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Report prepared by the MEDENER Network MED-IEE Project : Energy Efficiency Indicators for Mediterranean countries

April 2014

Report prepared by the MEDENER Network MED-IEE Project : Energy Efficiency Indicators for Mediterranean countries

April 2014

Energy

efficiency

trends in

Mediterranean

countriesEn

ergy

efficiency

trends in

Mediterranean

countries

Report prepared by Enerdata for the MEDENER Network in collaboration with Alcor, ANME, ADEREE, APRUE and ALMEE

Any reproduction of this document, even partial, should quote the source Medener

I

Table of contents

0. List of graphs..........................................................................................................................................................................II

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................81.1. Presentation of the MEDENER project on energy efficiency Indicators .............................81.2. Objectives and content.....................................................................................................................................101.3. Data sources ............................................................................................................................................................111.4. Conclusions and recommendations..........................................................................................................12

2. Energy efficiency context..........................................................................................................................................132.1. Challenges and objectives of energy efficiency policies ...............................................................132.2. Trends in energy consumption.....................................................................................................................14

2.2.1. Primary energy consumption ........................................................................................................142.2.2. Final consumption.................................................................................................................................16

2.3. Global trends in energy efficiency: primary and final intensity ................................................19

3. Energy efficiency trends in the energy sector.........................................................................................25

4. Energy efficiency trends for households......................................................................................................284.1. Trends in consumption and households profile.................................................................................284.2. Thermal uses............................................................................................................................................................34

4.2.1. Energy efficiency policies in force...............................................................................................344.2.2. Captive electricity uses: electrical appliances, lighting and air conditioning.....414.2.3. Air conditioning .....................................................................................................................................44

5. Energy efficiency in transport...............................................................................................................................455.1. Trends in consumption......................................................................................................................................455.2. Road transport .......................................................................................................................................................47

5.2.1. Cars ...............................................................................................................................................................505.2.2. Trucks ...........................................................................................................................................................52

5.3. Air transport............................................................................................................................................................53

6. Energy efficiency in industry ..................................................................................................................................546.1. Consumption patterns.......................................................................................................................................546.2. Sectoral intensities ...............................................................................................................................................566.3. Impact of structural changes in manufacturing ..................................................................................586.4. Specific consumption of intensive industries: case of cement..................................................58

7. Energy efficiency in services...................................................................................................................................607.1. Overall trends .........................................................................................................................................................607.2. Unit consumption by branch.........................................................................................................................64

7.2.1. Tourism........................................................................................................................................................647.2.2. Health sector...........................................................................................................................................65

8. Energy efficiency in agriculture ............................................................................................................................668.1. Overall trends .........................................................................................................................................................668.2. Indicators by branch ...........................................................................................................................................68

8.2.1. Agriculture.................................................................................................................................................688.2.2. Fishing...........................................................................................................................................................70

9. Bibliography and References ..................................................................................................................................71

10. Annex : Organization of the MEDENER project on energy efficiency indicators.....72

Table of con

tents

Energy efficiency trends in Mediterranean countries

II

List of graphsFigure 1: MEDENER, the Mediterranean Association of national agencies for energy conservation................................9

Figure 2: Organization of the data collection in southern countries......................................................................................11

Figure 3: Primary energy consumption and GDP (2010)...........................................................................................................14

Figure 4: Trends in primary consumption and GDP by sub-region .........................................................................................15

Figure 5: Primary energy consumption and GDP trends by country (%/year, 2000-2010) ...............................................15

Figure 6: Primary energy consumption by main sector (2010) ................................................................................................16

Figure 7: Breakdown of final energy consumption by sector (2010)......................................................................................16

Figure 8: Breakdown of final consumption by energy source (2010) .....................................................................................17

Figure 9: Share of electricity in the final energy consumption .................................................................................................17

Figure 10: Electricity consumption per capita (electrified) ........................................................................................................18

Figure 11: Final energy consumption and GDP per capita (2010)...........................................................................................19

Figure 12: Primary energy intensity: exchange rate versus purchasing power parity (2010)............................................20

Figure 13: Primary energy intensity trends (2000-2010) ...........................................................................................................21

Figure 14: Primary energy intensity trends (2008-2010) ...........................................................................................................21

Figure 15: Trends in primary and final energy intensity (2000-2010)......................................................................................22

Figure 16: Trends in final energy intensity: total and electricity (2000-2010)........................................................................22

Figure 17: Impact of structural changes in the GDP on the final intensity (2000-2010) ...................................................23

Figure 18: Value added by sector in GDP (2000/2010) .............................................................................................................23

Figure 19: Energy savings of nine Mediterranean countries ......................................................................................................24

Figure 20: Overall efficiency of the energy sector.......................................................................................................................25

Figure 21: Efficiency of the power sector ......................................................................................................................................26

Figure 22: Efficiency of thermal power plants...............................................................................................................................26

Figure 23: Share of renewable sources in electricity generation (2000, 2010).....................................................................27

Figure 24: Primary consumption variation in Spain (2000-2010).............................................................................................27

Figure 25: Share of households in final energy consumption....................................................................................................28

Figure 26: Final energy consumption of households by energy source (2000, 2010).........................................................29

Figure 27: Trend in the average household size and number of households.........................................................................29

Figure 28: Trends in the number of households: total and electrified (2000-2010).............................................................30

Figure 29: Energy consumption, household income and number of households (2000-2010).........................................30

Figure 30: Unit consumption per household: total and electricity (2010).............................................................................31

Figure 31: Trends in unit energy consumption per household .................................................................................................32

Figure 32: Effect of household electrification on the unit electricity consumption ............................................................32

Figure 33: Energy consumption per household and income (2010). ......................................................................................33

Figure 34: Electricity consumption per household and prices (2010). ...................................................................................33

Figure 35: Trends in unit consumption per household (2005-2010) .......................................................................................34

Figure 36: Energy consumption per dwelling for thermal uses (2000, 2010)........................................................................35

Figure 37: Heating share in household’s energy consumption..................................................................................................36

Figure 38: Unit consumption per dwelling for space heating ..................................................................................................36

Figure 39: Unit consumption per dwelling for cooking ..............................................................................................................37

Figure 40: Consumption for cooking per dwelling and substitution effect in Tunisia..........................................................37

Figure 41: Share of dwellings with water heaters by energy ....................................................................................................38

Figure 42: Equipment rate of households in solar water-heaters ............................................................................................38

Figure 43: Dwellings with solar water heater and solar radiation...........................................................................................39

Figure 44: Unit consumption for water heating ...........................................................................................................................39

Figure 45: Energy savings from solar water heaters....................................................................................................................40

Figure 46: Trends in electricity for electrical appliances (air conditioning excluded)..........................................................41


List of graphs

0

III

Figure 47: Equipment rate of households in large electrical appliances (%)..........................................................................42

Figure 48: Drivers of the variation of the consumption of refrigerators in Algeria (2000-2010)....................................43

Figure 49: Equipment rate of households in air conditioners...................................................................................................44

Figure 50: Electricity consumption for household air conditioning.........................................................................................44

Figure 51: Share of transport in final energy consumption .......................................................................................................45

Figure 52: Trends in transport consumption, GDP and transport intensity ..........................................................................46

Figure 53: Transport energy consumption by mode (2000, 2010) ...........................................................................................46

Figure 54: Road energy consumption by type of vehicles .........................................................................................................47

Figure 55: Number of cars per inhabitant .....................................................................................................................................47

Figure 56: Stock of vehicles (2000, 2010).......................................................................................................................................48

Figure 57: Consumption per car-equivalent and motor fuel prices (2010)..........................................................................49

Figure 58: Trends in consumption for road transport by type of vehicles (2000, 2010)....................................................49

Figure 59: Specific consumption of cars (stock average ).........................................................................................................50

Figure 60: Technical improvements for new cars (litre/ 100 km) (2010) ...............................................................................51

Figure 61: Decomposition of the variation of the consumption of cars (2000-2010)........................................................51

Figure 62: Trends in the unit consumption of trucks (%/year, 2000-2010)..........................................................................52

Figure 63: Share of air transport in energy consumption of transport..................................................................................53

Figure 64: Energy consumption of air transport per passenger (toe/passenger).................................................................53

Figure 65: Share of industry in the final energy consumption ..................................................................................................54

Figure 66: Energy consumption of industry by energy source (2000, 2010) ........................................................................54

Figure 67: Energy intensity trends in industry (%/year, 2000-2010) ........................................................................................55

Figure 68: Energy intensive branches in industry (2000, 2010) ................................................................................................55

Figure 69: Trends in manufacturing industries (2000-2010).......................................................................................................56

Figure 70: Energy intensities by branch (%/year, 2000-2010)...................................................................................................57

Figure 71: Structural effect in manufacturing industry (%/year ; 2000-2010) ........................................................................58

Figure 72: Specific fuel consumption for clinker production.....................................................................................................59

Figure 73: Specific consumption of cement (2010) ....................................................................................................................59

Figure 74: Share of services in final energy consumption..........................................................................................................60

Figure 75: Energy consumption of services by branch ...............................................................................................................61

Figure 76: Energy consumption, value added and employment in services (2000-2010)...................................................61

Figure 77: Energy intensity of services ...........................................................................................................................................62

Figure 78: Trends in energy intensity of services (2000-2010) .................................................................................................63

Figure 79: Electricity consumption per employee (kWh/employee) .......................................................................................63

Figure 80: Electricity consumption by branch and per employee (2010) ..............................................................................64

Figure 81: Electricity unit consumption of hotels-restaurants per person-night (2010)....................................................65

Figure 82: Unit consumption for the health sector per bed in hospitals...............................................................................65

Figure 83: Share of agriculture in final energy consumption.....................................................................................................66

Figure 84: Share of value added of agriculture in GDP ..............................................................................................................66

Figure 85: Consumption of agriculture by fuel (2010)................................................................................................................67

Figure 86: Energy intensity of agriculture ......................................................................................................................................67

Figure 87: Cultivated area per inhabitant and % of irrigated area ...........................................................................................68

Figure 88: Number of tractors per 1000 inhabitants..................................................................................................................68

Figure 89: Energy consumption of agriculture per hectare (toe/ha).......................................................................................69

Figure 90: Energy consumption of agriculture per hectare: average and irrigated area (2010)*......................................69

Figure 91: Unit consumption per tonne of fish ............................................................................................................................70



8

Introduction

1

1. Introduction

1.1. Presentation of the MEDENER project on energy efficiencyIndicators

Energy efficiency improvements aregenerally considered as the best strategyto reduce CO2 emissions, to limit theenergy dependence and to alleviate theeffect of oil price increase. Mostcountries have implemented energyefficiencies programmes at differentstages. It now becomes necessary toimplement a system of monitoring of theenergy performances achieved so as toevaluate the impact of these policies andto better target new policy measures. Itis also important to benefit from theexperience of similar countries and tocompare countries.

The MEDENER project on energyefficiency indicators relies on theexperience achieved in Europeancountries with the ODYSSEE project andin southern Mediterranean countries,especially Tunisia and Algeria. Thesecountries have developed evaluationmethods of energy efficiency trendsthrough the implementation of detaileddata bases on final energy consumptionby sector and end-use.

This report presents energy efficiencytrends of 9 Mediterranean countries: 4 southern countries (Algeria, Lebanon,Morocco and Tunisia) and 5 EU countries(France, Spain, Portugal, Greece andItaly).

The main results and deliverables of theproject can be found at http://medener-indicateurs.net/uk. The main energy efficiency indicators arepresented for the nine countries coveredin an interactive database with maps andgraphs on the web site.

9


Box n°1 : Medener, the Mediterranean Association of National Energy Agencies

> ADEME FRANCE

> ADENE PORTUGAL

> ADEREE MOROCCO

> ALMEE LEBANON

> ANME TUNISIA

> APRUE ALGÉRIA

> CRES GREECE

> ENEA ITALY

> IDAE SPAIN

> NERC JORDAN

> NERC SYRIA

> PEC PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY

Exchanging of good practices acrossthe two Mediterranean shores.

Implementing emblematic regionalprogrammes and pilot projects.

Operating regional and national EE & RE Observatories.

Developing a Regional training and capacity development Platform for MEDENER’s partners.

Promoting public and private partnerships.

Disseminating information, Raisingawareness at regional level.

1

2

3

4

5

6

The Mediterranean Association of NationalAgencies for Energy Conservation – MEDENER– brings together 12 organizations from bothsides of the Mediterranean (ADEME-France,ADENE-Portugal, IDAE-Spain, CRES-Greece,ENEA-Italy, ADEREE-Morocco, ANME-Tunisia,APRUE-Algeria, ALMEE-Lebanon, NERC-Syria,NERC-Jordan and PEC-Palestinian Authority) incharge of energy efficiency policies andrenewable energies. Created in 1997 as aninternational non-profit association, it aims toexchange experience, expertise and "bestpractices". The expansion of synergies betweenmembers therefore serves to reinforce theregional partnership around energyconservation issues that are specific to theMediterranean region.

This network is committed to a number of jointprojects, especially in defining energyconservation policies and in contributing tothe emergence of key projects in a number ofcountries: implementing heat and insulationregulations and putting together pilot operationsin the field of energy efficiency, organizingtraining on low power renewable energies andenergy conservation, etc.

During the General Assembly held on 13 February 2012, the "Rabat Declaration" wasadopted by all members. It proposes totransform this network, in the short term, into atrue regional energy efficiency agencycomprising a full time team. Consequently, in thecontext of the Union for the Mediterranean,MEDENER now participates to the definition ofthe energy efficiency part of the MediterraneanSolar Plan and wishes to reinforce its role as anoperational partner in implementing this Plan.Among the ongoing projects, we should mentionpilot buildings offering high energyperformance levels, generalizing energyefficiency labelling, creating an energyobservatory with a database on energyefficiency indicators and on renewableenergies.

Most countries of the Mediterranean Basin haveimplemented strategies and energy efficiencypolicies. Their development has allowed toimplement a detailed monitoring system ofthe energy performance to assess the impactof policies, to understand the energy demandtrends and to measure progress towards energyefficiency and renewable to better target newdevelopments.

Figure 1: MEDENER, the Mediterranean Association of national agencies for energy conservation


10

Introduction

1

1.2. Objectives and content

The objective of this report is todescribe and compare energy efficiencytrends in nine countries of the south andnorth of the Mediterranean over theperiod 2000-2010: Algeria, Morocco,Lebanon, Tunisia, France, Spain, Italy,Greece and Portugal. The report is basedon data and indicators prepared forSouthern countries under theMEDENER project on energy efficiencyindicators and for northern countriesunder the ODYSSEE - MURE project.

The project relies on the experience andmethodology of the ODYSSEE - MUREproject for calculating energy efficiencyindicators. Four countries, Tunisia, Algeria,Morocco and Lebanon participated inthe project through their national energyagency (or equivalent), framed by twotechnical coordinators Enerdata, aFrench society specializing in the analysisof energy demand and ALCOR, a Tunisianconsultant on energy efficiency andrenewables. The project was coordinatedby ADEME from France and ANME fromTunisia.

Among the southern countries, twocountries had already some experienceon energy efficiency indicators, Tunisiasince more than 10 years and Algeriamore recently. Various studies have beenconducted in Tunisia on energy efficiencyindicators through collaborationbetween the National Energy EfficiencyAgency (ANME) and ADEME since 2005.In 2011 the Algerian Energy EfficiencyAgency, APRUE, has implemented, withthe support of ADEME, a nationaldatabase on energy efficiency indicators;an energy observatory has been createdand is under development. In 2012 theagencies of Lebanon ( ALMEE ) andMorocco (ADEREE ) have initiated anddeveloped databases on energy efficiencyindicators in the framework of theMEDENER project on energy efficiencyindicators.

This report is the outcome of a first pilotoperation on 4 countries of the Southand aims at being spread on otherMediterranean countries in a secondphase.

11


1.3. Data sources

For Southern countries, the work of datacollection was performed by the four energyefficiency agencies participating to the project:

• APRUE, National Agency for thePromotion and Rationalization of the Useof Energy, Algeria;

• ALMEE, Lebanese Association for EnergyConservation and Environment, Lebanon;

• ADEREE, National Agency for theDevelopment of Renewable Energy andEnergy Efficiency, Morocco.

• ANME, National Agency for EnergyManagement, Tunisia.

Each team was responsible for collecting datafrom national institutions (Ministries, StatisticalInstitutes), power and gas utilities, oilcompanies, industry associations, banks etc.The project has demonstrated that there a lotof data is available in the different countries,but that the information was diffuse andscattered among different actors (Box 2 andFigure 2). An intensive data collection has beenmade during the duration of the project, withthe primary objective to involve allstakeholders to collaborate in the provision ofdata.

Box n°2: National players involved in the data collection

Figure 2: Organization of the data collection in southern countries

ALMEE, Lebanon

APRUE, Algeria

ANME, Tunisia

ADEREE, Morocco

Banque du Liban(données Economiques

et Financières)

Enquêtes etétudes propres à

l’ALMEE

Enquêtes et étudesmenées par d’autres

organismes (UN, UE, ...)

Ordredes ingénieurs et des architectes

Ministère desTravaux Publicset du Transport

Ministère del’Intérieur

Ministère del’Industrie

Ministère desFinances

Ministère del’Energie et de l’Eau

AdministrationCentrale de la

Statistique (CAS)

National system of informationand data collection developed by ALMEE

Compagniespétrolières dedistribution

Institut Nationalde la Statistique

Socio-economic data

Observatoire nationalde l’énergie

National energy balance

The current information system SIM2Eorganization of data collection

MDCIEconomic data

Ministère du TransportETAP

IGCE

Autres STEGElectricity and Gas Data

DGEOil Products data

Enquêtes et études

DeptsMinistériels

Sectoral data Surveys

MEMEnergy balance

HCPSocio-economic data

ONEE / Regieselectricity costs

AssociationsProfessionnelles

Industrial data

Systèmed’Information

IEE

NAFTALOil Products Distribution data

NAFTECRefineries data

ENIPChemicals & Petrochemicals data

CAMELOil & Condensate & LPG & GLN data

SONATRACH

SONELGAZElectricity and Natural Gas Data

Energy Management Observatory

MEMNational energy balance

ACELOR MITTALSteel data

Groupe GICA/IAA/SGP/MANCement / Cevital / Giplait / GIPEC /

Wood / Eriad / Proda / ALZINC / Algal

GREG/ARH/ALNAFTRegularization electricity and gas Agencies

rate energy / electricity Indicative Programmes / GN / PP

CREAD/CREDEG/CNERIB/CDERResearch & Study Planning & Surveys

& Thermal Reglementation & Renewable Energy

socio-economic data, forecast scenariosCNS/CNP/CNIS/ONM/ONID/IANORSocio-economic data, forecast scenarios

import & export & Meteorology & Agriculture e

Administrations & Ministères & Entreprises & BanquesFinancial aggregates, Socio Economic,

Economic Accounts, Exchange Rate, Inflation


12

1.4. Conclusions and recommendations

This first phase of the MEDENER projecton energy efficiency indicators made itpossible to calculate around 150 sectoralenergy efficiency indicators for southernMediterranean countries. These energyefficiency indicators were adapted fromthe methodology developed in theframework of the EU project ODYSSEEMURE.

The main outputs and deliverables of theproject are the following:

• Development of training materials toenhance the experience of agencies inthe interpretation and analysis ofenergy efficiency trends (capacitybuilding) ;

• Establishment of a framework for datacollection and updating;

• Creation of national databases forMorocco and Lebanon;

• Development of a regional databaseon energy efficiency indicators fornine Mediterranean countries.

• Production of a regional reportdescribing energy efficiency trends in9 countries in Mediterraneancountries and of four national reports(Algeria, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia).

In order to sustain the project and thecalculation of energy efficiencyindicators, the data collection processshould be institutionalized, so as to give ita greater legitimacy in front of thevarious actors or policy policymakers.Thus the various agencies responsible fordata collection will have an easier accessto data that may exist in each countryfrom the various institutions: ministries,statistical agencies, public or privateactors.

The first phase of the project made itpossible to highlight several points thatmay be reinforced if the project iscontinuing:

• The energy efficiency indicatorsdeveloped during the first phase onlycover part of the indicators used inEuropean countries (ODYSSEE MUREproject); more advanced indicatorsshould be developed in a secondphase.

• Phase 1 underlines data gap incountries, that can be solved with anadditional effort;

• Phase 1 focused on a statisticalapproach to measure energy savings:efforts should be done to link thesemeasures to a bottom-up evaluationof programmes, so as to have anextended evaluation of the observedindicators and to relate them with theenergy savings from the programmesimplemented by the country.

Introduction

1

13

2. Energy efficiency context

2.1. Challenges and objectives of energy efficiency policies

Energy efficiency has gradually developedin the countries of the southernMediterranean and now represents amajor political issue in most of thesecountries. Aside from Tunisia, which has along experience in energy efficiency,there exists few concrete energy

efficiency measures implemented in theother countries, even if the situationseems to be changing recently.

The following table presents nationalenergy efficiency programs implementedin southern countries with objectives bysector.

Energy efficiency context

2


Table 1 : Objectives of energy efficiency programmes in MEDENER countries

CountryTunisia

Algeria

Lebanon

Morocco

ProgrammeFour-Year Plan2008-2011

NationalProgramme 2010-2016

NationalProgramme ofEnergyManagement2011-2013National Plan ofenergy efficiency(2011-2015)

National Plan ofenergy efficiency(2004-2020)

SectorAllResidential

LightingSolar waterheaters

Residential TertiaryIndustryTransport

Goals Intensity reduction of 3% / year Renovation of 21 500 dwellings between2008 and 2011Distribution of 2 millions of CFL/yearInstallation of 480 000 m2

Improvement of energy efficiency to reachan energy intensity 0.268 toe/1000dinars in2016 (against 0.286 toe/1000 dinars in 2011).

Thermal renovation of 1,500 buildings55 energy audits 180 energy audits and feasibility studiesAudits, installation of LPG kits for cars, 100CNG buses


14

2.2. Trends in energy consumption

2.2.1. Primary energy consumption


2

Figure 3: Primary energy consumption and GDP (2010)

1 Including transmission and distribution losses.2 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is measured in constant prices and purchasing power parities of 2000.

Total consumption, also called primaryenergy consumption, includes finalenergy consumption and consumptionand losses of the energy sector1 (alsocalled transformation sector) as well asconsumption for non-energy uses. Thefinal energy consumption includes theconsumption in industry (excludingenergy industries), transportation,residential, services and agriculture.

The southern Mediterranean region,made of Algeria, Lebanon, Morocco andTunisia in this report, had a higheconomic growth of 4.3% per year from2000 to 2010. During the same periodthe GDP of the five European countries(France, Spain, Italy, Portugal and Greece)grew only by 1.1% per year on average,with a recession in 2008 - 20102.

The total consumption of the southerncountries reached 73 Mtoe in 2010, with

a progression of 3.8% per year since2000. For European countries theconsumption was 620 Mtoe and wasalmost at the same level as in 2000(Figure 3).

France and Algeria play an important rolein the 2 sub-regions:

• France represents about 40% ofconsumption and GDP of the 5 EUcountries; it is followed by Italy;

• Algeria absorbs more than half of theconsumption of southern countriesand generates half of the GDP of thearea; it is followed by Morocco (21%and 28% respectively)

In terms of GDP per capita Lebanon isclose to EU countries with € 20,000 perinhabitant (at purchasing power parities)compared with 5 000 € per inhabitanton average in the three other southerncountries.

15


There is a net decoupling between the primaryenergy consumption and the GDP in EUcountries since 2005, contrary toMediterranean countries where the growth ofconsumption is close to that of GDP (Figure4).

Since the economic and financial crisis of 2008,the GDP and the primary consumption of thefive EU countries sharply fell (-1.4% and -1.9%per year respectively). The southern countrieshave been less impacted by the crisis: theirGDP and consumption jointly grew by morethan 3.4% per year.

The decoupling between the primaryconsumption and the GDP is effective in mostcountries, with the exception of Algeria andMorocco where consumption and GDP

increased in the same way. Due to the weightof Algeria in the southern Mediterranean area,this trend has an important impact on thewhole sub-region (Figure 5).

Figure 4: Trends in primary consumption and GDP by sub-region

Figure 5: Primary energy consumption and GDP trends by country (%/year, 2000-2010)

3 MED_4: Algeria, Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia; EU_5: Spain, France, Greece, Italy and Portugal


16


2

OIndustry and transformations aredominant in the primary energyconsumption (40 % of primary

consumption in Portugal, Morocco andItaly, 50 % in Algeria in 2010) (Figure 6).

The final energy consumption of the 9Mediterranean countries reached 465Mtoe in 2010, a growth of 0.9 % per yearsince 2000. Transport accounts for over40 % of this final consumption in mostcountries, except in Tunisia (30%), Italy

(34%) and France (32%). Industry, themost energy intensive sector, has animportant contribution in Tunisia,Portugal and Spain (30% of the finalconsumption in 2010) (Figure 7).

Oil remains the main energy consumedin Mediterranean countries (about 40%of final consumption in Italy and France,70 % in Lebanon, 80% in Morocco).Biomass accounts for only 8% of the finalconsumption, but is underestimated in

southern countries because a lack ofofficial data (Figure 8). In fact, themarketed wood represents only a smallpart of the total consumption ofbiomass; biomass taken directly fromforests or crop residues is not recorded

Figure 6: Primary energy consumption by main sector (2010)

Figure 7: Breakdown of final energy consumption by sector (2010)

2.2.2. Final consumption

17


in official statistics. In Morocco, there is noofficial figure on biomass; a study estimatedthat the consumption of wood in the early 90s

represented 30% of the total energyconsumption4 .

Figure 8: Breakdown of final consumption by energy source (2010)

Figure 9: Share of electricity in the final energy consumption

4 Study on fuel wood demand and supply conducted in 1992 and 1994 by the Administration of Water and Forestry as part of aproject funded by the World Bank. The study estimated that the consumption of wood should be estimated at 11.3 Mt, of which50% taken from forests.

Electricity is at the heart of economic andsocial development of many countries. Its sharein the final energy consumption grew stronglyin all countries, in particular in Lebanon (+8 points from 2000), Portugal and Tunisia (+5 points) and Greece (+4 points) (Figure 9:).This increase in consumption is linked todemographic change, industrialization,development of ICTs (Information and

Communication Technologies) and airconditioning in the tertiary sector as well as tothe increasing appliances ownership forhouseholds (refrigerators, TV and airconditioning) and, in the case of Morocco, tothe electrification of rural areas (theelectrification rate of the country grew from68% in 2000 to 95% in 2010).


18


2

Figure 10: Electricity consumption per capita (electrified)

As of 2010, Morocco had the lowestelectricity consumption per capita with785 kWh5, followed by Algeria (914 kWh), Tunisia (1315 kWh) andLebanon (3310 kWh). Among EUcountries, Greece, Italy and Spainconsume around 4500 kWh per capita,Spain 5300 kWh and France 7000 kWh.In southern countries, we should alsotake into account the rapid growth in

this per capita consumption (4% per yearin Tunisia and Algeria, 4.6% per year inLebanon over the period 2000 - 2010)(Figure 10). The electricity consumptionin these countries will continue to growrapidly, on average by 6% per year by2025, as estimated by the MediterraneanEnergy Observatory for the South andEastern Mediterranean Basin.

5 Total electricity consumption divided by the electrified population.

19


2.3. Global trends in energy efficiency: primary and final intensity

Three types of indicators are usuallyconsidered to evaluate energy efficiency:

(i) Economic ratios or energy intensities, i.e.ratios between the energy consumptionand economic activity measured atconstant prices (Gross DomesticProduct GDP, value added). Intensity canbe calculated for the whole economy orfor a sector. Energy intensity can beexpressed at purchasing power parity tocompare countries.

(ii) Techno-economic ratios, calculated bysub-sector or end-use, as a ratio betweenthe energy consumption and an indicatorof activity in physical units (dwellings,vehicles, ton of steel, passenger-kilometres, etc.). These techno-economic

ratios are also called unit or specificconsumption.

(iii) Diffusion indicators that measure thepenetration of energy efficienttechnologies (CFL, solar water heaters)or “good practice” (share of publictransport, mobility of public transport).

There exists a strong correlation betweenfinal energy consumption per capita and percapita income. For example, the GDP percapita of France is six times higher atpurchasing power parities than in Morocco,the energy consumption per capita is almostseven times higher, and the electricityconsumption per capita is almost ten timeshigher in France than in Morocco (Figure11).

Ener

gy c

onsu

mpt

ion

per i

nhab

itant

(toe

/inha

b)

4

3

2

1

0

GDP per inhabitant (€2000 at ppp)0 10000 20000 30000

Morocco

Italy

Tunisia

Algeria

Lebanon

Portugal Greece

France

Spain

ain

Portugal

Fran

GGreece

l

IItalyLeebbaanon

rocccccoAlg

oooAAAAAAAlAAAlg

oooooooooo

siaiaa g

Figure 11: Final energy consumption and GDP per capita (2010)

GDP per inhabitant (€2000 at PPP)

The most common indicator used toevaluate the overall energy performance ofcountries is the primary energy intensity.This indicator is defined as the total amountof energy required to produce one unit ofGDP.

Energy intensity is generally considered as areliable and simple indicator, as it is based onconsumption data from energy balances andGDP from national accounts. However, theenergy intensity appears more as anindicator of "energy productivity" than a realindicator of energy efficiency from atechnical point of view or in relation withenergy efficiency policies. Energy intensity


20


2

is nonetheless the only indicator thatallows comparing the overall energyefficiency performance betweencountries, even if the observeddifferences also include other factors notlinked to energy efficiency.

Differences in energy intensities betweencountries may also be related to: (i) theeconomic structure of the country,namely the contribution of the differentsectors to GDP, (ii) the powergeneration mix (thermal, nuclear andrenewable), (iii) the importance of othertransformations (as in case of Algeriawith the hydrocarbon sector), (iv) theclimate, and (v) lifestyles and economicdevelopment in general. In this reportdifferent indicators will be presented andcorrected from some of these variouseffects to get a clearer picture of energyefficiency trends and levels in thedifferent countries.

Within the framework of the Europeanproject ODYSSEE MURE, energyefficiency gains are measured by anenergy efficiency index calculated foreach consumer sector (ODEX6).However, this index requires a largeamount of data and could not be used atthis stage of the project.

At purchasing power parity (in constant€ of year 2000), Morocco and Italy havethe lowest primary energy intensity.Using purchasing power parities reducesthe intensity differences by increasing thevalue of GDP of countries with a lowcost of living. This approach is generallyconsidered to be more relevant tocompare countries with different costsof living. The difference in intensity levelexpressed at exchange rates andpurchasing power parities is a factor 2for Morocco and Tunisia, 2.5 for Algeriaand 1.4 for Lebanon (Figure 12).

Over the period of 2000-2010, theprimary intensity of most countries hasdecreased, except in Morocco andAlgeria. In southern countries thisdecline was 2.5 times slower than in EU

countries, except in Tunisia and Lebanon,where intensities decreased by 2.6% and1.9% per year respectively Figure 13). Theeconomic and financial crisis of 2008 hasslowed down the intensity decline in EU

6 More information about ODEX: http://www.odyssee-indicators.org/registred/definition_odex.pdf

Figure 12: Primary energy intensity: exchange rate versus purchasing power parity (2010)

21

Figure 13: Primary energy intensity trends (2000-2010)


countries. The reversed trends observed inFrance and Italy is essentially due to climateeffect; at normal climate the intensities of these

two countries keep on decreasing (-1% peryear in France, -0.2% per year in Italy) (see Box 3, Figure 14)7.

Box 3: Impact of climatic corrections on energy intensity

In France and Italy, the primary energy intensityslightly increased (0.2% per year) over theperiod 2008 - 2010, whereas under normalclimatic conditions (i.e. taking into accountclimatic corrections), these intensities have been

decreasing (-1% per year in France and -0.2% peryear in Italy). In Southern countries, climaticcorrections have low impact on primaryintensity, due to the lower weight of heating andcooling in total consumption.

Figure 14: Primary energy intensity trends (2008-2010)

7 Although climate may have a significant impact on energy consumption in the residential and tertiary sectors, the intensitypresented in the report is not corrected from climate variation due to a lack of reliable data on degree days for southernMediterranean countries. For these countries data on heating and cooling degree days are only available for one city and since 2005.Data on degree-days are available for EU countries in the framework of the ODYSSEE MURE project.


22


2

In most countries except Morocco andLebanon, the primary intensity has beendecreasing faster than the final intensity.In case of Algeria it has been growing lessrapidly. Thus, the energy sector (thatrepresents the difference between theprimary and final intensity) has

contributed to the reduction of theprimary intensity in all these countriesdue to improvement in the powergeneration efficiency linked to thepenetration of gas combined cycles andrenewables (Figure 15)8.

8 See further analysis on the energy sector.9 In Algeria due to the predominant weight of hydrocarbons, the calculation was made without hydrocarbons. Theshare of hydrocarbons in the GDP fell sharply from 2000 to 2010, but still represents nearly 30% of GDP.

Figure 15: Trends in primary and final energy intensity (2000-2010)

Over the period 2000-2010, the finalenergy intensity of Mediterraneancountries fell by 0.4 % per year. Thisresult is not equal across the two sub-regions: in the five EU countries theintensity decreased by 0.5% per yearwhile in the South it increased by 0.4 %per year on average.

The electricity intensity has been

increasing in all countries (Figure 16). InSouthern countries, the growth inelectricity intensity is particularly linkedto the economic development, with arapid growth of electricity demandacross sectors, especially for households,due to the increasing number ofelectrical appliances and, in the case ofMorocco, the electrification of ruralareas.

Figure 16: Trends in final energy intensity: total and electricity (2000-2010)9

23


10 Factor 3 in Algeria, 8 in Portugal, Greece and Spain and 12 in Tunisia.

Figure 17: Impact of structural changes in the GDP on the final intensity (2000-2010)

Figure 18: Value added by sector in GDP (2000/2010)

The share of services has increased by 13 points in Tunisia, 9 points in Lebanon, 6 points in Spain and Portugal between 2000and 2010. On the contrary, the share ofindustry has declined in all countries (- 3 points

on average) (Figure 18). The service sectorcontributed to reduce the final energy intensityby 0.5% per year on average in Greece, Spain,Portugal and Lebanon.

To assess the progress of energy efficiency inthe different countries, it is more relevant toexclude the influence of changes in the GDPstructure, i.e. in the contribution of the threemain economic sectors in the GDP(agriculture, industry and services). This isobtained by calculating an intensity at constantGDP structure, assuming a constant share ofagriculture, industry and services in the GDP.The difference between the variations of theintensity at constant structure and the

observed intensity shows the influence ofstructural changes in the economy.

In Greece, Spain, Portugal and Lebanon, thefinal energy intensity has been decreasingfaster than the intensity at constant structure:this means that part of the decrease wasexplained by structural changes, mainly due tothe increasing weight of the service sector inthe GDP, as services are on average 7 timesless energy intensive than industry10.


24


2

Energy savings associated to thedecrease in final energy intensity can becalculated as the difference between afictitious consumption, calculated with anenergy intensity at constant structure ofa base year (2000) and the observedconsumption. In Southern and EasternMediterranean countries, energy savingsreached 22 Mtoe over a final

consumption of 465 Mtoe, whichrepresent less than 5% of finalconsumption. In other words, withoutthese savings, the final energyconsumption would have been 5% higherthan the observed one in 2010 (Figure19). Only EU countries recorded energysavings.

Figure 19: Energy savings of nine Mediterranean countries

25

Energy efficiency trends in the energy sector

3


3. Energy efficiency trends in the energy sector

Figure 20: Overall efficiency of the energy sector

11 These consumption and losses represent about 95% of the energy sector consumption in these countries.

The energy sector includes the powersector, refining, oil and gas production aswell as LPG and LNG plants. In mostcountries except Algeria theconsumption of the energy sector mainlycorresponds to consumption and lossesin the power sector, namely powergeneration losses in thermal and nuclearplants, own-consumption of power plantsand electricity transmission anddistribution losses11. In Algeria, theenergy sector also includes theproduction and processing ofhydrocarbons: the two main importantconsumers are power generation andLNG units.

The overall performance of the energysector is calculated by calculating theratio between the final energy

consumption and the primary energyconsumption: the higher it is, the higheris the share of primary energy reachingfinal consumers and, therefore, the moreefficient is the sector.

The efficiency of the energy sector variesfrom 60 % in France and Algeria to 77 %in Portugal and 80% in Tunisia. The lowestvalues observed in France and Algeriacan be explained by the high share ofnuclear in France and the size of thehydrocarbons sector in Algeria. The highefficiency in Portugal is due to the highshare of renewables in powergeneration. In most countries, thisefficiency is increasing due to energyefficiency improvement in electricityproduction (Figure 20).

The efficiency of the power sector isinfluenced by the electricity mix (share ofrenewable and nuclear energy) and theefficiency of thermal production. Portugal

and Spain are the two countries with thehighest performance (59% and 52%respectively) and the highest progression(+10 points) (Figure 21). This good


26

Energy efficiency trends in the energy sector

3

result is explained by the sharp increasein the share of renewables in powergeneration12 and the rapid diffusion ofgas combined cycles. The performance ofthe electricity sector is relatively low inFrance, because of the high share ofnuclear in the power mix (with its low

efficiency of 33% against 40-50% forthermal) and in Lebanon, because of theimportance of autoproduction inindustry and buildings linked to thefrequent power cuts (about 30% of totalproduction).

12 As the production of electricity from renewable energy sources (hydro, wind and solar) is considered with anefficiency of 100%, the penetration of renewables in the power mix improves the average efficiency of powergeneration.

Figure 21: Efficiency of the power sector

Figure 22: Efficiency of thermal power plants

Spain and Portugal are the countries withthe most efficient thermal generation(49% and 43% respectively) and thegreatest efficiency gains linked to thepenetration of gas combined cycles

(Figure 22) . The low performance ofthermal power plants in France is notmeaningful because of its low share inpower generation.

The share of renewable in electricitygeneration has increased in all countries(except in France). This share is around30% in Spain, 40% in Portugal with

increasing shares (+14 points in these 2last countries between 2000 and 2010)(Figure 23). It is still very low in Algeriaand Tunisia (<1%).

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1 1

Figure 23: Share of renewable sources in electricity generation (2000, 2010)

Energy efficiency gains have contributed tolimit the growth in the consumption of thetransformation sector and thus in the primaryenergy consumption. The electrification of theeconomy, measured by the increasing share ofelectricity in the final energy consumption,

contributes to increase the electricityproduction and therefore the losses in thermaland nuclear power plants. Box 4 presents thefactors responsible for the variation of primaryenergy consumption in Spain over the periodof 2000-2010.

Box 4: Drivers of the primary energy consumption variation in Spain (2000-2010)

Figure 24 : Primary consumption variation in Spain (2000-2010)

Between 2000 and 2010, the primary energyconsumption increased by 5 Mtoe in Spain. Thisincrease can be explained by four factors: on theone hand, the increasing contribution ofelectricity in final consumption (from 19% to23%) and the consumption of othertransformations contributed to increase the

primary energy consumption; on the other hand,efficiency improvement of thermal power plants(from 41% to 49% between 2000 and 2010) andthe increasing use of renewables in electricityproduction contributed to reduce theconsumption by 5.2 and 4.2 Mtoe, respectively.


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Energy efficiency trends for households

4

4. Energy efficiency trends for households

Households consume on average 25% of final energy consumption inMediterranean countries (23% in 2010),with a rather similar share for southernand northern countries (23% and 24%).However there exist significant

differences among countries, with a shareas low as 15% in Portugal and Moroccoand reaching 28% for France. In addition,energy uses and equipment ownershipare also very diverse due to differencesin energy prices and income level.

In most countries, the share ofhousehold in final energy consumptiongrew between 2000 and 2010, except inTunisia and Algeria, as well as morerecently in Portugal and Greece due to

the economic crisis. This increase ismainly due to electricity uses, such as airconditioning, electronic equipment (ICT),as well as to multiple equipmentownership (Figure 25).

Figure 25: Share of households in final energy consumption

Gas remains the main energy sourceconsumed by households in Algeria, Italyand France. Oil is significant in Lebanon,Tunisia and Greece, but its share is

decreasing in all countries in favour ofnatural gas (Algeria, Italy, Spain), orelectricity in other countries.

4.1. Trends in consumption and households profile

29


Biomass (mainly wood) can be significant in EUcountries (12% of the household consumptionin Italy, 14% in Spain, 16% in France and 26% inGreece and Portugal), boosted by policies andmeasures against climate change. In Southern

Mediterranean countries, the quantity of wood sold is not well known and the policy usrather to shift from biomass to modern fuels(Figure 26)13

13 For Morocco, wood is not taking into account because it does not exist official data.

Figure 26: Final energy consumption of households by energy source (2000, 2010)

Figure 27: Trend in the average household size and number of households

The average size of household can be quitedifferent between Southern and EU countries(4 and 6 persons per household in the Southagainst 2.5 in EU countries). The growth in thenumber of households, a driver of energyconsumption growth, is more dynamic insouthern countries than in the EU: the numberof households increased by 2.4% / year on

average from 2000 to 2010 in southerncountries, due to the combined effect ofpopulation growth and significant decline in thenumber of persons per household, against 1.6%/ year in the EU, where there is a much lowerpopulation growth and a certain stability in theaverage household size (Figure 27).


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Figure 28: Trends in the number of households: total and electrified (2000-2010)

Figure 29: Energy consumption, household income and number of households(2000-2010)

The impact of the increase in the numberof households on the consumption isreinforced by taking into account theprogress of rural electrification. Thiseffect is particularly important inMorocco, where the share of electrifiedhouseholds increased by 27 pointsreaching 95% in 2010 up from 68% in2000, resulting in a growth of the number

of electrified households of 5.5%/yearbetween 2000 and 2010. In Tunisia andAlgeria, this effect is less important as theelectrification rate of households wasalready 95% in 2000 and reached almost99% in 2010. The number of electrifiedhousehold is a more relevant indicatorto characterize the trends in householdelectricity consumption (Figure 28).

In all countries (except Algeria), thehousehold electricity consumption grewfaster than consumption for other fuels(Figure 29). This growth is directly linked

to the household income in southerncountries (3%/year on average); inEurope, the household income tends todecrease due to the economic crisis14.

14 Between 2008 and 2010, households income, measured with the final consumption expenditure of householdsdecreased by 0.8%/year in Portugal, 1.5%/year in Italy, 3.8%/year in Spain and 4.5%/year in Greece.

31


15 Biomass is not taken into account in Morocco due to the lack of reliable data.

The average unit consumption per household(ratio between the energy consumption ofhouseholds and the number of households),varies quite a lot among Mediterraneancountries, from 0.25 toe/household inMorocco, to around 1 toe in Spain, Greece and

Algeria, and 1.8 toe in France15 (Figure 30). Forelectricity, the differences are even greater:1200 kWh per household in Morocco, 1370kWh in Tunisia, 5500 kWh in Lebanon and even6000 kWh in France.

Figure 30: Unit consumption per household: total and electricity (2010)

Between 2000 and 2010, energy consumptionper household has significantly increased inLebanon, Algeria and Morocco (about3%/year), while it has been decreasing inGreece and Portugal due to the economiccrisis, and in Tunisia due to the substitution ofbiomass with natural gas and LPG.

Energy consumption data have not beenadjusted from climatic variations due to a lackof data on degree days in Southern countries.According to the years and countries climaticvariations may have a significant impact onconsumption trends, as shown in Box 5.


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Figure 31: Trends in unit energy consumption per household

The electricity consumption perhousehold is increasing significantly inMorocco and Lebanon (over 4%/ year)and in other countries (2-3%/year) dueto a growth in equipment rate(refrigerators, TV, ICT, air conditioning,water heater). France has a quite unusual

situation compared to the othercountries as about 30% of the electricityconsumption is for space heating. InSpain and Greece, the electricityconsumption growth has slowed downsignificantly since 2008 because of theeconomic and financial crisis16 (Figure 31).

Figure 32: Effect of household electrification on the unit electricity consumption

Per electrified household, the electricityconsumption increased less rapidly thanper household, due to the electrificationof rural households. In Morocco, thesharp increase in the electrification ratefrom 68 to 95% between 2000 and 2010explains two thirds of the growth in

electricity consumption per householdfrom 2000 to 2010; in Tunisia and Algeria,where almost all households have accessto electricity (95% in 2000 to almost100% in 2010), the electrificationexplains less than 20% of the electricityconsumption growth (Figure 32).

16 Between 2000 and 2007, the electricity consumption per household increased by 2%/year in Spain.

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Figure 33: Energy consumption per household and income (2010)17.

Southern countries (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria)are characterized by a low energyconsumption and revenue (about 7000 €/households, which is 4 times lower than theaverage income of EU countries and Lebanon)

(Figure 33). At the same level of income, thereis a significant dispersion of consumption perhousehold, either for total consumption orelectricity alone.

Figure 34: Electricity consumption per household and prices19 (2010).

Discrepancies in energy consumption perhousehold can be explained by differences inclimate as well as energy prices or policies andmeasures implemented. In general, EUcountries have higher price levels and more

incentive policies (as well as Tunisia). At similarprice level, there is a wide disparity amongcountries in the electricity consumption perhousehold (e.g. Morocco and Greece)18 (Figure34).

17 The size of bubble measures the electricity consumption level.18 Electricity price expressed at purchasing power parities.19 kWh per electrified household, heating excluded .


34


420 http://www.odyssee-indicators.org/publications/PDF/Buildings-brochure-2012.pdf

20

Box 5: Impact of climate on the energy consumption per dwelling

Climatic variations from one year toanother can significantly impacttrends in the household energyconsumption for heating and cooling.To eliminate the influence of climaticvariations, energy consumption dataand indicators can be expressed atnormal climate.

Climatic variations have had asignificant impact on householdconsumption over the period 2005-2010, especially in France, Tunisia, and

Algeria because of a “warm” winterin 2010 (5% warmer than 2005). Dueto limited data for Southerncountries, climatic corrections couldnot be implemented on a longerperiod for these countries; themethodology and results for EUcountries is available on a reportwritten in the framework of theODYSSEE MURE project20.

Figure 35: Trends in unit consumption per household (2005-2010)(2005-2010)

Tunisia and Algeria have introducedthermal regulations for new buildings.Lebanon thermal regulations exist but ona voluntary basis. Tunisia has also set upenergy audits for dwellings.

Improving energy efficiency of buildings isan important issue in EU countries

because of the significant weight of spaceheating (on average around 60-70%).Thermal regulations for new buildingsand the mandatory inspection of boilersand air conditioners are now in force inall EU countries as required by the EPBDDirective.

The household energy consumption canbe split in two types of end-uses: thermaluses, which include space heating, waterheating and cooking, and the specific

electricity uses (or captive uses) forappliances, ICT (TV, PC, etc ...), lightingand air conditioning.

4.2. Thermal uses

4.2.1. Energy efficiency policies in force

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Figure 36: Energy consumption per dwelling for thermal uses (2000, 2010)

Many countries also propose financialincentives (subsidies for energy audits,investment subsidies, subsidized loans) and taxincentives (tax credit, exemption from VAT,reduced VAT rate) or market-basedinstruments such as energy saving obligationsfor utilities combined with tradable energysavings certificates (white certificates) as inFrance and Italy.

According to EPBD and starting from 31sth ofDecember 2020 all new buildings will have tobe nearly zero energy buildings, which impliesa strong insulation and that the energyconsumed will have to originate to a largeextent from RES. Energy PerformanceCertificate (EPC) is now required for everybuilding (dwelling or commercial building)

when it is constructed, sold or rented. Thecertificate gives information about the energyefficiency of the building to owners,prospective buyers and tenants.

For air conditioning, a label has beenintroduced to inform consumers about theenergy performance of the equipment. Forwater heaters, the installation of solarequipment is now mandatory in somecountries such as Spain, Portugal, Greece andItaly.

In most countries except Algeria, Lebanon andSpain, the energy consumption for thermaluses has been decreasing over the period2000-2010. Space heating represents thelargest share of consumption, except inPortugal (Figure 36).


36


4

Figure 37: Heating share in household’s energy consumption

There are significant disparities in theshare of heating according to countries:from 5% in Morocco, to more than 60-70% in Italy or France. In most Europeancountries, the share of heating has been

to decreasing. This trend is mainlyexplained by the energy savings linked tothe improved efficiency of new buildingsand heating appliances (Figure 37).

In all EU countries, except in Italy, therewas a significant decrease in the specificconsumption for heating, especially dueto the policies implemented (-4.6% /yearin Portugal, -2.5% / year in Spain and

France). On the opposite in Southerncountries, this unit consumption tends toincrease, except in Tunisia, driven bybetter comfort in winter (Figure 38).

4.2.1.1. Space heating

Figure 38: Unit consumption per dwelling for space heating21

21 At normal climate, per dwelling with heating system.

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Figure 39: Unit consumption per dwelling for cooking

In all countries, energy consumption perdwelling for cooking is decreasing except inMorocco, Lebanon and Algeria (Figure 39).

Cooking is an important issue in thesecountries (50% of the household consumptionin Tunisia and Morocco, 30% in Algeria).

Figure 40: Consumption for cooking per dwelling and substitution effect in Tunisia

In Tunisia, the share of wood for cooking isdecreasing due to a substitution to butane andnatural gas: from 73% in 1990 to 60% in 2000and 53% in 2010. The market share of LPGgrew from 14% in 1990 to 40% in 2010.Natural gas now represents 8% ofconsumption in 2010 (against 1% in 1990).

As LPG and gas has a higher efficiency thanwood, substitution to gas led to an increase incooking efficiency. Since 2000 this specificconsumption for cooking decreased by 1.8%/year, of which more than half is due to fuelsubstitution (Figure 40)22.

4.2.1.2. Cooking

22 The substitution effect for cooking was calculated as the difference between the annual change in unitconsumption per dwelling in final energy and useful energy. Useful energy is calculated by multiplying the finalenergy consumption of each fuel by its average energy efficiency (i.e. 70% for LPG, 80% for gas, 90% for electricityand only 10 % for wood because wood is mostly used for baking bread in traditional ovens.


38

Energy efficien

cy trend

s for ho

useh

olds

4

Figure 41: Share of dwellings with water heaters by energy

Figure 42: Equipment rate of households in solar water-heaters

4.2.1.3. Water heating

There is a large disparity betweenSouthern and EU countries concerningthe equipment rate in water heaters.Less than 30% of homes have waterheaters in Morocco, 45% in Algeria andTunisia, 80% in Lebanon, compared to100% in EU countries (Figure 41). The

dominant energy for such equipment isalso very different from one country toanother, with a predominance ofelectricity in France and Lebanon, oilproducts in Spain and Portugal, naturalgas in Algeria and Italy, LPG in Tunisia andMorocco and solar in Greece.

Around ¼ of households have a solarwater-heater in Greece, following byLebanon and Tunisia. In Greece thesurface of solar collector is around 350m2 per 1000 inhabitants, compared to100 m2/ 1000 inhabitants in Lebanon, andonly 11 m2 / 1000 inhabitants forMorocco (Figure 42).

In Greece, the installation of solar waterheater is now mandatory. Tunisiasupports the dissemination of solarwater heaters through subsidies andcredit facilities (PROSOL). All thesesupports are the more effective thanactual energy prices are high enough tomake solar water heaters competitive.

39


Figure 43: Dwellings with solar water heater and solar radiation

The area of solar collectors should be inprinciple linked to solar radiation. Despite arather similar level of solar radiation, nearly ¼households in Greece have a solar water

heater, against less than 5% in Spain andPortugal (Figure 43) as policy support has beenin place over a longer period in Greece.

Figure 44: Unit consumption for water heating

The increase in unit consumption of householdhot water is directly related to the needs ofcomfort, and in the South to the increase in thenumber of households with water heaters(Figure 44). One way to reduce thisconsumption or slow down its growth is topromote the installation of solar water

heaters, source of energy savings ofconventional energy sources at the level of finalconsumers, to the extent that they replaceelectricity, LPG, natural gas or petroleumproducts, but also at the primary level if theelectricity is generated from thermal powerplants (as in Lebanon), as shown in Box 6.


40


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Box 6: Energy savings from solar water heaters : case study forMorocco and Lebanon

Figure 45: Energy savings from solar water heaters

Respectively 2% and 11% ofhouseholds have a solar waterheater in Morocco and Lebanon in2010 that replace mainly LPG inMorocco and electricity in Lebanon.In Morocco, solar water heatershave saved 72 ktoe (in final energy),or 15% of the energy used for water

heating. In Lebanon, savings fromsolar water heaters (11% ofhouseholds equipped) represent 68ktoe of final energy and 140 ktoe inprimary terms, taking into accountthe efficiency of thermal powerplants

41


4.2.2. Captive electricity uses: electrical appliances, lighting and air conditioning

Electricity consumption for lighting, appliancesand air conditioning has rapidly increased in allcountries. In the rest of the report, airconditioning will be considered separatelyfrom the other two end-uses in order to focuson this end-use which has risen sharply in allcountries and still have a high potential ofgrowth.

To limit the growth of electricity consumptionfor these end-uses, the European Commissionhas adopted several Directives on the energylabelling of large electrical appliances andlighting, which has been revised, as well asminimum efficiency standards for coldappliances. Nowadays most electricalappliances have to display an energy label

containing information about their specificenergy consumption through letters A +, A + +or A +++ for the best performing to G for theless efficient class. Most appliances sold nowbelong to class A or A++. In Europe,incandescent lamps are now banned from themarket.

Algeria and Tunisia have already introducedenergy labels for some large appliances(Lebanon on a voluntary basis). Southerncountries encourage the promotion of CFLand organize free distributions of lamps forhouseholds or sell them at low prices (7million lamps distributed in Tunisia from 2000to 2010).

Figure 46: Trends in electricity for electrical appliances (air conditioning excluded)

4.2.2.1. Electrical appliances and lighting

Between 2000 and 2010, the specific electricityconsumption (excluding air conditioning)increased rapidly in all countries except in Italy(Figure 46) ; since 2007, these consumptionshave increased very rapidly in Algeria (+5% /year), and Lebanon (11% / year). On the

opposite in the EU, the specific electricityconsumption per household has beendecreasing since 2008, especially in Greece andItaly (respectively -0.8%/year and 1.1%/year)because of the economic crisis and the effectof the energy efficiency policies and measures.


42


4

The increase in specific electricityconsumption results of two oppositedrivers: on the one hand, moreequipment per household, as shown bythe growth rate of large appliances(Figure 47); on the other hand,households bought new and more

efficient equipment that consume less. Insouthern countries households havemore and more washing machines,refrigerators, TV ; in the EU, householdshave often more than one equipment: 2to 3 TV per household , more than onerefrigerator etc.

Figure 47: Equipment rate of households in large electrical appliances (%)

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Box 7: Decomposition of the variation of the consumption of refrigerators in Algeria

The electricity consumption ofrefrigerators, one of the main end-use inAlgeria, has been influenced by severaltypes of factors:

i. A "demographic" effect linked to theincrease in the number of households(2.6% / year);

ii. An «equipment" effect related to theincrease in the rate of household

equipment ownership (83% ofhouseholds had a refrigerator in 2010against 90% in 2000);

iii. An "energy-saving effect, reflecting theenergy efficiency gains from lowerspecific consumption of refrigerator, thatis to say a decrease of 106 kWh (or 23%gains).

Source : APRUE/Enerdata

Figure 48: Drivers of the variation of the consumption of refrigerators in Algeria (2000-2010)

Box 7 illustrates the decomposition of thevariation of the electricity consumption forrefrigerators to underline the role of thevarious drivers: the demography and theincrease in the household equipment

ownership contribute to increase consumptionwhile, on the opposite, technical progress(energy efficiency) has reduced the specificelectricity consumption.


44


4

4.2.3. Air conditioning

Figure 49: Equipment rate of households in air conditioners

The number of households that use air-conditioning rose sharply in Greece,Spain, Italy and Lebanon between 2000and 2010 (Figure 49) : from 28 to 105%in Greece (due to multi-equipment),from 15 to 60% in Spain, from 16 to 50%in Lebanon and from 9 to 37% in Italy. In

southern Mediterranean countries, theequipment rate in air conditioners islower but is expected to increase rapidlyin the coming years: in Morocco, Tunisiaand Algeria, about 15% of householdsnow use air conditioning.

Figure 50: Electricity consumption for household air conditioning

The specific electricity consumption forair conditioning varies between 200kWh/household (equipped) in Spain and

700 kWh for Algeria and 1400 kWh inLebanon (Figure 50).

45


5. Energy efficiency in transport

5.1. Trends in consumption

Energy efficiency in transport

5

Figure 51: Share of transport in final energy consumption

The share of transport sector in finalenergy consumption ranges from 30%(Tunisia, France) to more than 45%(Morocco, Algeria and Lebanon). It hasincreased everywhere since 2000, exceptin France (where consumption remainedquite stable) and Tunisia. The growth ratein transport consumption is verydifferent in the two regions: 0.6% / yearsince 2000 for EU countries, and around5%/ year on average in southerncountries (Figure 51).

This rapid consumption growth inSouthern countries is due on the onehand to the rapid increase in the numberof road vehicles (5%/year on averagesince 2000 in Morocco, Tunisia andLebanon), in particular cars, driven by theeconomic growth, the low availability of

public transport and the monopoly ofroad for goods.

Even if the transport sector is a keysector with fast growing energyconsumption, few energy efficiencymeasures have been implemented so farin Southern countries. In Europe, manymeasures have been implemented, suchas various EU Directives (car labelling,label for tires, standard on CO2emissions for cars and commercial lightvehicles), as well as national fiscal to taxinefficient and/or high emission newvehicles. In addition, vehicle inspectionsare implemented in many countries toensure that vehicles comply withregulations on safety or emissions, orboth.


46


5

Figure 52: Trends in transport consumption, GDP and transport intensity

In most countries, except Morocco andAlgeria, transport consumption grew lessrapidly than GDP from 2000 to 2010,especially in Tunisia and Lebanon, and toa lesser extent in France, Greece and

Spain. The intensity of transport (i.e. theenergy consumption per unit of GDP)has therefore decreased everywhereexcept in Morocco and Algeria (Figure52).

The growth in consumption is mainly dueto road, which accounts for over 80% ofthe consumption in all countries. Thisshare has however remained relatively

stable since 2000 in most countries(except in Greece and Tunisia) (Figure53).

Figure 53: Transport energy consumption by mode (2000, 2010)

47


Figure 54: Road energy consumption by type of vehicles

Cars represent on average half of theconsumption of road transport in the nineMediterranean countries, with largediscrepancies among countries: from 28% inAlgeria to more than 70% in Lebanon (Figure54). Consumption of road transport grew by1.2% / year in Portugal, 2% / year in Tunisia and

Greece and more than 5% / year in Algeria andMorocco. In France and Italy the consumptionof road vehicles has been decreasing by 0.2% /year and 1.8% / year respectively, partly due tothe economic crisis but also due to policiesimplemented and the strong substitution ofgasoline by diesel.

There exist significant discrepancies in the levelof car ownership among countries, especiallybetween EU countries and Lebanon on theone hand, and the other three southern

countries on the other hand: 600 cars per1,000 in Italy, 300 inhabitants in Lebanon andless than 50 in Morocco (Figure 55).

5.2. Road transport

Note : Greece: trucks and light vehicles together

Figure 55: Number of cars per inhabitant


48


5

Figure 56: Stock of vehicles (2000, 2010)

The fleet of vehicles is mainly made up ofcars. In southern countries and Greece,the number of vehicles has increased by5%/year on average between 2000 and

2010, by 3%/year in Spain and between1.1 and 1.4%/ year in Italy, Portugal andFrance (Figure 56).

The energy efficiency of road transportcan be evaluated by calculating averageenergy consumption per car equivalent,calculated as the ratio between the totalconsumption and the total fleet of roadvehicles expressed in car equivalent23.There exist significant discrepancies in

this energy consumption of roadtransport per car equivalent amongcountries with very similar fuel price:for instance, about 25% differencebetween Greece, Portugal and Tunisia,and around 60% between Greece andMorocco24 (Figure 57).

23 For each type of vehicle the stock is measured in terms of equivalent cars on the basis of their specific annualconsumption compared to a car. If, for example, a bus consumes 15 toe / year on average and a car 1 toe / year,a bus will be equivalent to 15 cars. In this calculation the coefficients used are default values used for Europeancountries in the ODYSSEE-MURE project: 0.15 car equivalent for two-wheels, 1.4 for a gasoline light vehicles, 2.6for a diesel light vehicles, 15 for a bus and a truck.

26 Default values used to calculate the unit consumption per car equivalent may not be representative in Southerncountries but were used due to a lack of national surveys. Consumption per car equivalent should be taken withcaution in some countries; for example in Morocco the large share of taxis in the car stock have a higher specificconsumption. In Morocco and Tunisia, consumption may be underestimated due to illegal fuel trade with Algeria.This was the case for Lebanon until 2007.

49


Figure 57: Consumption per car-equivalent and motor fuel prices (2010)

Figure 58 : Trends in consumption for road transport by type of vehicles (2000, 2010)

The energy consumption by type of vehiclegives us a first overview of the energyefficiency of each vehicle. Except in Moroccoand Algeria, the energy consumption pervehicle has decreased in all countries. These

trends may be due to technical progress withthe introduction of efficient new vehicles in themarket but also to the use of smaller vehicles(including cars) with consume less energy(Figure 58).


50


5

5.2.1. Cars

Figure 59: Specific consumption of cars (stock average )

For cars, the most relevant indicator formeasuring energy efficiency progress,especially related to technical progress, isthe specific fuel consumption in litres per100 km.

In all countries the specific consumptionof cars has decreased since 2000, from0.6%/ year in France, Spain and Portugalto 3.1%/year in Morocco. There arehowever large discrepancies amongcountries in specific consumption: from10 l/100 km in Lebanon to 4l/100 km inItaly; the difference is mainly due to thesize and age of cars, as in Italy cars aremainly small cars while in Lebanon,households have larger and older cars(12 years on average) (Figure 59).

The implementation of policies toimprove cars’ efficiency is still in an earlystage in southern countries. A firstsolution should be to promote new andefficient cars. In recent years, Morocco,Tunisia and Algeria have banned theimport of old vehicles (over 3 to 5 yearsdepending on the country).

Through the imports of new vehicles,Southern countries benefit also from theinformation on specific fuel consumption(and CO2), from the mandatoryEuropean energy label.

Periodic technical inspection is nowcompulsory in all Southern countries.Tunisia has also developed a program toraise awareness of efficient driving fortransport companies, public companies,driving instructors etc.

Another axis consists in promotingpublic transport in urban areas, with thedefinition of strategies for urbantransport and investment planning. InTunisia, the establishment of an urbanmobility plan in large cities is nowrecognized as a key energy efficiencyaction. But its impact has not yet beenevaluated.

51


Figure 60: Technical improvements for new cars (litre/ 100 km) (2010)

For new vehicles, the specific fuel consumptionin litres per 100 km varies between 8 l/100 kmin Lebanon and 5 l/100 km in Italy and Algeria.On average a new car consumes about 25%

less than the fleet average. The gradualreplacement of the existing fleet by moreefficient vehicles will improve the averageenergy efficiency of the stock (Figure 60:).

Figure 61: Decomposition of the variation of the consumption of cars (2000-2010)

Given the rapid increase in the consumption ofcars, it is interesting to identify which factorsare responsible for the growth in consumption.

The variation in the consumption of cars canbe explained by different factors: on the onehand, the growth in population, in the carownership and in the distance travelled by carsand, on the other hand, lower specific fuelconsumption (energy savings).

In all countries the increase in the number ofhouseholds (population) contributes to the

growth of the consumption of cars. Theincrease in the number of cars per household(equipment ownership) has a significant impactespecially in Southern countries. Energyefficiency improvements, measured from thedecrease in the specific consumption in litreper 100 km, contribute to limit in all countriesthe increasing fuel consumption. The distancetravelled tends to increase the consumption inmost countries (except in France, Greece andAlgeria in the recent years) (Figure 61).


52


5

5.2.2. Trucks

Figure 62: Trends in the unit consumption of trucks (%/year, 2000-2010)

The most relevant indicator for assessingthe energy efficiency of trucks is theenergy consumption per unit of traffic,measured in koe per tonne-kilometre(tkm). This ratio is influenced by twofactors: the average annual consumptionper vehicle on one side (toe per vehicle),reflecting energy efficiency, and theaverage load factor of trucks (tkm pervehicle).

In all countries , the energy consumptionper unit of traffic has increasedsignificantly over the period 2000-2010except in France; improvements in theenergy efficiency of vehicles (toe pervehicle) was not enough to offset thelower load factor rate due to poormanagement of fleet in Southerncountries and the economic crisis in EUcountries (Figure 62).

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Figure 63: Share of air transport in energy consumption of transport

The share of air transport ranges from 5% ofthe consumption of transport in Algeria tomore than 15% in Spain and Portugal. Airtransport is closely linked to the developmentof tourism. In 2010, there was a fairly sharpdecline for air transport in half of the countries

due to the economic and financial crisis thataffected many countries (Figure 63). Meanwhilein all countries, the number of passengers isgrowing rapidly: 8% per year for Morocco, 6%/year in Lebanon, 4.4%/year in Italy and Greece,3.5%/year Spain and Portugal.

Figure 64: Energy consumption of air transport per passenger (toe/passenger)

Unit consumption of air transport (defined asa ratio between the energy consumption andthe number of passengers carried) tends to

decrease in most countries, mainly duetechnical progress with new aircrafts (Figure64).

5.3. Air transport


54

6. Energy efficiency in industry

6.1. Consumption patterns

In all countries except Tunisia, the shareof industry in the final energyconsumption is declining. Thecontribution of industry is low inLebanon (12%), because the activity ofthis sector is traditionally less developed;it is on the opposite high in Tunisia (35%).

It fell sharply in Lebanon (-10 points),after the war with Israel in 2005-2006,with the destruction of many industrialinfrastructures, and to a lesser extent inItaly, France and Greece due to theeconomic crisis and the increasing trendof the service sector (Figure 65).

Energy efficiency in industry

6

Figure 65: Share of industry in the final energy consumption

Oil is the main energy consumed inindustry in Morocco, Greece and Tunisia(respectively 66%, 44% and 33%). InAlgeria and Spain, natural gas has thehighest market share (59% and 44%). InFrance and Italy, the mix between gas and electricity is more balanced

(1/3 of consumption each). In Lebanon,electricity accounts for over 50% of theconsumption, against only 20% in 2000(Figure 66). The share of electricity hasrisen everywhere, especially in Lebanon,Greece, Morocco and Italy.

Figure 66: Energy consumption of industry by energy source (2000, 2010)


Figure 67: Energy intensity trends in industry (%/year, 2000-2010)

The energy intensity of industry, calculated asthe ratio between the energy consumption andthe value added, decreased in five countries (bymore than 5%/year in Lebanon and Greece,between 1 and 1.6%/year in Algeria, Italy andFrance) (Figure 67). In Spain and Portugal, theintensities have been increasing (byrespectively 0.5% and 1% a year), and especiallysince 2008 due to the economic crisis (+2.8%per year); during a recession, energy

consumption does not follow the decline in theindustrial activity because of a lower efficiencyof equipment that are no longer operating atfull capacity and because part of theconsumption is not directly linked to theactivity. The economic crisis has severally hitindustry in Europe, especially energy intensiveindustries (primary metals and non metallicminerals).

Figure 68: Energy intensive branches in industry (2000, 2010)

The share of energy intensive branches inindustry consumption varies from 30% inGreece to over 60% in Lebanon (50% onaverage in the 9 countries). This share fellsharply in European countries hit by the

economic crisis (-9 points in Greece, - 5 pointsin Spain and -2 points in France). In Southerncountries, cement is by far the dominantbranch (30-45%) with an increasing share(Figure 68).

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56

The energy intensity of manufacturinghas been decreasing in Greece, Lebanon,France and Italy (Figure 52). On theopposite it increased in Spain, Moroccoand significantly in Algeria. The variationsobserved for the total industry (Figure

69) are smoother than for manufacturingbecause of the construction sector,which has a significant weight in theindustrial value added but a low energyconsumption.


6

Figure 69: Trends in manufacturing industries (2000-2010)

Trends in the energy intensity of themanufacturing industry are influenced bythe decrease of the intensities at branchlevel (chemicals, minerals non metallic,food processing, textiles, etc. ..) whichcorresponds to energy savings, but alsoby changes in the structure of valueadded by branch ("structural effect"); in

countries with an increasing share ofenergy intensive branches in the valueadded, the energy intensity should, allthings being equal, increase. On theopposite, a greater specializationtowards less intensive branches such astextile or electrical equipment willreduce the energy intensity.

The variations in energy intensity bybranch should reflect the impact ofenergy savings from policies andmeasures implemented.

In southern countries, only Tunisia andAlgeria have implemented measures inthe industrial sector. Tunisia has sincemany years implemented variousmeasures for large consumers withprogramme contracts, including financialsubsidies for energy audits andinvestments, mainly financed by a nationalfund, FNME. In Algeria, mandatory auditsand grants for audits are planned in thenational Law.

In Europe, the measures implemented inindustry mainly consist of financialsupport to support energy efficiencyinvestments, of voluntary agreements(with tax exemption, especially in thenorthern EU countries) or marketmechanisms (CO2 emissions quotas).

In Europe and Tunisia, energy servicecompanies (ESCO) offer a wide range ofsolutions to realize energy savings (audit,designs and implementation of energysavings projects); they get reimbursed fortheir investments through the financialsavings on the energy bill according toconditions fixed in a contract.

6.2. Sectoral intensities


Figure 70: Energy intensities by branch (%/year, 2000-2010)

Over the period 2000-2010, the sectoralintensities have decreased in Greece, Italy,France and Lebanon in most branches, at

different rates according to countries orbranches (Figure 70). In Spain, Algeria andMorocco, trends are reversed25.

57

25 In Algeria and Morocco, energy intensities by branch should be taken with caution. In Algeria, the incomplete coverage of theprivate sector overestimates the intensities. In Spain, the crisis is mainly responsible for the deterioration of the energy efficiencyin some branches.


58

As explained above, changes in theenergy intensity of manufacturing reflectboth the effect of changes in sectoralintensities but also the impact ofstructural changes, i.e. changes in thecontribution of each branch in the valueadded of manufacturing. To separate theimpact of these two factors, an intensityat constant structure has beencalculated; it represents a fictitiousintensity that would have been observedif the structure of the value addedbetween the different branches hadremained constant. The variation of theintensity at constant structure betterreflects energy efficiency progress. The

difference between trends in the actualintensity and the intensity at constantstructure measures the effect ofstructural changes.

In southern countries, structural changesled to an energy intensity increase,because of a growing contribution ofenergy intensive branches: in Algeria,structural changes account for aroundone third of the intensity increase; inTunisia structural changes cancelled theeffect of the reduction in sectoralintensities. In France and Greece, thestructural changes have been marginal(Figure 71).


6

Figure 71: Structural effect in manufacturing industry (%/year ; 2000-2010)

Energy-intensive industries (steel,cement, phosphates) represent onaverage 50% of the consumption of the 9 countries.

The specific consumption per tonne of

cement is defined as the amount ofenergy consumed to produce one ton ofcement. In the cement industry, theenergy intensive component is clinker26.

Morocco appears as the benchmark, with

26 Cement results from a mixture of clinker (80-90%) and additives, such as ashes. The clinker results from thecooking of a mixture made up of approximately 75% of limestone and 25% of silica and its production in kilns isthe main source of energy consumption in cement production; the remainder is the consumption of electricityfor grinding the clinker and the additives.

6.3. Impact of structural changes in manufacturing

6.4. Specific consumption of intensive industries: case of cement


Figure 72: Specific fuel consumption for clinker production

*Algérie: 2005

the lowest consumption per tonne (0.07 toeper tonne). Trends are very different among thecountries: decreasing specific consumption inTunisia and Portugal; increasing values in Italy,Spain and France, because of the economic

crisis in 2008, which, on the one hand, reducedthe production without cutting the fixedconsumption, and deteriorated the efficiencyof the kilns which did not work at fullcapacity27 (Figure 72).

Figure 73: Specific consumption of cement (2010)

The energy performance of cementproduction is linked to the share of clinkerproduced in the country in relation to thecement production: the higher this ratio, the

higher the specific energy consumption.Distance to the red line (best practice)indicates the potential of energy savings (Figure73).

59

27 An empirical study on cement factories in Thailand during the 1998 economic crisis showed that a fall of activity of 40% involveda rise of specific consumption per ton produced of 25% (and of 40% for a fall of activity of 60%) (Source W Eichhammer,Fraunhofer ISI).

Note: the red line represents the best practice


60

7. Energy efficiency in services

7.1. Overall trends

The service sector, also called tertiary oralso commercial and public sector, ismade of different activities, includingtrade, tourism (hotels, restaurants),

education, health, administrations, offices(financial institutions and other privateservices). Public lighting is also includedin the consumption of this sector.

Energy efficiency in services

7

Figure 74: Share of services in final energy consumption

The energy consumption of the servicessector has been increasing rapidly,especially for electricity. Therefore, theshare of the tertiary sector in the finalenergy consumption grew in all countriesbetween 2000 and 2010, and in particular

in Spain and Greece (Figure 74). Insouthern countries, the share of thetertiary sector is significantly lower thanin EU countries: about 6% of the finalconsumption (4% in Morocco), against10-16% in EU countries.

Trades and administrations represent alarge share of the consumption of thetertiary sector in all countries: around35% in Algeria, Lebanon and Tunisia, 50%in Morocco. In Spain, administrations andprivate offices represent around half of

the consumption in 2010 (25% inFrance). Tourism (hotels and restaurants)represents over 20% of the consumptionin Lebanon and one third in Morocco(Figure 75).


Figure 75: Energy consumption of services by branch

Note : France, Spain : private offices are included in “public offices” ; public lighting including in « others ».

Figure 76: Energy consumption, value added and employment in services (2000-2010)

In Algeria and Morocco, the energyconsumption of the tertiary sector grew veryrapidly (respectively by 7 and 6%/year since2000), at a higher rate than the value added(respectively 6.5 and 4.5%/year), whileemployment rose slightly (1.5%/year). InTunisia, Greece and Lebanon, consumptiongrew between 3.5 and 4.5%/year while thevalue added increased more rapidly, by 6%/yearfor (2.5%/year for employment). In thesecountries, tourism (Tunisia, Greece) and the

financial sector (Lebanon) are two sectors thatpull up consumption, mainly because of airconditioning and other specific uses ofelectricity. In EU countries, the energyconsumption in services kept on growingrapidly in Spain and Italy, in particular forelectricity, while in France and Portugal,consumption increased less rapidly(respectively 2%/year in France, 1.2%/ year inPortugal) (Figure 76).

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62

Ener

gy efficien

cy in

ser

vice

s

7

Figure 77: Energy intensity of services

In all countries, electricity is the mainenergy source consumed: the share ofelectricity in the total energyconsumption is around 40% in France,Italy and Algeria and even represents 3/4of the consumption in Portugal, Greeceand Morocco (2010). Trends in theelectricity consumption can be explainedin all countries by the diffusion of newoffice equipment and communicationtool (internet, new types oftelecommunications) as well as by theincreasing use of air conditioning.

Electricity consumption has howeverdeclined in Greece and Spain since 2008(respectively by 4.4%/year and 1.1%/year)because of the economic crisis; for theother European countries, the electricity

consumption growth has slowed downbecause of the crisis but also thanks toenergy efficiency measures implementedin buildings (thermal regulations, energyaudits, energy performance contracts,etc.). The new European Directive onEnergy Efficiency (EED) puts moreemphasis on energy efficiency in thetertiary sector, with a particular focus onthe leading role of the public sector.

The energy intensity of service variesgreatly from one country to the other;there exists a factor 2 of differencebetween Greece and Morocco whichhave the lowest intensity, and France andItaly, which have the highest intensity, inparticular because of greater heatingneeds in both countries (Figure 77).


Figure 78: Trends in energy intensity of services (2000-2010)

Figure 79: Electricity consumption per employee (kWh/employee)

Changes in intensities are very differentaccording to countries: strong increase in Italyand Morocco, slower growth in Spain, Algeriaand France or, on the opposite, decreasingtrends in Tunisia, Lebanon, Portugal and

Greece. In most countries, electricity intensitytend to increase more rapidly than the totalintensity, except in Greece, Tunisia andLebanon, where electricity intensities has beendecreasing (Figure 78).

The electricity consumption per employee inthe tertiary sector increased in all countries,driven by improved comfort and the rapiddevelopment of information technology andcommunication (ICT), particularly related tointernet (Figure 79). There exist importantdiscrepancies in the levels observed: Moroccohas the lowest consumption per employee

(1200 kWh/employee in 2010), while, on theopposite, EU countries reach a level ofapproximately 5000 kWh/employee. Even ifenergy consumption per employee is currentlymuch lower in the South, it also grows muchmore rapidly driven by the rapid economicgrowth.

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64

7.2. Unit consumption by branch

Energy efficien

cy in

services

7

Figure 80: Electricity consumption by branch and per employee (2010)

consumption by employee. Inadministrations, there is a factor 3difference between Morocco (2000 kWh/employee) and Tunisia (6000 kWh/employee) or France. Thisfactor reaches 6 if we consider Algeriawhich has a very low consumption (1000 kWh/employee)28. For trade, thedifference between Southern countries

and EU is very clear, with a factor 4difference between the average unitconsumption of the 2 sub regions. Theonly branch which has morehomogeneous results is health, with anaverage consumption of 3000 kWh peremployee in most countries (except inTunisia with 1800 kWh) (Figure 80).

The tourism sector is a key sector inSouthern countries. The most relevantindicator for this sector is the ratiobetween the energy consumption ofhotels, restaurants and the number ofperson-nights, since the consumption ofhotels is dominant.

For countries for which information isavailable, the electricity consumption perperson-night reaches on average 25 kWh/person-night, except for Francewhere it is around 54 kWh/person-night.There is a factor 3 difference between

the country with the lowestconsumption per person-night (Moroccowith 18 kWh) and France (this factor isreduced to 2.5 if electricity consumptionfor heating is removed for France, aselectric heating represent 6% of theconsumption of the branch) (Figure 64).These figures are still veryheterogeneous according to the type ofhotel as energy consumption is relatedto the category of hotel and the servicesthey offer.

7.2.1. Tourism

28 Comparisons by branch should be considered with caution. In fact, the data on employment in Southern countriesseem to be underestimated.


Figure 81: Electricity unit consumption of hotels-restaurants per person-night (2010)

Figure 82: Unit consumption for the health sector per bed in hospitals

In the health sector, the most importantindicator is the unit consumption per bed,because of the dominant consumption forhospitals (Figure 82). There is a factor 4 difference between the electricityconsumption per bed in Morocco (6300 kWh)

and France (26,000 kWh). Such differences aremainly linked to the category ofestablishments: public hospitals, private clinicsand types of structure (general health,specialized institutions etc.).

65

7.2.2. Health sector


66

8. Energy efficiency in agriculture

8.1. Overall trends

The consumption of agriculture, fisheriesand forests generally represents a smallshare of the final energy consumption,around 2-3% in the EU (except Greecewhere it is around 4%) and Algeria. It ismore significant in Morocco with 14%,

and to a lesser extent, in Lebanon andTunisia (6-7%). In all countries exceptLebanon, the contribution of agricultureis declining, especially in Spain (-3 points),Greece and Morocco (-2 points) (Figure83).

Energy efficiency in agriculture

8

Figure 83: Share of agriculture in final energy consumption

Figure 84: Share of value added of agriculture in GDP

Agriculture however, plays an importanteconomic role in southern countries: itsvalue added represents more than 10%of GDP in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia(16% in Morocco in 2010) even if this

share tends to decrease (except Tunisia)(Figure 84). In Morocco and Tunisia, thevalue added of agriculture grew by morethan 6%/year from 2000 to 2010.


Figure 85: Consumption of agriculture by fuel (2010)

Figure 86: Energy intensity of agriculture

Oil is the main energy consumed in theagriculture sector, with fuel for tractors, fishingboats and pumps (diesel and LPG) (from 35%in Lebanon to 92% in Morocco). Electricity isused mainly for livestock farms and waterpumps for the irrigation of cultivated area(Figure 85).

Agriculture, which includes farms, livestock andirrigation, is the most important part of theagricultural sector in tem of energyconsumption. In Tunisia, fishing representsapproximately 20% of the consumption ofagriculture, against 2% to 5% in Lebanon andMorocco (2010).

The intensities of agriculture are relativelysimilar in most EU countries. Agriculture isvery intensive in Lebanon due to irrigation(more than half of the agricultural area is

irrigated) and France. Algeria has a very lowintensity, because this sector is stillunderdeveloped (Figure 86).

67


68

8.2. Indicators by branch

The analysis of the energy efficiencyperformance has been mainly done forthe southern countries, as the weight of

this sector is marginal in the EU, both interms of energy consumption and valueadded29.

The agricultural area per capita is fivetimes greater in Tunisia than in Lebanon(5000 m2 per capita against 1000 m2/inhabitant) and 2.5 times higherthan in Morocco and Algeria. Between2000 and 2010, the agricultural area per

capita declined in all countries. Irrigatedareas are significantly greater in Lebanon,with consequent high energy and waterconsumption, which explain the highenergy intensity level of for this country(Figure 87).


8

Figure 87: Cultivated area per inhabitant and % of irrigated area

Figure 88: Number of tractors per 1000 inhabitants

Tunisia has the highest number oftractors per capita with more than 7 per1000 inhabitants, against 3.5-4 for

Morocco and Lebanon and 2.5 forAlgeria (Figure 88).

8.2.1. Agriculture30

29 Any detailed data on agriculture are collected in the EU project ODYSSEE MURE. 30 Without fishing.


Figure 89: Energy consumption of agriculture per hectare (toe/ha)

Figure 90: Energy consumption of agriculture per hectare: average and irrigated area (2010)*

Energy consumption of agriculture per areasown varies greatly from one country toanother; this ratio is roughly the same in Tunisiaand Morocco (0.2 toe per hectare in 2010), 0.5toe in Algeria and 1.4 toe in Lebanon, that is to

say a factor 7 difference with Tunisia andMorocco (Figure 89). Such results can beexplained by the higher proportion of irrigatedarea in Lebanon (50% of the sown area in2010)

More significant differences between countriescan be observed for pumping. Energyconsumption for pumping is close to 1 toe/irrigated hectare in Morocco against

0.6 toe in Tunisia (Figure 90). Although irrigatedagriculture consumes more energy, it is a top-priority of the government to alleviate povertyand ensures food security.

69

Note : 2008 for Tunisia


70

For fishing, the most important indicatoris the energy consumption per ton offishes. This ratio reaches 0.9 toe/t inTunisia and 0.65 toe in Morocco (2010).A study from the Tunisian Agency ANMEdemonstrates that this ratio greatly

depends on the type of fishing: forexample, in Tunisia, the energyconsumption for fishing fire is around 0.3toe / ton against 2.2 toe / ton for a fishingtrawler (Figure 91).


8

Figure 91: Unit consumption per tonne of fish

8.2.2. Fishing

Note : Data for Tunisia from ANME (2007)

71


• Tunisia : national energy efficiency policies, NEJIB OSMAN/JUILLET 2012 http://www.global-chance.org/IMG/pdf/GC32p69-77.pdf

• ODYSSEE MURE brochures on energy efficiencyhttp://www.odyssee-indicators.org/publications/publications.php

• Energy efficiency in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean countrieshttp://www.est-testnet.net/servlet/getDoc?sort=-1&cid=96&m=3&id=82903&ref=&nocache=yes&p1=111

Bibliographie et références

9

9. Bibliography and References


72

Annex : Organization of the MEDENER

project on energy efficiency indicators

10

10. Annex : Organization of the MEDENER project on energy efficiency indicators

The MEDENER project on energyefficiency indicators has four mainobjectives:

- train experts from national energyagencies, especially for Morocco(ADEREE) and Lebanon (ALMEE); theother agencies in Tunisia (ANME) andAlgeria (APRUE) already have a goodknowledge of energy efficiencyindicators .

- organize data collection andinterpretation of energy efficiencyindicators.

- create two databases for Morocco andLebanon on energy consumption bysector and their determinants; Tunisiaand Algeria have recently benefitedfrom the assistance of ADEME on thispurpose.

- Disseminate through the database andreports, and present energy efficiencytrends in the Southern and EasternMediterranean countries.

• Training experts from national agencies on energy e"ciency policies• Training materials available since the beginning of the project

• Assistance in data collection (on-site visits, hot line)• Support to the interpretation of energy e"ciency indicators (seminars, missions)• Assistance in the preparation of national reports• Assistance in organizing and structuring data with the creation of two national databases

on energy consumptions and their determinants for the two countries which have no databases (Morocco, Lebanon)

Formation

Assistance

Experts Formation

Assistance

DataUpdate Data

Tests

IndicatorsRatioCalculation

Data developped

Dissémination

Bases de données nationales(Maroc / Liban)

Datamapper sur les indicateursd’e"cacité énergétique des paysméditerranéen

Rapports d’analyse sur lestendances d’e"cacité énergétique

Bases de données nationales(Maroc / Liban)

Datamapper sur les indicateursd’e"cacité énergétique des paysméditerranéen

Rapports d’analyse sur lestendances d’e"cacité énergétique

73


a) Training

Training of different experts in charge of theproject was a first step. Training materialsadapted to the Mediterranean context wereproduced by the technical coordinators(Enerdata and Alcor) which have a solidexperience in energy efficiency evaluation indifferent countries around the world, and byADEME who brought its experience onindicators.

A first training was organized close-to-close tothe first workshop, with a presentation of themain energy efficiency indicators usually usedthat will be also developed under the project.The training was designed for experts that hadlittle knowledge on energy efficiencyindicators, or to enhance the knowledge ofother experts. All the presentations were donewith Powerpoint, organized by sectorpresenting key performance indicators whichcan be relevant for the Mediterranean area ,with emphasis on definitions and concepts andillustration through several case studies.

The first training covered the following points:

i . Usual descriptive indicators (energyintensity, specific fuel consumption), focusingon their interpretation and limits.

ii . Measurement of energy efficiency savingsand gains, based on the methodologydeveloped several years ago in the

framework of the ODYSSEE-MURE projecton indicators and the European DirectiveESD; this part of the training has beenintroduced and has been further developedduring the second seminar .

iii . Adjusted indicators for internationalcomparisons (why and how adjustments aremade ? ).

A second training was conducted on datacollection during the second meeting of theproject. The objective of the training was todescribe in detail the useful data by sector toanalysis energy demand and calculate energyefficiency indicators.

The other project meetings also enabled theteams to strengthen their capacity, analysis andinterpretation of indicator trends. In particular,agency representatives were asked to prepareseveral presentations based on the results fortheir countries with the assistance of thetechnical coordination for reviewing.

Finally, assistance was provided by the technicalcoordination for the preparation of thenational reports by providing a very detailedtemplate.

Training on indicators has been continuousthroughout the project through an hot lineservice proposed by the technicalcoordination.

b) Data collection

The collection of data required for thecalculation of indicators began with thecreation of an Excel template. This file is basedon the file available for the EU countries in theframework of the European model ODYSSEEMURE project, but adapted to the energysituation of the Mediterranean countries.Energy agencies have been guided throughoutthe project to fill in this file by collectinginformation in their country , or by applyingmethods of estimation/modeling in case ofmissing data (eg consumption of energy use inthe residential).

All the indicators are calculated in the Exceltemplate and are clearly visible.

The teams were throughout backed by thetechnical coordination of the project, eitherthrough on-site visits or hot lines throughemails to help identify existing data sources,organize, collect information. Several meetingshave been held in Lebanon and Morocco tomonitor progress and assist them in modelingnone available data


74

Annex : Organization of the MEDENER

project on energy efficiency indicators

10

c) Creation of national databases

For Morocco and Lebanon, Enerdata hasdeveloped two national databases, whichhas been adapted to the specificities ofeach country. These databases weretransferred to the two agencies, whichare responsible for managing andupdating them. These databases areprotected by a password, which

guarantees the confidentiality of theinformation contained in the interface.These databases are user-friendly andeasily accessible and are a good way tocommunicate and disseminateinformation collected as part of thisproject.

Screenshots of homepages for the national databases for Lebanon and Morocco


75

d) Dissemination

An interactive database has been developped; main indicators are presented throughmaps ("DataMapper") and available on the website.

Datamapper on main energy efficiency indicators for 9 Southern and EasternMediterranean countries

Tendances de l’efficacité énergétique dans les pays du bassin méditerranéen

76

Founded in 1997 as an international non- profit organization, it brings together 12 nationalenergy efficiency agencies, around the Mediterranean. In enlargement perspectives, theassociation is bound to extend to other countries such as Turkey and Egypt.

MEDENER, regional platform of expertise, aims to promote exchanges of experiences and bestpractices, know-how transfer and methods for energy efficiency and renewable energies. It alsosupports the development of sector programmes, regional pilot projects and adaptation of toolsand standards in the field of energy management. The association participates in the work carriedout within the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM), including the Mediterranean Solar Plan, andhas thus become a key player in the energy transition in the Mediterranean. MEDENER networkis chaired for two years alternately on a rota basis by the agencies of North and South of theMediterranean.

As part of its support and energy policies monitoring activities, MEDENER has established aregional observatory for monitoring energy efficiency trends in the Mediterranean based on theexpertise of national teams in the country.

For two years (2012-2014) first MED-IEE (Energy Efficiency indicators for Mediterraneancountries) project was carried out by the MEDENER network teams. Through this first regionalreport, trends in energy efficiency in the Mediterranean region are illustrated, through the workundertaken in this project that was coordinated by ADEME and ANME. It has allowed theestablishment of similar national and regional databases on energy efficiency indicators forMorocco and Lebanon, as well as the development of common indicators for all Mediterraneancountries in an accessible regional basis. The interpretation of the evolution of these indicatorshas also been national reports.

A second phase will be initiated with new countries, in which more detailed indicators will beestablished, including climate indicators.

ISBN 978-2-35838-673-9Ref.: 8178

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