of those countries. Dictates policy to the rulers of those countries. Supports abusive regimes in the Middle East Supports abusive regimes in the Middle East Has military bases upon the Arabian Peninsula, Has military bases upon the Arabian Peninsula,

which violates the Muslim holy landwhich violates the Muslim holy land Creates disunion between Muslim statesCreates disunion between Muslim states Supports Israel, and tacitly maintains the Supports Israel, and tacitly maintains the

occupation of Palestineoccupation of Palestine

Osama bin Laden and al-Osama bin Laden and al-QaedaQaeda

Ideology of IslamistsIdeology of Islamists

Protest movement against Protest movement against modernization; secularization; modernization; secularization; westernizationwesternization

Salafism, Sunni movement; no Salafism, Sunni movement; no follower of Iranian/Iraqi Shiism has follower of Iranian/Iraqi Shiism has become al-Qaeda bomberbecome al-Qaeda bomber

Salafi: Qur’an, Sunna part of HadithSalafi: Qur’an, Sunna part of Hadith Not monolithic; Wahhabism in Not monolithic; Wahhabism in

Saudi Arabia, discourages violenceSaudi Arabia, discourages violence

Ideology of IslamistsIdeology of Islamists

Egypt, Muslim Brotherhood, 1928, Egypt, Muslim Brotherhood, 1928, Salafi; distanced itself from its most Salafi; distanced itself from its most famous leader, Sayyid Qutb (d. famous leader, Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966)1966)

Ayman al-Zawahiri, joined Muslim Ayman al-Zawahiri, joined Muslim Brotherhood as youth, Egypt; Brotherhood as youth, Egypt;

he and bin Laden both he and bin Laden both

dedicated to Qutb, revolutiondedicated to Qutb, revolution

Ideology of IslamistsIdeology of Islamists

Salafi and political occupation key Salafi and political occupation key factors that create suicide bombersfactors that create suicide bombers

Salafi influenced nations, 233 million Salafi influenced nations, 233 million Salafi-oriented peoples, 48 al-Qaeda Salafi-oriented peoples, 48 al-Qaeda suicide terrorists, 1 bomber per 5 suicide terrorists, 1 bomber per 5 million Salafimillion Salafi

In non-Salafi, 205 Sunni Muslims, 18 In non-Salafi, 205 Sunni Muslims, 18 al-Qaeda bombers, 1 per 12 millional-Qaeda bombers, 1 per 12 million

Roots of Terrorism?Roots of Terrorism?

Not irrational; it has an object; it Not irrational; it has an object; it changes and learns from mistakeschanges and learns from mistakes

Religious Ideology? Pape says no; I Religious Ideology? Pape says no; I say, hm, Salafism is highly say, hm, Salafism is highly correlated with attackscorrelated with attacks

Nationalism? Occupation by Nationalism? Occupation by “Infidels” necessary variable for “Infidels” necessary variable for suicide terrorism; is religion the suicide terrorism; is religion the sufficient cause?sufficient cause?

Who is the Enemy: Who is the Enemy: Terrorism and Public PolicyTerrorism and Public Policy War on terrorism misses the context War on terrorism misses the context

and main causes of terroristsand main causes of terrorists Terrorists don’t become anti-Terrorists don’t become anti-

American because they are evilAmerican because they are evil Arab/ME nations before 2003, Arab/ME nations before 2003,

largely favorable toward US; toward largely favorable toward US; toward open markets/democracyopen markets/democracy

Who is the Enemy: Who is the Enemy: Terrorism and Public PolicyTerrorism and Public Policy After 2003, US favorability rating After 2003, US favorability rating

plummeted;plummeted;

Why? Their evil? No, occupation of IraqWhy? Their evil? No, occupation of Iraq

20002000 20032003

TurkeyTurkey 5252 1515

MoroccoMorocco7777 2727

PakistanPakistan 2323 1313

JordanJordan ?? 11

Felt or Real OccupationFelt or Real Occupation

World’s five largest Islamic World’s five largest Islamic populations w/out American military populations w/out American military presence produced al- Qaeda suicide presence produced al- Qaeda suicide terrorists, 1 per 71 millionterrorists, 1 per 71 million

Fifty Five percent of al-Qaeda’s Fifty Five percent of al-Qaeda’s bombers (39/71) come from Persian bombers (39/71) come from Persian Gulf region whose population is less Gulf region whose population is less than 30 million, but where US has than 30 million, but where US has had military troops since 1990had military troops since 1990

What causes the attacksWhat causes the attacks

Al Qaeda never attacked IsraelAl Qaeda never attacked Israel Hamas never attacked USHamas never attacked US Hezbollah only attacked US when Hezbollah only attacked US when

stationed in Lebanonstationed in Lebanon These groups don’t coordinate These groups don’t coordinate

attacks, they only attack when their attacks, they only attack when their territory is occupied or ‘felt’ to be territory is occupied or ‘felt’ to be occupiedoccupied

Muslim Views on US Muslim Views on US MotivesMotives

Pakistan, Turkey, Morocco and Pakistan, Turkey, Morocco and Jordan:Jordan: Believe, overwhelming, US wants to Believe, overwhelming, US wants to

control oil and support Israelcontrol oil and support Israel That US not in ME to stop terrorism or to That US not in ME to stop terrorism or to

promote democracypromote democracy US military, overwhelmingly, threatens US military, overwhelmingly, threatens

their country…shadow of ‘crusader’their country…shadow of ‘crusader’ Iraqi’s, Jan 05, 82 % near term US Iraqi’s, Jan 05, 82 % near term US

withdrawalwithdrawal

Scholarship, Religion and Scholarship, Religion and Public Policy Public Policy

““Any policy that seeks to conquer Any policy that seeks to conquer Muslim societies in order, Muslim societies in order, deliberately, to transform their deliberately, to transform their culture is folly.” Robert Pape, culture is folly.” Robert Pape, Dying Dying to Winto Win, (Chicago 2005)., (Chicago 2005).

Another good book:Another good book: Bruce Lincoln’s Bruce Lincoln’s Holy Terror, (Holy Terror, (Chicago, Chicago,

2004).2004).