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REPORTS OF INTERNATIONALARBITRAL AWARDS

RECUEIL DES SENTENCESARBITRALES

Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission - Final Award - Ethiopia's Damages Claims

17 August 2009

XXVI pp. 631-770VOLUME

NATIONS UNIES - UNITED NATIONSCopyright (c) 2009

ParT XViii

Final Award Ethiopia’s Damages Claims

Decision of 17 August 2009

Sentence finale Réclamations de l’Éthiopie

Décision du 17 août 2009

PartXVIII—finalAWARD ethiopia’sdamagesclaims 633

FinalAward,Ethiopia’sDamagesClaimsDecisionof17August2009

Sentencefinale,Réclamationsdedommagesdel’Éthiopie,Décisiondu17août2009

Thefinalawardsonclaims fordamagescomplete theCommission’swork—exceptforadministrati�ematters,dispositionofitsarchi�esandpotentialpost-Awardmatters .

Compensationcanonlybeawardedwhere there is e�idence sufficient in thecircumstancestoestablishtheextentofdamagecausedbyconducttheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundtoha�e�iolatedinternationallaw .TheawardsprobablydonotreflectthetotalityofdamagessufferedbyeitherPartybutratherthedamagesthatcouldbeestablishedwithsufficientcertaintythrougha�ailablee�idenceincomplexinterna-tionallegalproceedingsbetweenPartieswithmodestresourcesandlimitedtime .

E�idenceofphysicaldamage tobuildingsand infrastructure ismorereadilygatheredandpresentedthane�idenceoftheextentof injuries, includingphysical,economicandmoralinjuries,tolargenumbersofindi�iduals .Thereisnosharpdis-tinctionbetweenlossofpropertyanddeathorpersonalinjuryinpoorcountrieswheresecurityofpropertyisoften�italtosur�i�al .Awardsforlossordestructionofpropertyfrequentlystemfromseriousthreatstophysicalintegrity .

Thecompensationclaimsareentirelyfor�iolationsoflawsufferedbytheStatepartyratherthanclaimsonbehalfofitsnationals .Thecompensationawardedreflectstheseriousnessofthose�iolationsandtheireffectsontheClaimantStatePartyratherthanappropriatecompensationforindi�idual�ictims .

On13April2006,theCommissionestablishedasimplified“fast-track”dam-agesphase,in�ol�ingalimitednumberoflegalpleadingsande�idenceaswellasatightscheduleofhearings,tolimitthesignificantfinancialandotherburdensimposeduponbothParties .TheCommissionalsoreiterateditsrecurringconcernthatproceedsaccruingfromthedamagesproceedingsbeusedbythePartiestoassistci�ilian�ictimsoftheconflict .

The Parties’ limited economic capacity is rele�ant in determining damagesclaims .ThereisanintersectionofthelawofStateresponsibilitywithfundamentalhumanrightsnorms .ThefundamentalhumanrightslawruleofcommonArticle1(2)oftheInternationalCo�enantsisapplicabletothePartiesnotwithstandingthedele-tionofthisqualificationbytheInternationalLawCommission(ILC)intheArticlesonStateResponsibility .Thereisnoneedtodecidethequestionofapossiblecapondamages in lightof thePartiesobligationsunderhumanrights lawinthepresentcircumstances .

TheParties’o�eralleconomicpositionisalsorele�anttodeterminingcompensa-tionfor�iolationsofjus in bello.ThepurposeofcompensationpayablebyaresponsibleStateistowipeoutallconsequencesoftheillegalactandreestablishthepreexistingsit-uation(Chorzów FactoryandILCArticlesonStateResponsibility,art .31) .DiplomaticprotectionclaimsbyaStateonbehalfofitsnationalsarebasedoninjurytotheState,

634 ERITREA/ETHIOPIA

buttheextentofinjurytoaffectedindi�idualscanplayasignificantroleinassessingtheState’sinjury .Compensationhasalimitedrolewhichisremedial,notpuniti�e .Insituationsin�ol�ingdiplomaticprotection,compensationmustbeassessedinlightofthesocialandeconomiccircumstancesoftheinjuredindi�idualsinrespectofwhomtheStateisclaiming .Compensationdeterminedinaccordancewithinternationallawcannotremedytheworld’seconomicdisparities .

Theinternationallawrulegi�ingbindingeffecttomattersalreadyauthoritati�elydecided(res judicata)hasparticularrele�anceatthisstageoftheproceedings .TheCommission’spre�iousfindingsonclaimsof�iolationsofinternationallawarefinalandbinding,anddefinetheextentofpossibledamages .CompensationcanonlybeawardedforinjurieswhichbearasufficientlyclosecausalconnectionwithconductthattheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundto�iolateinternational law .ThetaskoftheCommissionatthisphaseisnottore�iseorexpanditspriorfindingsonliability,buttoapplythosefindingsindeterminingappropriatecompensation .

TheCommissionrequiredclearandcon�incinge�idencethatdamageoccurred,butlessrigorousproofforpurposesofthequantificationofdamageswhichrequiresexercisesofjudgmentandapproximation .TheCommissionrecognizeditsobligationtodetermineappropriatecompensation,e�eniftheprocessin�ol�esestimation,ore�enguesswork,withintherangeofpossibilitiesindicatedbythee�idence .TheCom-mission further took intoaccounta trade-off fundamental torecent internationaleffortstoaddressinjuriesaffectinglargenumberof�ictims .Compensationle�elswerethusreduced,balancinguncertaintiesflowingfromthelowerstandardofproof .

Compensationcanonlybeawardedinrespectofdamagesha�ingasufficientcausalconnectionwithconductthat�iolatesinternationallaw .Thenecessarycon-nectioncharacterizedbytheterm“proximatecause”requiresachainofcausationsufficientlycloseinaparticularsituation,takingintoaccountwhethertheparticulardamageshouldha�ebeenreasonablyforeseeabletoanactorcommittingtheinterna-tionaldelictinquestion .

Determiningcompensationinlargeinter-Stateclaimsisnotamechanicalproc-ess .TheCommissionconsideredmultiplefactors,includingthenature,seriousnessandextentofparticularunlawfulacts,whethertheactswereintentionalaswellasanymitigatingorextenuatingcircumstances .Italsoconsideredthenumberofpersonswhowere�ictimsofparticular�iolationsandtheimplicationsfortheirfutureli�es .

TheCommissiondecidednottoawardinterestsincetheclaimsandawardsarebroadlysimilar;interestonthecompensationwouldnotmateriallyaltertheParties’economicpositions;theamountsawardedinmanycasesreflectestimatesandapproxi-mateswhichmilitatesagainstinterest;andthePartiesha�ebeendiligentandcoopera-ti�ewithnoprejudiceresultingfromdilatoryconduct .

Pastdecisionandpracticesuggestelementsofalegalframeworkforanalyzingcompensationclaimsfor�iolationsof jus ad bellum,butoffer limitedguidance indeterminingthecompensationdueonaccountofsucha�iolation .TheCommissionfound,liketheU .S—GermanMixedClaimsCommission,thatresponsibilityofa�io-lationofjus ad bellumdoesnotextendtoalllossesanddisruptionsaccompanyinganinternationalconflict .Sufficientcausalconnectionmustbeestablishedbetweenthedelictandtheinjury .TheCommissionhasinthisregardassessedwhetherparticularconsequenceswere,orshouldha�ebeen,foreseenbyEritrea’sleadersintheexercise


ofreasonablejudgementatthetimeofEritrea’sdelictinMay1998 .Thetestofforesee-abilityshouldextendtoabroaderrangeofoutcomesthanmightneedtobeconsid-eredinalessmomentoussituation .Howe�er,ifallresultsareforeseeable,thetestismeaningless .SignificantweightwasplacedbytheCommissionontheseriousnessofadecisiontoresorttolarge-scaleuseofforce .Suchadecisionplacesahea�yobligationontheactingState’sleaderstoanalyzeandweighcarefullythepotentialconsequencesoftheirintendedaction .Inthisregard,aStatechoosingtoresorttoforcein�iolationofthejus ad bellumbearsresponsibilityfortheforeseeableresultsboththatitdesires,andthose itdoesnot .Liability forcertaintypesofdamages isnotsubject totimelimitation,notablyinjuriescausedbylandminesanddocumentedcostsofcareforinternallydisplacedpersons .

TheCommissionweighedse�eralfactorsinassessingtheamountofcompensa-tionthatshouldfollowfromabreachofjus ad bellum.TheCommissionconsideredwhetherdamagesshouldser�etheexceptionalpurposeofdeterringfuture�iolationsofArticle2,paragraph4oftheCharteroftheUnitedNations,orifitshouldser�ethemorecon�entionalpurposeofpro�idingappropriatecompensation .TheCommissionfoundthelattertobeitsresponsibility .Astodeterrence,theCommissionexpresseddoubtsthatpossibleawardsofmonetarycompensationwouldbelikelytodeteraStatecontemplatingactioninbreachofthejus ad bellum.Otherdeterrentsarefoundtherightsofindi�idualandcollecti�eself-defense,andintheriskofcriminalpunishmentofgo�ernmentofficialdecidingupontheunlawfulresorttoforce .Theprospectofpotentialmonetaryliabilitiesseemstobeoflittlecomparati�eweight .

TheCommissionfurtherconsideredwhetheranawardofcompensationshouldreflectaprecisequantificationofdamagecaused,nototherwisecompensableunderjus in bello,oramoregeneralassessmentofthecharacteroftheinjuryinflictedupontheStateofEthiopia .Theanswerwasdictatedbythenatureoftheclaimsandoftheunderlyinge�idence .

Ameasureofproportionmustbemaintainedbetweenthecharacterofthedelictandthecompensationdue .TheCommissionconsideredwhetheranawardofcompen-sationshouldbelimitedasnecessarytoensurethatthefinancialburdenimposedonEritreawouldnotbesoexcessi�e,gi�enEritrea’seconomiccondition,astoseriouslydamageitsabilitytomeetitspeople’sbasicneeds .Insituationsin�ol�ingunlawfuluseofforce,StatesandtheUnitedNationsha�ecreatedregimesoracceptedoutcomesin�ol�ingcompensationforfarlessthanthedamagecausedbytheunlawfuluseofforce .Cautioninsettingle�elsofcompensationshouldbeexercised,sothatprogramsofcompensationorreparationdonotthemsel�esundermineeffortstoaccomplishastablepeace .

Lestra�auxdelaCommissionsesontache�ésparlasentencefinalesurlesrécla-mationsdedommages,à l’exceptiondequestionsadministrati�es,dedispositionsrelati�esàsesarchi�esetd’é�entuellesquestionsseposantunefoislasentencepro-noncée .

Uneindemnisationnepeutêtreallouéequedanslecasoùl’étenduedudom-mage,causéparuncomportementpréalablementconsidéréparlaCommissioncom-mecontraireaudroit,aétésuffisammentprou�éeenl’espèce .LessentencesnereflètentassurémentpaslatotalitédesdommagessubisparchacunedesParties,maisplutôtles


dommagesquiontpuêtreétablisa�ecsuffisammentdecertitudeaumoyendespreu�esdisponiblesdanslecadredeprocéduresjudiciairesinternationalescomplexesentrePartiesnedisposantquederessourcesmodestesetdetempslimité .

Lapreu�edudommagematérielinfligéauxbâtimentsetinfrastructuresestplusaisémentréunieetprésentéequelapreu�edel’étenduedespréjudices,ycompriscor-porels,économiquesetmoraux,subisparungrandnombred’indi�idus . Iln’existepasdedistinctionclaireentrelapertedelapropriétéetledécèsoulepréjudicecorporeldanslespayspau�res,paysdanslesquelslagarantiedelapropriétéestsou�entindis-pensableà lasur�ie . Les indemnisationsaccordéespour laperteou ladestructiond’unepropriétédécoulentfréquemmentdemenacesgra�esàl’encontredel’intégritécorporelle .

Lesréclamationsd’indemnisationrelè�entpourlaplupartde�iolationsdudroitsubiesparl’EtatPartie,plutôtquederéclamationsintroduitesaunomdesesnationaux .L’indemnisationoctroyéereflèteda�antagelecaractèregra�edeces�iolationsainsique leurs effets sur l’EtatPartiedemandeurqu’une indemnisationappropriéedes�ictimesindi�iduelles .

Le13a�ril2006,laCommissionamisenplaceunephasesimplifiéeetaccéléréerelati�eauxdommages,impliquantunnombrelimitédeplaidoiriesetpreu�esainsiqu’unelisterestreinted’auditions,afindelimiterl’importantechargefinancièreetlesautreschargesimposéesauxdeuxParties . LaCommissionaégalementréitérésaconstantepréoccupationquelesproduitsdécoulantdesprocéduresd’indemnisationsoientutilisésparlesPartiespour�enirenaideaux�ictimesci�ilesduconflit .

La capacité économique limitée des Parties est un élément important àl’é�aluationdesréclamationsdedommages . Ledroitdelaresponsabilitédel’Etatetlesnormesfondamentalesdesdroitsdel’hommeserecoupent .Larègledesdroitsdel’hommefigurantàl’article1(2)communauxPactesinternationauxs’appliqueauxParties,nonobstantlefaitquelaCommissiondudroitinternational(CDI)n’yfaitpasréférencedanssesarticlessurlaresponsabilitédesEtats .Iln’estpasnécessairedeseprononcersurlaquestiondel’é�entualitéd’unplafonnementdesdommagesau�udesobligationsdécoulantdudroitdesdroitsdel’hommedanslescirconstancesdel’espèce .

LasituationéconomiquegénéraledesPartiesestégalementunélémentpertinentàladéterminationdel’indemnisationrelati�eaux�iolationsdujus in bello.Lebutdel’indemnisationexigibled’unEtatresponsableestd’effacertouteslesconséquencesdel’acteillégaletrétablirlasituationpréexistante(Affaire relative à l’usine de ChorzówetArticlesdelaCDIsurlaresponsabilitédesEtats,art .31) . BienquelesréclamationsdeprotectiondiplomatiqueintroduitesparunEtataubénéficedesesnationauxsefondentsurledommagecauséàl’Etatmême,l’étenduedupréjudicecauséauxindi-�idusaffectéspeutjouerunrôlesignificatifdansl’é�aluationdudommagecauséàl’Etat . L’indemnisationse limiteàunrôlecorrectif,etnonpunitif . Dans lessitua-tionsimpliquantlaprotectiondiplomatique,l’indemnisationdoitêtreé�aluéed’aprèslescirconstancessocialesetéconomiquesdesindi�iduslésésaunomdesquelsl’Etatréclameuneindemnisation .L’indemnisationdéterminéeen�ertududroitinterna-tionalnepeutremédierauxdisparitéséconomiquesdecemonde .

Larèglededroitinternationalconférantuneffetcontraignantauxaffairesbéné-ficiantdel’autoritédelachosejugée(res judicata)re�êtuneimportanceparticulièreà


cestadedelaprocédure .LesconclusionsantérieuresdelaCommissionsurlesrécla-mationsde�iolationsdudroitinternationalsontdéfiniti�esetcontraignantes,etdéfi-nissentl’étenduedesé�entuelsdommages . Uneindemnisationnepeutêtreattribuéequepourlesdommagesprésentantunliendecausalitésuffisammentétroita�eclecomportementquelaCommissionaprécédemmentjugé�iolantledroitinternational . Acestade,latâchedelaCommissionn’estpasdere�oiroud’étendresesprécédentesconclusionssurlaresponsabilité,maisd’appliquercesconclusionsdansladétermina-tiond’uneindemnisationappropriée .

LaCommissionaexigédespreu�esclairesetcon�aincantesdel’occurrencedudommage,maisdespreu�esmoinscontraignantespourcequiestdelaquantificationdudommage,quiappelleàdesexercicesdejugementetapproximation .LaCommis-sionareconnusonobligationdedétermineruneindemnisationcon�enable,mêmesi leprocédéimpliqueuneestimation,�oiremêmeuntra�aildesupposition,dansl’é�entaildescasdefigureindiquésparlapreu�e .LaCommissionaégalementprisencompteuncompromisfondamentalauxrécentseffortsinternationauxdepriseenconsidérationdespréjudicesaffectantungrandnombrede�ictimes .Ainsi,lesni�eauxd’indemnisation ont été réduits, pondérant les incertitudes découlant de critèresd’établissementdespreu�esmoinséle�és .

Uneindemnisationpeutuniquementêtreaccordéepourcequiestdedommagesprésentantunliendecausalitésuffisammentétroita�eclecomportement�iolantledroitinternational . Leliennécessaire,caractériséparlanotionde«causedirecte»,requière une chaîne de causes suffisamment proches dans une situation donnée, prenantenconsidérationsi ledommagespécifiqueauraitraisonnablementdûêtrepré�isiblepourunacteurcommettantledélitinternationalenquestion .

Ladéterminationdel’indemnitédanslecadredelargesréclamationsinteréta-tiques nes’effectuepasparunprocédémécanique .LaCommissionaconsidéréplu-sieursfacteurs,ycomprislanature,lagra�itéetl’étenduedecertainsactesillégaux,l’intentionnalitédecesderniers,ainsiquetoutecirconstanceatténuante .Elleaégale-mentconsidérélenombredepersonnes�ictimesde�iolationsparticulièresetlescon-séquencespourleur�iefuture .

LaCommissionadécidédenepasaccorderd’intérêtétantdonnéquelesréclama-tionsetlesréparationssontlargementsimilaires; unintérêtsurl’indemnitén’altéreraitpasmatériellementlasituationéconomiquedesParties;dansplusieurscas,lessom-mesattribuéesreflètentdesestimationsetapproximationsquimilitentàl’encontred’unintérêt;etlesPartiesontfaitpreu�edediligenceetdecoopérationsanspro�o-queraucunpréjudicerésultantd’uncomportementdilatoire .

Décisionsetpratiqueantérieuressuggèrent lesélémentsd’uncadrejuridiquepourl’analysedesréclamationsd’indemnisationsencasde�iolationdujus ad bel-lum,maisnefournissentquedes indications limitéesquantà ladéterminationdel’indemnisationduepourunetelle�iolation . LaCommissionaconsidéré,al’instardelaCommissionmixtederéclamations Etats-Unis—Allemagne,quelaresponsa-bilitépour la�iolationdu jus ad bellumnes’étendpasà l’ensembledespréjudicesetperturbationsdécoulantd’unconflitinternational . Unliendecausalitésuffisantdoitêtreétablientreledélitetledommage .Acetégard,laCommissionaé�aluésilesconséquencesparticulièresétaient,ouauraientdûêtre,pré�uesparlesdirigeantsdel’Érythréeenexerçantunjugementraisonnableaumomentoùl’Érythréeacommis


ledélit,enmai1998 .Letestdepré�isibilitéde�raits’étendreàuné�entailpluslargedeconséquencesqu’iln’estnécessairedeconsidérerdansdessituationsmoinscapi-tales . Toutefois,letestestdépour�udesens,sitouteslesconséquencessontpré�isibles . LaCommissionaattribuéuneimportanceconsidérableàlagra�itéd’unedécisionderecoursàl’utilisationdelaforceàgrandeéchelle . Unetelledécisionconfèreauxdirigeantsdel’Etat quiagit la lourdeobligationd’analysereté�aluerprudemmentlesé�entuellesconséquencesdel’actionpré�ue .Acetégard,unEtatchoisissantderecouriràlaforceen�iolationdujus ad bellumestresponsabledetoutesconséquencespré�isibles,qu’illesaitsouhaitéesounon . Laresponsabilitépourcertainescatégoriesdedommagesn’estpassoumiseàprescription,notammentlesblessurescauséesparlesminesantipersonneletlescoûtscertifiésdessoinsallouésauxpersonnesdéplacéesàl’intérieurd’unterritoire .

LaCommissionaprisenconsidérationplusieursfacteursdanssoné�aluationdumontantdel’indemnitéquide�raitdécoulerd’unmanquementau jus ad bellum. LaCommissionaexaminésilesdommagesde�aientexceptionnellementser�iràdis-suaderdefutures�iolationsdel’article2,paragraphe4delaChartedesNationsUnies,ousiellede�aitpoursui�rel’objectifplustraditionnelqu’estl’attributiond’uneindem-nisationcon�enable . LaCommissionaconsidéréquecedernierobjectifrele�aitdesaresponsabilité .Pourcequiestdeladissuasion,laCommissionaexprimédesdoutesquantàlapossibilitéqu’uneindemnisationmonétairesoitàmêmededissuaderunEtatquien�isaged’agiren�iolationdujus ad bellum. Représententd’autresmoyensdedissuasion,lesdroitsindi�idueletcollectifdelégitimedéfense,ainsiquelerisqued’unecondamnationpénaledel’agentdugou�ernementquidécidederecouririllé-galementàlaforce .Encomparaison,laperspecti�ed’uneé�entuelleresponsabilitéfinancièrenesemblepasfairelepoids .

LaCommissionaégalementexaminé si l’attributiond’une indemnitéde�aitrefléterunequantificationexactedudommagecausé,autrementnonréparabled’aprèslejus ad bellum, ouplutôtuneestimationgénéraleducaractèredupréjudicecauséàl’Etatdel’Éthiopie . Laréponseaétédictéeparlanaturedesréclamationsetlespreu�esdisponibles .

Laproportionnalitédoitêtremaintenueentreletypededélitetl’indemnisationdue . La Commission a examiné si l’attribution d’une indemnisation de�ait êtrenécessairement limitéedans lamesureàassurerque lachargefinancière imposéeàl’Erythréenesoitpasexcessi�e,enfonctiondelasituationéconomiquedel’Érythrée,aupointdesérieusementmettreenpérilsacapacitéderépondreauxbesoinsfondamentauxdesapopulation .Danslessituationsimpliquantlerecoursillégalàlaforce,lesEtatset les Nations Unies ont créé des régimes ou accepté les conséquences impliquantuneindemnisationinférieureaupréjudicecauséparlerecoursillégalàlaforce . Delaprudencesedoitd’êtreexercéedansladéterminationdesni�eauxd’indemnisation,afinquelesprogrammesd’indemnisationouderéparationnesapentpasleseffortsentreprispourréaliserunepaixdurable .

ERITREA ETHIOPIA CLAIMS COMMISSION

FINAL AWARD

Ethiopia’s Damages Claims

between

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

and

The State of Eritrea

TheHague,August17,2009

BytheClaimsCommission,composedof:

Hans�anHoutte,PresidentGeorgeH .AldrichJohnR .CrookJamesC .N .PaulLucyReed

FINAL AWARD—Ethiopia’s Damages Claims between the Claimant,

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, represented by:

Government of EthiopiaH .E .AmbassadorFissehaYimer,PermanentRepresentati�eoftheFed-

eralDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiatotheUnitedNations,Gene�aMr .RetaAlemu,FirstSecretary(LegalAd�isor),Coordinator,Claims

Team,MinistryofForeignAffairsoftheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthi-opia,AddisAbaba

Mr .GirmaKassaye,FirstSecretary,MinistryofForeignAffairsoftheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia,AddisAbaba

Ms .FirdosaAbdulkadir,ThirdSecretary,MinistryofForeignAffairsoftheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia,AddisAbaba

Mr .AddisBarega,Attaché,MinistryofForeignAffairsoftheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia,AddisAbaba

Mr .EphremBezuayhue,Attaché,MinistryofForeignAffairsoftheFed-eralDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia,AddisAbaba


Counsel and ConsultantsMr .B .Dono�anPicard,PicardKentz&RoweLLP,Washington,D .C .;

Memberof theBarof theDistrictofColumbia;Memberof theBarof theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates

ProfessorSeanD .Murphy,GeorgeWashingtonUni�ersitySchoolofLaw,Washington,D .C .;MemberoftheStateBarofMaryland

Mr .EdwardB .Rowe,PicardKentz&RoweLLP,Washington,D .C .;Mem-beroftheBaroftheDistrictofColumbia;MemberoftheStateBarofColo-rado

Mr .ThomasR .Snider,Dewey&LeBoeufLLP,Washington,D .C .;Mem-beroftheBaroftheDistrictofColumbia;MemberoftheStateBarofMas-sachusetts

Mr .WonKidane,Pennsyl�aniaStateUni�ersityDickinsonSchoolofLaw,Uni�ersityPark,Pennsyl�ania;MemberoftheBaroftheDistrictofColumbia;MemberoftheStateBarofIllinois

Mr .Da�idG .McConkie,Washington,D .C .,ConsultantMr .BijanGanji,Washington,D .C .,ConsultantMr .BrianBurnor,Washington,D .C .,InformationTechnologyConsultantMs . Donna Edmonds, Picard Kentz & Rowe LLP, Washington, D .C .,

CoordinatorMs .LeylaMyers,Hunton&WilliamsLLP,Washington,D .C .,Profes-

sionalAssistantMs .ElizabethRghebi,Dewey&LeBoeufLLP,Washington,D .C .,Profes-

sionalAssistant

and the Respondent, The State of Eritrea, represented by:

Government of EritreaH .E .Mr .MohammedSuliemanAhmed,AmbassadoroftheStateofEri-

treatoTheNetherlandsProfessorLeaBrilmayer,Co-Agent,LegalAd�isortotheOfficeofthe

PresidentofEritrea;HowardM .HoltzmannProfessorofInternationalLaw,YaleLawSchool

Ms .LorraineCharlton,DeputyLegalAd�isortotheOfficeofthePresi-dentofEritrea

Counsel and AdvocatesProfessorJamesR .Crawford,SC,FBA,WhewellProfessorofInterna-

tionalLaw,Uni�ersityofCambridge;MemberoftheAustralianandEnglishBars;MemberoftheInstituteofInternationalLaw


Counsel and ConsultantsMs .HidatBerheMs .AuroraBewicke,Esq .Mr .GeoffreyChepigaMs .AnnaEngelmannMs .HelenFisseha,Esq .Ms .HillaryForden,Esq .Ms .JulieFreyMs .ChiaraGiorgetti,Esq .Ms .JenniferHanson,Esq .Mr .JamesHookMs .JohannaKlein-Kranenberg,Esq .Ms .AmandaCostikyanJonesMr .JeffreyJordanMr .YohannesSiumMr .IsaiasYemaneTesfalidet,Esq .Mr .ParkerWise,Esq .

Table of ConTenTs

I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643

II . ProceduralAspectsoftheDamagesPhase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645

III . TheParties’Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649

IV . ApplicableLegalPrinciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652

A . Res Judicata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653B . E�idenceandtheBurdenofProofattheDamagesPhase . . . . . 654C . Causation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656

V . AssessingCompensationandTechnicalFinancialIssues . 657

A . CurrencyCon�ersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657B . Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658C . OtherTechnicalIssues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659

VI . TheCommission’sLiabilityFindingsandtheStructureofEthiopia’sDamagesClaims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659

A . TheCentralFront . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659


B . TheWesternFront . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660C . TheEasternFront . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661D . Ethiopia’sDamagesClaimsStructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661

VII .MoralDamagesClaims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662

A . Ethiopia’sClaims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662B . Eritrea’sResponse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663C . TheCommission’sConclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664

VIII . Fixed-SumJus in Bello DamagesClaims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665

A . DeathsandInjuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665B . Rape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675C . LossofEthiopianNationals’Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677

IX . ActualAmountJus in Bello DamagesClaims . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683

A . DestructioninZalambessa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683B . LootinginZalambessa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686C . Deaths,InjuriesandPropertyDamageinMekele . . . . . . . . . . . . 688D . OtherLootingandDamagetoProperty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690

X . Ethiopia’sOtherJus in BelloCompensationClaims . . . . . . 699

A . PrisonersofWar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699B . TreatmentofEthiopianCi�iliansinEritrea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701C . TreatmentofDiplomaticPropertyandPersonnel . . . . . . . . . . . 714

XI . Ethiopia’sClaimsforCompensationforEritrea’sViola-tionoftheJus ad Bellum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716

A . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716B . Ethiopia’sJus Ad Bellum Claims—TheScopeofLiability . . . . . . 718C . DeterminingtheAmountofJus Ad Bellum Compensation . . . 727D . FixedAmountCompensation(Ethiopia’sCategories1–5) . . . . 730E . DamagetoCi�ilianProperty,PrimarilyFromShelling

(Category4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737F . DeathsandInjuriesCausedbyLandmines(Category5) . . . . . . 745G . BusinessLossesandOtherActualAmountDamages

(Category6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747H . HarmtoNaturalResourcesandtheEn�ironment(Category7) 754I . TheMekeleBombings(Category8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755


i. introduction1 . WiththisFinalAwardinEthiopia’sclaimsfordamages,anditscom-

panionFinalAwardinEritrea’sdamagesclaims,theEritrea-EthiopiaClaimsCommission largely completes its work .1 The Commission appreciates thecooperationithasrecei�edfrombothPartiesandtheircounselthroughoutthedamagesphaseoftheseproceedings,asintheearlierliabilityphase .Ne�-ertheless,thisphasehasin�ol�edenormouschallenges .Throughtheircounsel,theStatesofEritreaandEthiopiaha�esoughttoquantifytheextentofdamageresultingfrom�iolationsofinternationallawpre�iouslyfoundbytheCom-mission .Asdiscussedbelow,theCommissionhassoughttoapplyproceduresandstandardsofe�idence that takeaccountof thechallenges facingbothParties .Ne�ertheless, theseare legalproceedings .TheCommission’sfind-ingsmustrestone�idence .AstheCommissionhasemphasizedthroughout,compensationcanonlybeawardedwherethereise�idencesufficientinthecircumstancestoestablishtheextentofdamagecausedbyconducttheCom-missionpre�iouslyfoundtoha�e�iolatedinternationallaw .2

2 . Accordingly,theCommissionnotesthatitsawardsofmonetarycom-pensationfordamagesareless—probablymuchless—thanthePartiesbelie�etobedue .TheCommissionthusstandsinthetraditionofmanyotherpastclaimscommissionsthatha�eawardedonlyafractionofthetotalamounts

1 Variousadministrati�ematters,includingthefinaldispositionoftheCommissionArchi�e,aswellasanypost-AwardmatterspotentiallyarisingundertheCommission’sRulesofProcedure,remaintobecompleted .

2 See Eritrea-EthiopiaClaimsCommissionDecisionNo .4(“E�idence”)(July24,2001)(“ThePartiesareremindedthatunderArticle5(13)oftheAgreementofDecem-ber12,2000,theCommissionisboundtoapplytherele�antrulesofinternationallawandcannotmakedecisionsex aequo et bono.TherulesthattheCommissionmustapplyincludethoserelatingtotheneedfore�idencetopro�eordispro�edisputedfacts .”)

J . PrisonersofWar(Categories9&10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755K . DeparturesfromEritrea(Category11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756L . PortsClaim(Category12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757M .EthiopianAirlines(Category14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760N . Loss of Tourism, International De�elopment Assistance, and

ForeignandDomesticIn�estment(Categories15,16&17) . . . 763O . ReconstructionandAssistance(Categories18,19&20) . . . . . . 766

XII .Award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768


claimed .3ItsawardsprobablydonotreflectthetotalityofdamagesthateitherPartysufferedin�iolationofinternationallaw .Instead,theyreflectthedam-agesthatcouldbeestablishedwithsufficientcertaintythroughthea�ailablee�idence,inthecontextofcomplexinternationallegalproceedingscarriedoutbythePartieswithmodestresourcesandundernecessarypressuresoftime .

3 . Inthatconnection,theCommissionnotesthate�idenceoftheextentofphysicaldamagetobuildingsandinfrastructureismorereadilygatheredandpresentedthanise�idenceoftheextentofinjuries,includingphysical,economicandmoralinjuries,tolargenumbersofindi�iduals .Thatfactmaywellha�eledtothelesserextentofe�idencethatoftenwasofferedinsupportofclaimsbasedoninjuriestoindi�iduals .Moreo�er,astheclaimsaddressedinthisAwardareentirelyclaimsbytheStatePartyforcompensationfor�iola-tionsoflawthatithassuffered,ratherthanclaimsonbehalfofitsnationals,theCommissionhasbeencompelledtomakejudgmentsnotastoappropriatecompensationforindi�idual�ictims,butinsteadastotherelati�eserious-nessofthose�iolationsoflawandtheeffectstheyhadontheClaimantStateParty .

4 . TheCommission’sAwardspro�idecompensationinrespectofclaimsbothforlossesofpropertyandfordeathsand�ariousformsofpersonalinjury .Howe�er,itwouldbewrongtodrawasharpdistinctionbetweenthetwotypesofclaims .InpoorcountrieslikeEthiopiaandEritrea,withlowincomesandlifeexpectancies,securityofpropertyoftenis�italtosur�i�al .Propertysuchasli�estock,farmers’tools,utensilsandhouseshasadirectimpactonone’spossibilitytosur�i�e .Thus,awardsofcompensationforlossordestructionofpropertyfrequentlystemfromseriousthreatstophysicalintegrity .

5 . AsdescribedinitsearlierPartialAwards,thisCommissionwascre-atedbyArticle5oftheAgreementbetweentheGo�ernmentoftheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheGo�ernmentoftheStateofEritreaofDecember12,2000(“theAgreement”or“December2000Agreement”) .4TheAgreementwasawide-rangingdocumentconcludedbytheParties tobring about a comprehensi�e settlement of the May 1998-June 2000 warbetweenthem .UnderArticle5(1),“[t]hemandateoftheCommissionistodecidethroughbindingarbitrationallclaimsforloss,damageorinjurybyoneGo�ernmentagainsttheother”relatedtothe1998–2000conflictthat“resultfrom�iolationsofinternationalhumanitarianlaw,includingthe1949Gene�aCon�entions,orother�iolationsofinternationallaw .”

3 ManleyO .Hudson,InternationalTribunalsp .197(1944) .4 TheCommission’spre�iousworkisdescribedinitsAwards,a�ailableontheweb-

siteofthePermanentCourtofArbitration,www .pca-cpa .org .Throughoutthisprocess,theSecretary-Generalandstaffof thePermanentCourtofArbitrationha�epro�idedhighlyprofessionalandefficientsupportfortheCommission,whichrecordsitssincereappreciationforallthathasbeendoneonitsbehalf .TheCommissionexpressesparticularthankstoMs .BelindaMacmahon,whohasser�edasitsRegistrarsince2004withunstint-ingefficiencyandprofessionalism .


6 . Beginningin2001,andcontinuingthroughouttheproceedings,theCommissionengagedinextensi�econsultationswiththeParties .Followingsuchconsultations,itdecidedatanearlystagefirsttodecidethemeritsoftheParties’liabilityclaims .Then,ifliabilitywereestablishedandtheParties,oreitherofthem,wishedtodoso,theCommissionwouldholdfurtherpro-ceedingsregardingtheamountofdamages .Accordingly,theCommissionheldfourroundsofhearingsonthemeritsofbothParties’claimsbetweenNo�ember2002andApril2005 .Between July1,2003andDecember19,2005,itissuedfourgroupsofPartialandFinalAwardsaddressingclaimsofbothParties .TheCommissionrenderedthefollowingAwardsonEthiopia’sclaims: – PrisonersofWar(Ethiopia’sClaim4)(PartialAward,July1,2003); – CentralFront(Ethiopia’sClaim2)(PartialAward,April28,2004); – Ci�iliansClaims(Ethiopia’sClaim5)(PartialAward,

December17,2004); – Jus Ad Bellum (Ethiopia’sClaims1–8)(PartialAward,

December19,2005); – WesternandEasternFronts(Ethiopia’sClaims1&3)(Partial

Award,December19,2005); – Ports(Ethiopia’sClaim6)(FinalAward,December19,2005); – EconomicLossThroughoutEthiopia(Ethiopia’sClaim7)(Partial

Award,December19,2005);and – DiplomaticClaim(Ethiopia’sClaim8)(PartialAward,

December19,2005) .7 . TheCommission’sliabilityfindingsonEthiopia’sclaimsarerepro-

ducedatrele�antpointsinthetextbelow .TheAwardslistedabo�eresol�edtheextentofEritrea’sliabilitywithrespecttoallofEthiopia’sclaimsforEritrea’s�iolationofthejus in bello,thatis,theinternationallawgo�erningtheconductofthearmedconflictbytheParties .TheextentofliabilityforEritrea’s�iola-tionofthejus ad bellum,thatis,theinternationallawgo�erningtheresorttoarmedforcebyaState,wasnotfullyresol�edbytheCommission’sPartialAwardonthatsubject .Thescopeof those jus ad bellum damages,andtheamountsofcompensationappropriateforbothjus in bello andjus ad bellum liability,aredecidedinthisAward .

ii. Procedural aspects of the damages Phase8 . Beginninginthesummerof2005,theCommissionandtheParties

consultedfurther,utilizingcorrespondence,conferencecallsandaninformalmeeting,regardingthepossibilityoffurtherproceedingsfollowingcompletionofthemeritsoftheParties’claims .WhilethePartiesindicatedthattheydidnotwanttheproceedingstoendfollowingtheAwardsonliability,thesecon-sultationshighlightedafundamentalchallenge .Adamagesphasein�ol�ingpreciseassessmentoftheextentofinjuriesallegedlysufferedbylargenumbers


ofpersons,entitiesandgo�ernmentbodieswouldrequireyearsofadditionaldifficult,burdensomeandexpensi�eproceedings .

9 . ThePartieschosetoproceeddespiteconcernsairedbytheCommis-sion .Amongotherpossibilities,thePartiesandtheCommissiondiscussedaproposalbyEthiopiathat,inlieuoffurtherlegalproceedingsondamages,theCommissionshouldbecon�ertedintoamechanismworkingtoincreasetheflowofreliefandde�elopmentfundsfrominternationaldonorstoalle�iatetheconsequencesofthewarinbothcountries .Eritreaexpressedseriousreser�a-tionsregardingthisproposal .TheCommissionalso�ieweditasunlikelytobeproducti�einthecircumstances,asitcameatthecompensationphaseoftheproceedings,followingformalfindingsofliabilityagainstbothPartiesfor�iolationsofinternationallaw .IntheabsenceofagreementbytheParties,thisproposaltochangetheCommission’smandatewasnotpursued,anditwasnotpossibletoterminatetheproceedingswithoutadamagesphase .

10 . AstheCommissionconsideredoptionsforproceedingstoassessdamages,ittookaccountofitsresponsibilitiesunderArticle5(12)oftheAgree-ment,requiringtheCommissiontoendea�ortocompleteitsworkwithinthreeyearsofthefilingoftheParties’claims,thatis,byDecember2004 .(ThiswasextendedinFebruary2003inresponsetobothParties’requestsforadditionaltime .)TheCommissionwasalsomindfulofthecomplexityandcostoftheproceedingstodate,andofthesignificantfinancialandotherburdenstheyimposeduponbothParties .5Followingcarefulconsideration, inanOrderdatedApril13,2006,theCommissiondirectedthePartiestoproceedwithasimplified“fast-track”damagesphase,in�ol�ingalimitednumberoffilingsoflegalpleadingsande�idence,andatightscheduleofhearings .ThisOrderindicatedtheCommission’srecurringconcernthatproceedsaccruingfromthedamagesproceedingsbeusedbythePartiestoassistci�ilian�ictimsoftheconflict .

11 . BecauseofthesignificanceoftheApril13,2006Ordertothesubse-quentproceedings,itsoperati�eportionsaresetouthere:

1 .Inordertopermittheearliestpossibleassistancetoindi�idualswhoha�esufferedinjuryorlossandtoreducethecostoftheproceedings,theCommis-sionwillseektocompletethedamagesphasebeforetheendof2008 .In�iewofthehumanitarianpurposessetforthinArticle5(1)oftheDecember12Agreement,theCommissionrequeststhatthePartiesinformitintheirfirstfilingshowtheyintendtoensuredistributionofdamagesrecei�edtoci�ilian�ictims,includingpresentlya�ailableinformationonexistingoranticipatedstructuresandproceduresforthispurpose .

5 Allof thecostsof theseproceedings, includingthecostsofbothParties’ legalteams,ha�ebeenbornebythePartiesthemsel�es .TheCommissionhassoughttolimititsowncostsbyminimizingtra�elandPCAsupport,bymakingextensi�euseoftheInternet,andthroughothermeasures .Ne�ertheless,itismindfulthattheproceedingsha�ebeenafinancialburdenforbothParties .


2 .TheCommissionwelcomesthefactthatthePartiesareingeneralagree-mentonaconsiderablenumberoftheissuestheyha�ediscussed .

3 .TheCommissionrecognizesthatthereareafewlegalissues,suchasthescopeofdamages forbreachof the jus ad bellum, thatcouldusefullybeaddressedaspreliminaryissuestobedecidedpriortothefilingofbriefsonanycategoryofclaimeddamages .Howe�er,theCommissionhasdecidedthattheadditionalmonthsrequiredforseparateproceedingstohearanddecidethosepreliminaryissueswouldundulyextendthetimerequiredtocompletetheCommission’sworkondamages .Consequently,theCommis-sionhasdecidedthatallsuchissuesshouldbebriefedaspartofthefirstgroupofclaimeddamages .

4 .Again,forreasonsofexpeditiousresolutionofallclaimeddamages,theCommissionhasdecidedtodi�idetheclaimeddamagesintotwogroupsonly .GroupNumber1includestheWarFrontClaims,thePrisonerofWarClaims,theDisplacedPersonsClaimsandthepreliminaryissuesthePar-tiesmayraise,includingthescopeofdamagesforbreachofthejus ad bel-lum,whichisanelementofallofEthiopia’sclaims .Thus,GroupNumber1comprisesEritrea’sClaims1,3,4,5,7,9,13,17,21and22,Ethiopia’sClaims1,2,3and4,aswellasanypreliminaryissuesraisedbyeitherParty .GroupNumber2iscomposedofallremainingclaims,includingtheCi�iliansorHomeFrontclaims .Thus,GroupNumber2comprisesEritrea’sClaims15,16,20,23,24,27,28,29,30,31and32andEthiopia’sClaims5,6(jus ad bel-lum aspectsonly),7and8 .

5 . The Parties shall file their briefs and supporting e�idence on GroupNumber1ClaimsbyNo�ember15,2006andtheirreplybriefsande�idencebyFebruary15,2007 .ThePartiesmayfileanyadditionaldocumentsande�idence,togetherwithabrief(nottoexceed10pages)explanationoftherele�anceoftheadditionalmaterialfiled,atleast21dayspriortotheHear-ing .TheHearingwilltakeplaceontheGroup1ClaimsassoonaspossibleafterApril15,2007,ondatestobesetfollowingconsultationsbetweentheCommissionandtheParties .TheCommissiondoesnoten�isageauthor-izingadditionalpleadingsorextendingthesefilingdeadlines .

6 .AsimilarschedulewillbeestablishedforGroupNumber2Claimsfollow-ingtheHearingonGroupNumber1Claims .

7 .AsinglefinalAwardwillbeissuedonallClaimsfollowingthesecondHearing .Ne�ertheless,theCommissionwillissueguidanceonpreliminaryissuesandonotherissuesasappropriate,followingtheHearingonGroupNumber1Claims, inorder toassist theParties inpreparing theGroupNumber2Claims .

8 .TheCommissionintendstoconsultcloselywiththePartiesregardingimplementationofthisOrderthroughthePresident’sconferencecallswiththePartiesandothermeans,andmaycreateaWorkingGroupforthispur-pose .Themodalitiesandscheduleinthisregardwillbeestablishedfollow-ingconsultationsbetweentheCommissionandtheParties .


12 . Asen�isioned in thisOrder, theCommissioncreatedaworkinggroupof threemembers (CommissionersCrook,PaulandReed)whometinformallywiththeParties’representati�esonJuly29,2006regardingpro-ceduralquestions .Atthatmeeting,thePartiesbothaskedtodefertoalaterstagecertainissuestheycharacterizedasin�ol�ingtechnical,financialandaccountingmatters .Asrequested,onAugust16,2006theCommissionissuedthefollowinginstruction:

TakingaccountoftherecentdiscussionsbetweentheCommissionandtheParties,thefollowingmatterswillnotbeaddressedattheApril2007hear-ingandshouldnotbeaddressedintheParties’writtensubmissionspriortothathearing:

(a) Effectofthirdpartydonationsforreplacementorrebuilding:thelegaleffecttobegi�entothirdpartypayments(includinggrants,loans,andinsurancepayments) tocompensate fordamage illegallycausedduringthewar .(b) Technicalfinancialquestions .Thiscategorymightincludechoos-inganapproachtowardcurrencycon�ersion,thelegaleffect(ifany)ofinflation,interestcalculations,etc .(c) Attorney’s fees (whether they were to be allowed, disallowed,capped,nettedout,etc .)

Asappropriate,theCommissionwillpro�ideguidanceregardingthehan-dlingofthesemattersatalatertime .

13 . TheGroupNumberOnedamagesproceedingstookplaceasspeci-fiedintheCommission’sApril13,2006Order .HearingsontheGroupNumberOnedamagesclaimswereheldatthePeacePalacefromApril16to27,2007 .OnApril28,2007,theCommissionmetinformallywithcounselforthePar-ties,andofferedinformalguidanceintendedtoassistinpreparationoftheirGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims .

14 . OnJuly27,2007, theCommissionpro�idedfurtherguidancebymeansofDecisionNumber7(“GuidanceRegardingJus Ad Bellum Liability”)andDecisionNumber8(“RelieftoWarVictims”) .

15 . OnMay16,2007,theCommissionsettheschedulefortheGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims,culminatinginhearingsheldatthePeacePal-ace fromMay19 toMay27,2008 .After thosehearings,onMay28,2008,theCommissionagainmetinformallywithcounselforthePartiestodiscussremainingprocedural issues .ThePartiesaddressedall thedeferred issuesnotedinparagraph12abo�einwrittenororalsubmissions .

16 . TheCommissionwaskeenlyawarethattheexpeditedproceduresestablishedforthetwogroupsofdamagesclaimswouldputgreatpressureonthePartiesandtheircounsel .ItalsorecognizedthattheParties’prepara-tionandpresentationoftheirclaims,anditsownassessmentofthoseclaims,wouldlikelybelessinformedandprecisethanmightbepossiblefollowinglonger,moreelaborate,andmoreexpensi�eproceedings .Ne�ertheless, the


Commissionbelie�edthattheseprocedureswereappropriateinthecircum-stances,gi�entheParties’situationsandtheCommission’sobligationtocom-pleteitstaskwithinareasonablyshortperiod,asindicatedintheDecember2000Agreement .

17 . TheCommissionispleasedtorecordthatbothPartiesdidwhatwasaskedofthem .Allpleadingswerefiledontime,andbothsetsofhearingswereconductedinaprofessionalandefficientmanner .Notwithstandingthegreatdifficultiestheyfaced,bothParties’legalteamscarriedouttheGroupNumberOneandGroupNumberTwodamagesproceedings,likepre�iousCommis-sionproceedings,with�igorandinfullcooperationwiththeCommission .TheCommissionrecordsitsappreciationtobothPartiesandtheirlegalteamsfortheircontinuedgoodwillandcooperationinthisfinalstageofitswork .

iii. The Parties’ situations

18 . In assessing both Parties’ damages claims, the Commission hasbeenmindfuloftheharshfactthatthesecountriesareamongthepoorestonearth .Inbothroundsofdamagesproceedings,bothPartiessoughtamountsthatwerehuge,bothabsolutelyandinrelationtotheeconomiccapacityofthecountryagainstwhichtheyweredirected .EthiopiacalculateditsGroupNumberOnedamagesclaimsagainstEritreatoequalnearly7 .4billionU .S .dollarsanditsGroupNumberTwodamagesclaimstoequalapproximately6 .9billionU .S .dollars .TheseamountsaremorethanthreetimesEritrea’sestimatedtotalnationalproductin2005,measuredonapurchasingpowerparitybasis .6Eritrea’sclaimsagainstEthiopia,whilelessdramaticinrelationtoEthiopia’slargersizeandeconomy,approached6billionU .S .dollars .

19 . ThesizeoftheParties’claimsraisedpotentiallyseriousquestionsin�ol�ingtheintersectionofthelawofStateresponsibilitywithfundamentalhumanrightsnorms .BothEthiopiaandEritreaarepartiestotheInternationalCo�enantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(“ICESCR”)7andtheInter-nationalCo�enantonCi�ilandPoliticalRights .8BothCo�enantspro�ideinArticleI(2)that“[i]nnocasemayapeoplebedepri�edofitsownmeansofsub-sistence .”Duringthehearings,itwasnotedthatearlydraftsoftheInternation-

6 See HumanDevelopmentReport2007/2008(UnitedNationsDe�elopmentPro-gramme),available at www .undp .org .TheReportincludesanindexofhumande�elop-menttrends(“HumanDe�elopmentIndex”)inallcountries .The“indicators”measure,forexample,“publicspending,”“commitments” torealize the“right toeducation,”orimpro�ementsinthe“standardofli�ingmeasuredbythePPP[purchasingpowerpar-ity] .”Eachcountryisrankedinaccordancewithaprocessthatcombinestheseandotherindices .

7 InternationalCo�enantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,Dec .16,1966,993U .N .T .S .p .3 .

8 InternationalCo�enantonCi�ilandPoliticalRights,Dec .16,1966,999U .N .T .S .p .171 .


alLawCommission’s(“ILC”)DraftArticlesonStateResponsibilityincludedthisqualification,butthatitwasnotretainedintheArticlesasadopted .ThatdoesnotalterthefundamentalhumanrightslawruleofcommonArticleI(2)intheCo�enants,whichunquestionablyappliestotheParties .

20 . Similarly,Article2(1)oftheICESCRobligesbothPartiestotakestepstoachie�ethe“fullrealization”ofrightsrecognizedbythatinstrument .TheCommissionismindfulthatinitsGeneralComments,theCommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightshasidentifiedarangeofstepstobetakenbyStateswherenecessary,inter alia,toimpro�eaccesstohealthcare,education(particularlyforgirls)andresourcestoimpro�etheconditionsofsubsistence .TheseGeneralCommentsha�ebeenendorsedandtakenasguidestoactionbymanyinterestedobser�ersandtheUnitedNations’de�elopmentagencies .9Suchmeasuresareparticularlyrele�anttotheneedsoftheruralpoorincountrieslikeEritreaandEthiopia .Thesemattersareconsideredfur-therintheCommission’sDecisionNumber7,10andinitsdiscussionbelowofcompensationowedtoEthiopiaforEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum.

21 . Awardsofcompensationof themagnitudesoughtbyeachPartywouldimposecripplingburdensupontheeconomiesandpopulationsoftheother,notwithstandingtheobligationsbothha�eacceptedundertheCo�e-nants .EthiopiaurgedtheCommissionnottobeconcernedwiththeimpactof�erylargead�erseawardsontheaffectedcountry’spopulation,becausetheobligationtopaywouldfallonthego�ernment,notthepeople .TheCom-

9 UnitedNationsCommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,GeneralCommentNo .3,TheNatureofStatesPartiesObligationsunderArt .2(1)oftheInterna-tionalCo�enantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights[ICESCR],U .N .Doc .E/1991/23,AnnexIII,atp .86(1991) .AnumberofsubsequentGeneralCommentsspellouttheobliga-tionsofStatesPartiestoachie�e“progressi�erealization”oftheparticularrightsguaran-teedbyotherarticlesoftheICESCR,suchas“therighttoeducation .”AllofthesecanbefoundinTheCompilationofGeneralCommentsAdoptedbyHumanRightsTreatyBod-ies,U .N .Doc .HRI/GEN/1/Re� .9(2006) .ExamplesoftheseGeneralCommentsincludeGeneralCommentNo .16,Theequalrightofmenandwomentotheenjoymentofalleconomic,socialandculturalrights(ICESCR,art .3);GeneralCommentNo .15,Therighttowater;GeneralCommentNo .14,Therighttothehigheststandardofhealth(ICESCR,art .12);andGeneralCommentNo .13,Therighttoeducation(ICESCR,art .13) .See also MagdalenaSepulveda,TheNatureoftheObligationsUndertheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(2003);CoreObligations:BuildingaFrameworkforEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(AudreyChap-man&SageRusselleds .,2002);MatthewCraven,TheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights:APerspectiveonitsDevelopment(IanBrownlieed .,1995);JudithV .Welling,International Indicators and Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights,30(4)Hum .Rts .Q .p .933(2008) .TheSecretary-GeneralurgedallUNde�elopmentagenciestoadoptacommon“HumanRightsBasedApproach”totheirde�elopmentmissionsand,workingtogether,commonrights-focusedcountryplans .See StrengtheningoftheUnitedNations:AnAgendaforFurtherChange,ReportoftheSec-retary-General,U .N .GAOR,57thSess .,U .N .Doc .A/57/387(2002) .

10 Eritrea-EthiopiaClaimsCommissionDecisionNo .7(“GuidanceRegardingJus ad Bellum Liability”)(July27,2007) .


missiondoesnotagree .Hugeawardsofcompensationbytheirnaturewouldrequirelargedi�ersionsofnationalresourcesfromthepayingcountry—anditscitizensneedinghealthcare,educationandotherpublicser�ices—totherecipientcountry .Inthisregard,thepre�ailingpracticeofStatesintheyearssincetheTreatyofVersailleshasbeentogi�e�erysignificantweighttotheneedsoftheaffectedpopulationindeterminingamountssoughtaspost-warreparations .11

22 . Article5(13)oftheDecember2000Agreementdirectsthat,“[i]nconsideringclaims,theCommissionshallapplyrele�antrulesofinternationallaw,”whichincluderulesofhumanrightslawapplicableasbetweenthePar-ties .Accordingly, theCommissioncouldnotdisregardthepossibility thatlargedamagesawardsmightexceedthecapacityoftheresponsibleStatetopayorresultinseriousinjurytoitspopulationifsuchdamageswerepaid .12ItthusconsideredwhetheritwasnecessarytolimititscompensationawardsinsomemannertoensurethattheultimatefinancialburdenimposedonaPartywouldnotbesoexcessi�e,gi�enitseconomicconditionanditscapacitytopay,astocompromiseitsabilitytomeetitspeople’sbasicneeds .

23 . Inthecircumstances,theCommissionconcludedthatitneednotdecidethequestionofpossiblecappingoftheawardinlightoftheParties’obligationsunderhumanrightslaw .

24 . TheParties’o�eralleconomicpositionsarerele�anttodeterminingcompensationinanothermanneraswell .InconsideringbothParties’claimsfor�iolationofthejus in bello,theCommissionhasbeenmindfuloftheprin-ciple,setoutbythePermanentCourtofInternationalJusticeinChorzów Fac-tory,thatthepurposeofcompensationpayablebyaresponsibleStateis“toseek towipeoutall theconsequencesof the illegalactandreestablish thesituationwhichwould,inallprobability,ha�eexistedifthatacthadnotbeencommitted .”13ThisnotionunderliesArticle31oftheILC’sArticlesonStateResponsibility,that“[t]heresponsibleStateisunderanobligationtomakefullreparationfortheinjurycausedbytheinternationallywrongfulact .”

25 . Chorzów Factory offersanimportantreferencepointforassessingbothParties’compensationclaims .Forreasonsthatarereadilyunderstand-able,gi�enlimitsoftimeandresources,bothPartiesfiledtheirclaimsasinter-

11 Id.,pp .6–7 .12 See WilliamW .Bishop,General Course of Public International Law, 1965,in II

RECUEILDESCOURS,Tome115p .403(1965);RichardFalk,Reparations, International Law, and Global Justice,in THEHANDBOOKOFREPARATIONSp .492(PablodeGreiffed .,2006);ChristianTomuschat,Reparations in Favour of Individual Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law,in PromotingJus-tice,HumanRightsandConflictResolutionThroughInternationalLaw/La promotion de la justice, des droits de l’homme et du reglement des conflits par le droit international,LiberAmicorumLuciusCaflischp .569,atpp .581et seq.(MarceloG .Kohened .,2007) .

13 FactoryatChorzów,Merits,1928P .C .I .J .(Ser .A .)No .17,p .47 .


Stateclaims .AlthoughEritreafiledclaimsonbehalfofsixindi�iduals,neitherPartyutilizedtheoption,a�ailableunderArticle5(8)oftheAgreementandtheCommission’sRulesofProcedure,ofpresentingclaimsdirectlyonbehalfof largenumbersof indi�iduals .Ne�ertheless, someofbothStates’ claimsaremadeintheexerciseofdiplomaticprotection,inthattheyarepredicateduponinjuriesallegedlysufferedbynumbersoftheClaimantState’snation-als .14WhiletheinjuryinsuchcasesisinjurytotheState,theextentofinjurytoaffectedindi�iduals—insofaras itcanbequantified—canplayasignifi-cantroleinassessingtheState’sinjury .Inthisregard,initsDecisionNumber815andelsewhereinthisFinalAward,theCommissionhasencouragedthePartiestoconsiderhow,intheexerciseoftheirdiscretion,compensationcanbestbeusedtoaccomplishthehumanitarianobjecti�esofArticle5(1)oftheAgreement .

26 . Chorzów Factory teachesthatcompensationhasalimitedfunction .Itsroleistorestoreaninjuredparty,insofaraspossible,tothepositionitwouldha�eoccupiedbutfortheinjury .Thisfunctionisremedial,notpuni-ti�e .Accordingly,insituationsin�ol�ingdiplomaticprotection,compensationmustbeassessed in lightof theactualsocialandeconomiccircumstancesoftheinjuredindi�idualsinrespectofwhomtheStateisclaiming .Thedif-ficulteconomicconditionsfoundintheaffectedareasofEthiopiaandEritreamustbetakenintoaccountinassessingcompensationthere .Compensationdeterminedinaccordancewithinternationallawcannotremedytheworld’seconomicdisparities .

27 . BothPartiesrecognizedthis,andgenerallyframedtheirclaimsinwaysthat,inthefirstinstanceatleast,tookaccountofthelowincomesandlimitedpropertyofmostofthoseaffectedbythewar .

iV. applicable legal Principles

28 . Under Article 5(13) of the Agreement, the Commission must“applyrele�ant rulesof international law”and“shallnotha�e thepowertomakedecisionsex aequo et bono.”Thefollowingsectionsconsiderthreeelementsofgeneralinternationallawaffectingtheseproceedings:(a)thepre-clusi�eeffectoftheCommission’searlierdecisionsonliability(resjudicata);(b)theroleofe�idenceandtheburdenofproof;and(c)therequirementofa

14 UnderArticle5(9)oftheAgreement,“[i]nappropriatecases,eachpartymayfileclaimsonbehalfofpersonsofEthiopianorEritreanoriginwhomaynotbeitsnationals .SuchclaimsshallbeconsideredbytheCommissiononthesamebasisasclaimssubmittedonbehalfofthatparty’snationals .”Thisunusualpro�isionwasnotutilized .WhileEritreasoughttobringclaimspredicateduponinjuriestoEthiopiannationals,itdidsoonbehalfoftheStateofEritrea,andnotonbehalfoftheinjuredindi�iduals .

15 Eritrea-EthiopiaClaimsCommissionDecisionNo .8(“RelieftoWarVictims”)(July27,2007) .


legallysufficientconnectionbetweenwrongfulconductandinjuryforwhichdamageisclaimed .

a. Res Judicata29 . Theinternationallawrulegi�ingbindingeffecttomattersalready

authoritati�elydecided(res judicata)hasparticularrele�anceatthisstageoftheproceedings . In itsearlierPartialAwards, theCommission foundthatsomeclaimsof�iolationsofapplicableinternationallawhadbeenpro�ed,anditdismissedotherclaims .Thesefindingsarefinalandbinding,anddefinetheextentofpossibledamages . It isnotpossibleat thisstage tore-litigateclaimsthattheCommissionhasdecided,ortopresentnewones .Compensa-tioncanonlybeawardedforinjuriesnowifthoseinjuriesbearasufficientlyclosecausalconnectionwithconductthattheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundto�iolateinternationallaw .

30 . TheCommission’saffirmati�efindingsofliabilityaresetoutinthedispositifs attheendofeachPartialAward .Whilesomeargumentaboutthescopeandmeaningofthosefindingsisine�itableinthecontextofabifur-catedproceeding,bothPartiesha�esometimessoughttolimittheirpotentialliability(ortobroadentheother’s liability)byconstruingthedispositifs inartificialways,ad�ancingtechnicalorrestricti�einterpretationstonarrowtheCommission’sfindings,orurgingbroadandflexiblereadingstoexpandthem .ThetaskoftheCommissionatthisphaseoftheproceedingsisnottore�iseorexpanditspriorfindingsonliability,buttoapplythosefindingsindeter-miningtheappropriatecompensationtobeawarded .Indoingso,theCom-missionisguidedprincipallybythedispositifs ofthoseAwards,construedinaccordancewiththeordinarymeaningofthetermscontainedtherein,16tak-ingaccountoftheParties’claimsandargumentsleadingtothefindingsandtheCommission’sappreciationofthefactsandlegalreasoningasexplainedinthebodyoftheAwards .17

31 . Inpleadingtheirdamagesclaims,thePartiesfiledabroadrangeofnewe�idencebearingonthequantumofdamageassociatedwiththeCom-

16 See, e.g.,TheLaguna del Desierto Arbitration(Arg ./Chile),(Award),113I .L .R .1,194,atpara .70(1995)(“Internationallawpro�idesrulesforinterpretationofanylegalinstrument,whetheritbeatreaty,aunilateralact,anarbitralawardoraresolutionofaninternationalorganization .Theyinclude:thenaturalandordinarymeaningofthewordsused;theircontext;andtheireffet util.”) .

17 AsnotedinarecentjudgmentoftheInternationalCourtofJustice,“ifanyques-tionarisesastothescopeofres judicata attachingtoajudgment,itmustbedeterminedineachcaseha�ingregardtothecontextinwhichthejudgmentwasgi�en .”ApplicationoftheCon�entiononthePre�entionandPunishmentoftheCrimeofGenocide(Bosn .&Herz .� .Serb .&Mont .),2007I .C .J .p .48,atpara .125(Feb .26) .See also ShabtaiRosenne,IIITheLawandPracticeoftheInternationalCourt1920–2005p .1603(4thed .2006)(discussingtheimportanceattachedtowrittenandoralpleadingsinascertainingthescopeofres judicata) .


mission’sliabilityfindings .AlthoughthePartiespresentedthesedamagesclaimsinbroadtermsthatdidnotalwayscorrespondtotheCommission’sliability findings, the Commission has considered this e�idence strictlywithinthescopeofitsliabilityAwards .Insomecases,theCommissionhasfounditnecessarytomeasurethedamagesphaseclaimsalsoagainste�i-denceofferedat the liabilityphase, leading todiscussionof thee�idenceunderlyingtheliabilityAwardsthroughoutthisAward .TheCommissionhasbeencautioustoremainwithinthelimitsofitsliabilityfindingsinmakingitsawardsofcompensation .

32 . Unlike the Commission’s findings of liability, its dismissals ofclaims,exceptdismissalsforlackofjurisdiction,arenotrestatedinthedis-positifs.Ne�ertheless, theyalsoaredefiniti�eresolutionsof thoseclaims,withres judicata effect .

33 . TheCommissiondismissedclaims,bybothParties,forfailureofproof .Thesedismissalsareconclusi�edispositionsoftheseclaimsforthepurpose of these proceedings, but their effect is otherwise limited . BothPartiessometimesha�eurgedthatthesedismissalsreflectedanaffirmati�edecisionbytheCommissionthatcertaine�entsdidnotoccur .Thisisnotcorrect .ExceptasindicatedinitsAwards,theCommissiondidnotmakesuchfactualjudgments,findinginsteadonlythattheclaimantPartyhadnotpresentedsufficiente�idencetopro�eitsclaim .Thesefindingsdonotreflectaffirmati�efactualdeterminationsbytheCommissionthatparticulare�entsdidordidnotoccur .

b. evidence and the burden of Proof at the damages Phase

34 . E�idencenecessarilyhasplayedacentralroleintheseproceed-ings .Keyissuesoftenha�eboileddowntoproofoffacts,notissuesoflaw .Itisfundamentaltothelegalprocessthatjudgmentsregardingfactsmustbebaseduponsufficiente�idence .Thisposedspecialchallengesinthesepro-ceedings .BoththePartiesandtheCommissionrecognizethatconclusi�eproofoffactsinawarthatbeganele�enyearsagooftenisnotfeasible .How-e�er,thedifficultiesofproofdonotrelie�etheCommissionofitsobligationtomakedecisionsonlyonthebasisofsufficiente�idence .

35 . Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionrequiredclearandcon�inc-ingproofofliability .ItdidsobecausetheParties’claimsfrequentlyin�ol�edallegationsofserious—indeed,sometimesgra�e—misconductbyaState .AfindingofsuchmisconductisasignificantmatterwithseriousimplicationsfortheinterestsandreputationoftheaffectedState .Accordingly,anysuchfindingmustrestuponsubstantialandcon�incinge�idence .Thisiswhythe


InternationalCourtofJusticeandotherinternationaltribunalsrequirethatfactsbeestablishedwithahighdegreeofcertaintyinsuchcircumstances .18

36 . InthehearingsontheGroupNumberOnedamagesclaims,Ethi-opiaarguedthatdecisionsrelatingtodamagesshouldbebasedonthepre-ponderanceofthee�idence .EritreaurgedthattheCommissioncontinuetoutilizeastandardof“clearandcon�incing”e�idence .Likesomeothercourtsandtribunals,theCommissionbelie�esthatthecorrectpositionliesinanamalgamofthesepositions .19TheCommissionhasrequiredclearandcon�incinge�idencetoestablishthatdamageoccurred,withintheliabilityparametersofthePartialAwards .Howe�er,forpurposesofquantification,ithasrequiredlessrigorousproof .Theconsiderationsdictatingthe“clearandcon�incingstandard”aremuchlesscompellingforthelesspoliticallyandemoti�elychargedmattersin�ol�edinassessingthemonetaryextentofinjury .Moreo�er,theCommissionrecognizestheenormouspracticalprob-lemsfacedbybothPartiesinquantifyingtheextentofdamagefollowingthe1998–2000war .Requiringproofofquantificationofdamagebyclearandcon�incing e�idence would often—perhaps almost always—preclude anyreco�ery .ThiswouldfrustratetheCommission’sagreedmandatetoaddress“thesocio-economicimpactofthecrisisontheci�ilianpopulation”underArticle5(1)oftheAgreement .20

37 . ThepresenttaskisnottoassesswhetherthetwoStatePartiescom-mittedserious�iolationsofinternationallaw .Thathasbeendone .Now,theCommissionmustdetermine,insofaraspossible,theappropriatecompen-sation foreachsuch�iolation .This in�ol�esquestionsofadifferentorder,requiringexercisesofjudgmentandapproximation .Asdiscussedbelowinconnectionwithparticularclaims, thee�idenceregardingsuchmattersastheegregiousnessorseriousnessoftheunlawfulaction,thenumbersofper-sonsinjuredorpropertydestroyedordamagedbythataction,andthefinan-cialconsequencesofsuchinjury,destructionordamage,isoftenuncertainorambiguous . Insuchcircumstances, theCommissionhasmade thebestestimatespossibleonthebasisofthea�ailablee�idence .Likesomenational

18 See, e.g.,ApplicationoftheCon�entiononthePre�entionandPunishmentoftheCrimeofGenocide,2007I .C .J .pp .76–77,paras .209–210(“TheCourthaslongrecognizedthatclaimsagainstaStatein�ol�ingchargesofexceptionalgra�itymustbepro�edbye�i-dencethatisfullyconclusi�e . . . .InrespectoftheApplicant’sclaimthattheRespondenthasbreacheditsundertakingstopre�entgenocideandtopunishandextraditepersonschargedwithgenocide,theCourtrequiresproofatahighle�elofcertaintyappropriatetotheseriousnessoftheallegation .”) .

19 Mark Kantor, Valuation for Arbitration: Compensation Standards, ValuationMethodsandExpertE�idencepp .72–73(2008) .

20 See ChittharanjanAmerasinghe,E�idenceinInternationalLitigationpp .241–242(2005) .


courts21andinternationallegislators,22ithasrecognizedthatwhenobligatedtodetermineappropriatecompensation,itmustdosoe�eniftheprocessin�ol�esestimation,ore�enguesswork,withintherangeofpossibilitiesindicatedbythee�idence .Ne�ertheless,insomecasesthee�idencehasnotbeensufficienttojustifyanyawardofcompensation .

38 . TheCommissionalsohastakenaccountofatrade-offfundamen-taltorecentinternationaleffortstoaddressinjuriesaffectinglargenumbersof�ictims .InstitutionssuchastheUnitedNationsCompensationCommis-sion(“UNCC”)and�ariouscommissionscreatedtoaddressbank,insuranceandsla�elaborclaimsstemmingfromtheNazieraha�eadoptedlessrigorousstandardsofproof,eithertoshowthatanindi�idualsufferedinjuryorregard-ing theextentof that injury .Asa trade-off,compensation le�elsalsoha�ebeenreduced,balancingtheuncertaintiesflowingfromthelowerstandardofproof .23WhiletheclaimsaddressedinthisAwardareStateclaims,notmassclaims,theCommissionhasinsomeinstancesappliedsimilaranalysiswithrespecttoclaimsforinjuriesordamagesthatweresufferedbylarge,butuncer-tain,numbersof�ictimsandwherethereislimitedsupportinge�idence .

C. Causation39 . Compensationcanonlybeawardedinrespectofdamagesha�ing

asufficientcausalconnectionwithconductthat�iolatesinternationallaw .Intheirwrittenpleadings,andintheGroupNumberOnedamageshearingsinApril2007,thePartiesaddressedthenatureofthecausalconnectionrequiredby international lawbetweenadelictandcompensable injury .InDecisionNumber7ofJuly2007,theCommissionaddressedtheissueofcausation,andhasbeenguidedinthecurrentproceedingsbytheprinciplesarticulatedthere .InthatDecision,theCommissiondeterminedthat:

thenecessaryconnectionisbestcharacterizedthroughthecommonlyusednomenclatureof“proximatecause .”Inassessingwhetherthistestismet,andwhetherthechainofcausationissufficientlycloseinaparticularsituation,theCommissionwillgi�eweighttowhetherparticulardamagereasonably

21 See Chaplin� .Hicks[1911]2K .B .786,972C .A .(whereprecisionoraccuracyisnotpossibleinassessingcontractdamages,“thejurymustdothebesttheycan,anditmaybethattheamountoftheir�erdictwillreallybeamatterofguesswork .Butthefactthatdamagescannotbeassessedwithcertaintydoesnotrelie�ethewrongdoerofthenecessityofpayingdamagesforhisbreach . . . .”) .

22 See UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts, available at www .unidroit .org, art . 7 .4 .3, para . (3) (“Where the amount of damages cannot beestablishedwithasufficientdegreeofcertainty,theassessmentisatthediscretionofthecourt .”) .

23 See JacomijnJ .�anHaersolte-�anHof,Innovations to Speed Mass Claims, New Standards of Proof,in REDRESSINGINJUSTICESTHROUGHMASSCLAIMSPROC-ESSES: INNOVATIVE RESPONSES TO UNIQUE CHALLENGES p . 13 (PermanentCourtofArbitrationed .,2006) .


shouldha�ebeenforeseeabletoanactorcommittingtheinternationaldelictinquestion .Theelementofforeseeability,althoughnotwithoutitsowndif-ficulties,pro�idessomedisciplineandpredictabilityinassessingproximity .Accordingly,itwillbegi�enconsiderableweightinassessingwhetherpar-ticulardamagesarecompensable .

TheCommissionnotesthat,inmanysituations,thechoiceof�erbalformulatodescribethenecessarydegreeofconnectionwillresultinnodifferenceinoutcomes .Inthisregard,bothPartiesagreedthatasignificantrangeofpossibledamagesrelatedtowarliebeyondthepaleofStateresponsibility . . . .24

V. assessing Compensation and Technical financial issues

40 . Astheirclaimsdemonstrate,bothPartiesrecognizedthatthe�iola-tionsofinternationallawidentifiedbytheCommissiongi�erisetoanobliga-tiontopaycompensation .25Determiningtheamountofsuchcompensation,particularlyinlargeinter-Stateclaimssuchasthese,cannotbeamechanicalprocess .Inweighingitsawardsofcompensationfordamages,theCommis-sionhashadtotakeintoaccountmultiplefactors,oftennotsubjecttoprecisequantification .Ithasweighedthenature,seriousnessandextentofparticularunlawfulacts .Ithasexaminedwhethersuchactswereintentional,andwheth-ertheremayha�ebeenanyrele�antmitigatingorextenuatingcircumstances .Ithassoughttodetermine,insofaraspossible,thenumbersofpersonswhowere�ictimsofparticular�iolations,andtheimplicationsofthese�ictims’injuriesfortheirfutureli�es .

a. Currency Conversion

41 . ThePartiesagreedthattheFinalAwardsrenderedbytheCommis-sionshoulddenominatecompensationinUnitedStatesdollars,andEthiopia’s

24 DecisionNo .7,supra note10,atparas .13–14 .25 See HagueCon�ention(IV)RespectingtheLawsandCustomsofWaronLand,

Oct .18,1907,36Stat .p .277,1Be�ansp .631,art .3(“Abelligerentpartywhich�iolatesthepro�isionsofthesaidRegulationsshall,ifthecasedemands,beliabletopaycompensa-tion .”);ProtocolAdditionaltothe1949Gene�aCon�entionsofAug .12,1949,andRelatingtotheProtectionofVictimsofInternationalArmedConflicts,June8,1977,1125U .N .T .S .p .3,art .91(“APartytotheconflictwhich�iolatesthepro�isionsoftheCon�entionsorofthisProtocolshall,ifthecasedemands,beliabletopaycompensation”)[hereinafterProtocolI] .


claimsforcompensationareexpressedlargelyintermsoftheU .S .currency .26TheCommissiongenerallyhasmadecon�ersionstoU .S .dollarsutilizingtheofficialexchangeratepre�ailingatthetimeoftheinjuryunderlyingthecom-pensationclaim .Inafewcases,wheree�idencequantifyinglosses(forexam-ple,estimatesofrebuildingcosts)waspreparedsometimeaftertheinjury,andwherethereweresignificantchangesinexchangerates,theCommissionhasutilizedtheexchangeratepre�ailingwhenthee�idencewasprepared .Thishasbeennecessaryinordertopre�entwindfallstoeitherPartyresultingfromchangesinexchangerates .Asapracticalmatter,thismadeseparateassess-mentsofinflationunnecessary .

42 . WhileEthiopiapresenteditsclaimsindollars,itoftensubmittede�idencedenominatedinEthiopianbirr .EritreapointedoutthattheexchangerateEthiopiausedtocon�ertthose�aluesintodollarswas6 .8819birrtothedollar,whichEritreacontendedwasunrealisticandinflatedthedollaramountsindicatedbythee�idence .TheCommissionagrees,notingthattheapplicableofficialrateduringtheperiodofthewar,fromMay1998toDecember2000,wasapproximately8:1 .Consequently,inthecaseofEthiopia’sclaimsbasedone�idencedenominatedinbirr,Ethiopia’spresentationsoftheclaimeddollaramountsreflectanexchangeratemorefa�orabletotheClaimantthantheratesutilizedbytheCommission .

b. interest43 . Article5(14)oftheDecember2000Agreementpro�ides“interest

. . .maybeawarded .”Thus,theCommissionhasdiscretionwhetherornottoawardinterest .BothPartiesaskedtheCommissiontodoso .Howe�er,theCommissionhasdecided,intheexceptionalcircumstancespresentedbytheseclaims,nottocalculateandawardinterestontheamountsawardedtoeitherParty .

44 . TheCommissionhasparticularlytakenintoaccountthefactthattheParties’claims,andtheamountsawardedinrespectofthoseclaims,arebroadlysimilar .Accordingly,thisisararecaseinwhichinterestonthecom-pensationawardedwouldnotmateriallyaltertheParties’economicpositionsfollowingthetimelypaymentbyeachoftheamountsduetheother .Further,theamountsawardedinmanycasesreflectestimatesandapproximations,notprecisecalculationsrestinguponcleare�idence .Likesomeothercommis-sions,theCommissionbelie�esthatthiselementofapproximationreinforcesthedecisionagainstawardinginterest .Finally, theCommissionnotes thattheseproceedingsha�etakense�eralyears,reflectingthemagnitudeandcom-

26 AnyreferenceinthisAwardtoamountsclaimedinU .S .dollars,wheretheunder-lyingclaimin�ol�esamountsdenominatedinnakfaorbirr,issolelyforpurposesofillus-tration .Exceptwhereotherwisestated,con�ersionsofclaimedamountsintoU .S .dollarsarethosepro�idedbyaParty,anddonotreflectanyjudgmentbytheCommissionregard-ingtheappropriatenessoftheexchangerateemployedorrelatedmatters .


plexityofthetask .BothPartiesha�ebeendiligent,andtheperiodrequireddoesnotreflectalackofcooperationonthepartofeither .Accordingly,thereisnoneedforpre-awardinteresttoprotecteitherPartyfromprejudiceresultingfromdilatoryconductbytheother .

C. other Technical issues45 . ThePartiesagreednottorequestpaymentofattorneys’feesorcosts

againsteachother .46 . TheCommissionhasaddressedtheeffectofthirdpartydonations

orotherthirdpartypaymentsforreplacementorrebuildingwheresuchissuesariseinspecificclaims .Withfewexceptions,theCommissionhasnotaward-edamountsreflectingdonationsorpaymentsnotrequiredorexpectedtoberepaid .

Vi. The Commission’s liability findings and the structure of ethiopia’s damages Claims

47 . InitsPartialAwardsrenderedduringtheearlierliabilityproceed-ings,theCommissiondecidedtheextentofEritrea’sliabilitytoEthiopiawithrespecttothelatter’sclaimsfor�iolationofthejus in bello ontheCentral,WesternandEasternFrontsofthewar .TheCommissionalsofoundEritreatobeliablefor�iolationofthejus ad bellum.Onthebasisofthosedecisions,thisFinalAwarddecidesthedamagesappropriatetocompensateEthiopiaforeachoftheCommission’sfindingsofliability .

a. The Central front48 . InitsPartialAwarddatedApril28,2004,theCommissiondecided

Eritrea’s liabilitywithrespect toEthiopia’sClaim2, in�ol�ing theCentralFront .ItfoundEritrealiabletoEthiopiaforninespecific“�iolationsofinter-nationallawcommittedbyitsmilitarypersonnelorbyotherofficialsoftheStateofEritrea:”

1 . ForpermittinginMerebLekheWeredafrequentphysicalabuseofci�il-iansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatingsandabductions,aswellaswidespreadlootingandpropertydestructionintheareasthatwereoccupiedbyitsarmedforcesfromMay1998toMay2000;2 . ForpermittinginAhferomWeredafrequentphysicalabuseofci�iliansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatings,abductionsandwoundscausedbysmall-armsfire,aswellaswidespreadlootingandpropertydestructionintheareasthatwereoccupiedbyitsarmedforcesfromMay1998toMay2000;3 . For permitting in Gulomakheda Wereda frequent physical abuse ofci�iliansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatingsandabductionsduring


thein�asioninJune1998andlessfrequent,butrecurring,physicalabuseofci�iliansandfrequentlootinganddestructionofci�ilianpropertyintheareasthatwereoccupiedbyitsarmedforcesfromJune1998toJune2000;4 . ForpermittingthelootingandstrippingofZalambessaTown;5 . Forthedeliberate,unlawfuldestructionof75%(se�enty-fi�epercent)ofthestructuresinZalambessaTown;6 . ForpermittinginIrobWeredaarecurringpatternofexcessi�e�iolencebyEritreansoldiersagainstci�ilians,includingfrequentbeatingsandinten-tionalkillings,andfrequentse�erebeatingandotherabuseofci�ilianstakenintocustody,aswellaswidespreadlootingandpropertydestructionintheareasthatwereoccupiedbyitsarmedforcesfromMay1998toJune2000;7 . Forfailingtotakeeffecti�emeasurestopre�entrapeofwomenbyitssoldiersinIrobWereda;8 . Forfailingtoreleaseci�ilianstakenintocustodyinIrobWeredaandtopro�ideinformationregardingthem;and9 . Forfailingtotakeallfeasibleprecautionstopre�enttwoofitsmilitaryaircraftfromdroppingclusterbombsinthe�icinityoftheAyderSchoolanditsci�ilianneighborhoodinthetownofMekeleonJune5,1998,andfortheresultingdeaths,woundsandsufferingbyci�iliansandthephysicaldamagetoci�ilianobjects .

b. The Western front49 . In its Partial Award dated December 19, 2005, the Commission

decidedEritrea’s liabilitywithrespect toEthiopia’sClaim1, in�ol�ing theWesternFront .TheCommissionfoundEritrea liable toEthiopia forse�enspecific“�iolationsofinternationallawcommittedbyitsmilitarypersonnelorbyotherofficialsoftheStateofEritrea:”

a . For permitting frequent beatings of ci�ilians in Tahtay AdiaboWereda;b . ForpermittingthefrequentabductionofEthiopianci�iliansfromTahtayAdiaboWeredatoEritreaandforunexplaineddisappearances;c . ForpermittingthelootingofpropertyinareasinTahtayAdiaboWeredaoccupiedbyEritreanarmedforces;d . ForpermittingthefrequentabductionofEthiopianci�iliansfromLaelayAdiaboWeredatoEritreaandforunexplaineddisappearances;e . Forpermittingthelootingofproperty,inparticularli�estock,inareasinLaelayAdiaboWeredaoccupiedbyEritreanarmedforces;f . ForpermittingthefrequentabductionofEthiopianci�iliansfromKaftaHumeraWeredatoEritreaandforunexplaineddisappearances;andg . Forpermittingthelootingofpropertyandli�estockinareasinKaftaHumeraAdiaboWeredawhereEritreanarmedforceswerepresent .


C. The eastern front50 . The Commission also decided Eritrea’s liability with respect to

Ethiopia’sClaim3, in�ol�ingtheEasternFront, initsPartialAwarddatedDecember19,2005 .TheCommissionfoundEritrealiabletoEthiopiaforfi�especific“�iolationsofinternationallawcommittedbyitsmilitarypersonnelorbyotherofficialsoftheStateofEritrea:”

a . Forpermittingintentionalandindiscriminatekillingsofci�iliansinDalulandElidarWeredasfromJune11,1998toDecember12,2000;b . Forfailuretotakeeffecti�emeasurestopre�enttherapeofwomeninDalulandElidarWeredas;c . Forpermittingbeatingsofci�iliansinDalulandElidarWeredas;d . ForpermittingthelootinganddestructionofpropertyinDalulandElidarWeredas;ande . Forabduction,forcedlaborandconscriptionofci�iliansinDalulWereda .

d. ethiopia’s damages Claims structure51 . Ethiopiadidnotpresentitspleadingswithrespecttocompensation

fordamagesindi�iduallyforeachoftheseliabilityfindings .InitsDamagesGroupOneMemorial,Ethiopiaassembledthesejus in bello liabilityfindings,alongwithothers,intosixlargegroups,claimingfixed-sumdamagesinsomegroupsandactualamountdamagesinothers .(EthiopiaalsoclaimedlargeamountsforEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum.TheseclaimsarediscussedbelowinSectionXI .)

52 . Ethiopia’ssixgroupsofclaimsarefor:–Fixed-sumdamagesforinjuriesanddeathsinflictedupon

Ethiopiannationals;–Fixed-sumdamagesforlossofEthiopiannationals’prop-

erty;–Actualamountdamagesfordamagetothetownof

Zalambessa,damagetohundredsofchurchesandgo�ern-mentfacilitiesinEthiopia,anddamagesallegedlysufferedbynumerousEthiopianentitiesandgo�ernmentagencies;

–MaterialdamagesresultingfromEritrea’saerialoperationsinMekele,useoflandmines,andharmtonaturalresourc-esandtheen�ironment;

–Damagesinrespectofprisonersofwar;and–Moraldamages .

53 . TheCommissionfirstaddressesEthiopia’sclaimsformoraldamagesinSectionVIIbelow .TheCommissionthenaddressesthefixed-sumdamagesclaimsinSectionVIII;theactualamountclaims,includingclaimsforjus in bello damagetopublicproperty,inSectionIX;andEthiopia’sotherjus in bello


compensationclaims,thatis,thosewithrespecttoprisonersofwar,EthiopiannationalsinEritrea,andEthiopiandiplomaticagentsandfacilities,inSectionX .Ethiopia’sjus ad bellum claimsareaddressedinSectionXI .

Vii. moral damages Claims

a. ethiopia’s Claims54 . Ethiopia contended that, in addition to damages determined in

accordancewiththesegeneralprinciples,theCommissionshouldawardanenormousseparateincrementofdamagestoreflectmoralinjury .InitsGroupNumberOnedamagesclaims,Ethiopiaclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoequalmorethanUS$5 .1billionasmoraldamages,roughly70%ofitstotalGroupNumberOneclaims .InitsGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims,Ethio-piacombineditsclaimsforactualandmoraldamages,andgenerallydidnotclearlysetoutorsummarizetheamountssoughtasmoraldamages .Totheextenttheycanbeidentified,moraldamagesappeartoconstitutemorethanUS$600millionofthetotalGroupNumberTwoclaims .

55 . Ethiopiaallegedthat“[m]oralinjuriesweresufferedbyhundredsofthousandsofEthiopiansandbytheStateitself .”Inits�iew,eachoftheseindi�idualsexperiencedphysicalpainandsuffering,mentalanguishorotherinterferencewiththeir“abilitytoenjoylifeandtofunctionnormallyintheworld”becauseofEritrea’sactions .ItalsourgedtheCommissiontoconsiderEthiopia’snationalinterestsandinternationalstandinginassessingthemoralinjuryinflicteduponitsnationals .Theseincludedsuchfactorsastheserious-nessofEritrea’sillegaluseofforce(describedas“thelaunchingofanaggres-si�ewar”),“therefusaloftheresponsibleStatetoacknowledgewrongfulnessoftheaction,”harmtoEthiopia’s“integrity,unityandstandingintheinter-nationalcommunity,”and“thecontinuingthreattothepopulationandStateofEthiopiafromEritrea’sthreatsofforce .”

56 . Ethiopia claimed moral damages with respect to a �ery largenumberofpeople,perhapsasmanyasoneandahalfmillion .Itcalculatedtheclaimbymultiplyingtogetherse�eralcomponents,beginningwithEthiopia’sestimatesofthenumberof�ictimsofselectedbreachesofinternationallaw .27(Asdiscussedbelow,theCommissionquestionsmanyoftheseestimates .)Thepopulationestimatesweremultipliedbythea�eragenumberofpersons infamiliesintheaffectedareas(either4 .4or5 .8),onthetheorythatallofa�ic-tim’sfamilymemberssufferedmoralinjuryequi�alenttothatoftheoriginal�ictim .Theresult,thenumberofpersonssaidtoexperiencemoralinjury,was

27 InEthiopia’sGroupNumberOnedamagesclaims, these includedallpersonsallegedlyaffectedbyEritrea’sjus in bello �iolationsin�ol�inginjuriestopersons;personskilledorinjuredbythebombingsneartheAyderSchool;almost350,000internallydis-placedpersons;andotherdeathsandinjuriesEthiopiaattributedtoEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum,suchascasualtiesfromlandmines .


multipliedby“abaseimpact�alue”ofUS$374,saidtoequaltheweighteda�er-ageofincomesinTigrayandAfarforthetwoyearsofthewar .

57 . Theresultingsumwasthenmultipliedanothertime,bythesumofse�eral“se�erityfactors”withassignednumerical�aluesrangingfroma“7”toa“15 .”These�erityfactorswereweightingsthatinEthiopia’s�iewreflectedtherelati�ese�erityofEritrea’soffenses .Foreachofthelargenumberofpeopleforwhomitclaimedmoraldamages,Ethiopiaaddedtogetherse�erityfac-torsof“2”(forEritrea’sillegaluseofforce)and“3”(forEritrea’s“refusaltoacknowledgewrongfulness;refusaltoagreetonon-repetition”),plusatleastoneotherfactor .Otherse�erityfactors in�ol�edkilling(“4”);offensesthatwerefrequentandper�asi�e,indicatinganintenttoinflictmoralinjury(“3”);offenses“shockingtotheconscience”(“3”);orthatin�ol�edaffrontstotheper-sonin�ol�inghonorandreputation(“2”) .Afewgroupshadaggregatese�erityfactorsofonly“7,”butmostgroups’se�erityfactorsrangedfrom“10”to“15 .”Thisprocessresultedinenormousclaims .

58 . Ethiopiacontendedthatmoraldamagesfor�ictimsandtheirfami-liesareawell-establishedelementofthelawofStateresponsibility .Itempha-sizedthejurisprudenceoftheInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRights,notingthatCourt’sroleasaproponentofsubstantialreparationfor�ictimsofrights�iolations .28 Ethiopia cited numerous cases in which the Inter- AmericanCourtawardedsubstantialmoraldamagestoindi�idual�ictims,andalsotofamilymembersindeathordisappearancecases .ItalsocitedthepracticeoftheUNCC,whichallowedcompensationforcertaintypesofmoral injurywheretherewasproofofunderlyinginjury .Ethiopiamaintainedthatthepercapitatotalscalculatedusingitsapproachwere“extremelymodest”incom-parisonwithawardsrenderedbyothertribunals .

b. eritrea’s response

59 . Eritrea contended that Ethiopia’s moral damages claims wereunprecedentedandlackedfoundationinfactorlaw .Eritreaagreedthatmoraldamagessometimescanbeanelementofcompensationforabreachofinter-national law affecting indi�idual dignity and rights . Howe�er, in its �iew,suchdamagesmustbeassessedaspartofatribunal’so�erallassessmentofthenatureandextentoftheinjurywroughtbya�iolation .ForEritrea,moralinjuryispersonal,andrequiresassessmentofindi�idualcircumstancesor,atmost,ofthecircumstancesofidentifiablegroups(suchasprisonersofwar)knowntoha�ehadsimilarexperiences .MoraldamagescannotbeaddedasanadditionalelementtoreflectthesupposedegregiousnessofaState’sconduct,inthemanneroftrebledamagesundersomenationallaws .Doingsomakesthempuniti�edamages,whicharenota�ailableininternationallaw .

28 See Tomuschat,supra note12,atpp .579,582–84 .


60 . Eritreadeniedthatclaimscouldbebasedon“unnamed,unidenti-fied,percentage-based�ictimsandtheirunnamed,unidentifiedstatistically-generatednextofkin .”Ethiopia’s“se�erityfactors”weresaidtolacklegalorlogicalfoundation .EritreaalsorespondedtoEthiopia’ssuggestionthatithadexperiencedmoralinjuryinitsownright(asopposedtointherightofdip-lomaticprotection),arguingthatinternationallawdoesnotauthorizemon-etarycompensationformoralinjurytotheState .AsEthiopiadidnotclaimaseparateamountofcompensationforanymoraldamagetotheStateinitsownright,theCommissionneednotmakeanydecisioninthisregard .

C. The Commission’s Conclusions

61 . TheCommissionhasgreatreser�ationsregardingEthiopia’smoraldamagesclaims .Theseclaimsseekbillionsofdollars,amountswhollydispro-portionatetoEritrea’slimitedeconomiccapacity .Theyrealisticallycouldnotbepaid,orcouldbepaidonlyatunacceptablecosttoEritrea’spopulationforyearstocome .Largepercapitaawardsofmoraldamagesmaybelogicalandappropriateinsomecontextsin�ol�ingsignificantinjuriestoanindi�idualortoidentifiablemembersofsmallgroups .Theconceptcannotreasonablybeexpandedtosituationsin�ol�ingclaimedmoralinjurytowholepopulationsoflargeareas .29

62 . Inanycase,asexplainedbelow,theCommissiondoesnotacceptmanyoftheestimatesofpopulationsandofthefrequencyofinjuriesunder-lyingtheseclaims .Italsorejectstheuseof“familymultipliers”toincreasetheclaimsfi�e-fold .Note�eryfamilymembersuffersmoralinjuryequaltothatofa�ictim,withoutreferencetothetypeofinjuryorotherindi�idualcircumstances . Such assessments must be fact-based, reflecting particularcircumstances,asthejurisprudenceoftheInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRightsillustrates .ThatCourt’sdecisionsfrequentlydifferentiateamongfam-ilymembers,reflecting�ariablefactorssuchasthedegreeofrelationshipanddependency .

63 . TheCommissionalsodoesnotacceptthemechanicaluseof“se�er-ityfactors”toswelltheclaim .Thissystemhasnoprecedentininternationallaw .Thefactorsthemsel�es,andthemanneroftheirapplication,arequestion-able .Twoofthefactors(Eritrea’sillegaluseofforceanditssupposedrefusaltoacknowledgewrongfulness)in�ol�emattersbearinguponinter-Staterela-tions .Thesemightberele�anttocertainclaimsfordamagepurelytotheState,butnottoassessingmoralinjurytoindi�iduals;inanycase,theunlawfuluseofforceisthebasisforEthiopia’sseparatejus ad bellum claim .SomeofEthio-pia’sotherfactorsmightbegermanetoassessingmoralinjurytoindi�iduals,butthenumeric�aluesgi�enthem,andthemechanicaladditionofmultiplefactors,arearbitraryandwithoutlegalfoundation .

29 Id.,p .584 .


64 . Ethiopiadeniedthatitsoughtpuniti�edamages,butitsmoraldam-agesclaims,atthe�eryleast,beartheappearanceofsucharequest .Itistrue,asEthiopiaargues,thattheamountsgeneratedbyitssystemarenolargerpercapitathansomemoraldamagesawardsmadebytheInter-AmericanCourtandothertribunalsincasesin�ol�ingmanyfewerpeople .Howe�er,Ethiopiaclaims thesehighdamages inrespectofe�eryoneofmore thanamillionunidentifiedpersons .ThemoraldamagesawardsofthecourtsandtribunalsEthiopiacitesreflectapainstakingassessmentofdetailedrecordsinindi�idualcases .Therecanbenosuchassessmentinaclaimin�ol�inghugenumbersofhypothetical�ictims .

65 . Inappropriatecases,theCommissionhasweighedsomeofthecon-siderationsidentifiedbyEthiopia,suchasthegra�ityofaparticulartypeof�iolation,andtheextentandconsequencesoftheresultinghumaninjury,indeterminingthedamagestobeawarded .Howe�er,ithasdonesoasaninte-gralelementofitsdamagesawards,notbyusingaseparatecalculusof“moraldamage .”Accordingly,Ethiopia’smultipleclaimsformoraldamagesasanadditionalandseparateincrementofdamagesaredismissed .

Viii. fixed-sum Jus in Bello damages Claims

a. deaths and injuries66 . ThissectionaddressesEthiopia’sfirstgroupofclaims,forfixed-sum

damagesforinjuriesanddeathssufferedbyEthiopiannationalsin�iolationofthejus in bello.EthiopiaclaimedUS$434,726,251forsuchinjuries,onthethreefrontsofthewar(Western,CentralandEastern) .EthiopiapresentedthisclaiminamannerthatdidnotdirectlycorrespondtotheCommission’sliabilityAwards .TheCommissionregardsitsspecificfindingsofliabilityasthenecessarystartingpointforassessingliability .Accordingly,here,aswithsomeotherclaims,ithashadto“deconstruct”theclaimstoassesswhethertheyareco�eredbytheearlierliabilityfindings .

67 . Ethiopiacontendedthatmanythousandsofindi�idualEthiopianswere�ictimsofwrongfulconduct .Theirinjuriesoccurredyearsago,ofteninremotelocations .InEthiopia’s�iew,itwasnotfinanciallyorpracticallyfeasible—eitherfortheclaimantStateorfortheCommission—toassembleandassesse�idenceregardingeachofthousandsofindi�iduale�ents .Instead,Ethiopia urged a damages assessment methodology in�ol�ing a degree ofapproximation .

68 . Ethiopia’sclaims(likeEritrea’s)are inter-Stateclaims .Howe�er,Ethiopia(likeEritrea)contendedthat thecompensationduetoaclaimantStateoftencouldbeassessedbyestablishingafixed-sumwithrespecttoeachpersonsufferingaparticular�iolation .Thissumwouldthenbemultipliedbythenumberof�ictims,gi�ingthetotalcompensationallegedlydueforeachtypeof�iolation .Ethiopiacontendedthatwhereindi�idualssufferedmulti-


pletypesof�iolations,additionalfixed-sumsshouldbea�ailableinrespectofeachtype .Ethiopiaadoptedthisapproachforitsdamagesclaimsfordeathsandinjuries,forcertainpropertylosses,formoraldamages,andforinjuriestoprisonersofwar .

69 . Informulatingitsfixed-sumcompensationclaims,Ethiopiamadese�eral interconnected judgments . Depending on the type of claim, thesecouldincludejudgmentsregarding: – theamountoffixed-sumcompensationper�ictimfor�arious

�iolations(i .e .,killings,beatings,rapes,etc .); – thepopulationsintheareasinEthiopiawhereparticular�iola-

tionsoccurred; – thepercentageofeachsuchpopulationsufferingaparticular

�iolation; – inthecaseofclaimsformoraldamages,theextentofincreasesto

reflecttheimpactof�iolationsonmembersof�ictims’families .70 . Ethiopia indicated that the Commission could modify any of

thesejudgmentsastoanyparticularclaim,buturgedthatitsbasicapproachwasreasonableandlegallyappropriateinthecircumstances,notasa“massclaimstechnique,”butratherasanappropriatemethodtoquantifycompen-sationfortheclaimingState .

1. Ethiopia’s Claims

71 . Tocalculateitsclaimforoffensesagainstpersons,Ethiopiadi�idedtheCommission’srele�antliabilityfindingsintogroupsitbelie�edin�ol�edoffensesofsimilargra�itywarrantingthesamefixedpercapitasum .Ethiopiaidentifiedfi�esuchgroups:(a)intentionalkillings;(b)rape;(c)beatingsandwoundscausedbysmallarmsfire;(d)abductions;and(e)forcedlaborandconscription .

72 . Fixed Compensation Amounts. Ethiopiaclaimed�aryingpercent-agesofprojectedlifetimeearningsofruralpeopleinTigrayorAfarasfixedcompensationamounts .Lifetimeearningswerecalculatedstartingwiththea�erageannualpercapitaincomeineachregion,asderi�edfromcensusdata .Theyweresaidtobe1,255birr(whichEthiopiacon�ertedtoequalUS$182)forTigrayor1,385birr(US$201)forAfar .Ethiopiathenestimated�ictims’a�erageremaininglifespan,bysubtractingthemedianageofallEthiopiansfromthea�erageprojectedlifespanofallEthiopiansofmedianage .Thedif-ferencewasmultipliedbypercapitaannualincome,gi�inganotionallifetimeearningsfiguresaidtoequalUS$5,060forpersonsinTigrayandUS$5,588inAfar .Theseamountswerenotdiscountedtopresent�alueoradjustedinanyothermanner .

73 . Ethiopianextestimatedtheimpactof�arious�iolationsonpro-jectedlifetimeearnings .Itestimatedfixedcompensationforakillingtoequalalifetime’searnings .Arapewasestimatedtocauseinjuryequalto50%of


lifetimeearnings;beatingsandwoundswerealsoestimatedat50%;abduc-tionsat75%;andforcedlaborandconscriptionat85% .Accordingly,thebaseamountsoughtinrespectofadeathinTigraywasUS$5,050,andforabeating,US$2,530 .Ethiopiamaintainedthattheseestimatedpercentageswere“reason-able”inlightofthee�idenceinearlierproceedingsandthenatureofeachtypeofinjury .Howe�er,itpresentednonewe�idenceoranalysistosupporttheseestimates,nordiditrelatethemtoe�idencepre�iouslyonrecord .

74 . Frequency of Injuries. Ethiopianextestimatedthenumberof�ic-timsofeachtypeof injury,basedonthepre-warpopulationsofthegeo-graphic areas co�ered by the Commission’s liability findings . Ethiopia’sliability claimswereoftenpresentedon thegeographicbasisofweredas,andtheCommission’sliabilityAwardstypicallyfoundthatinaparticularwereda,certaintypesof�iolationsoccurred .(Weredasarelocalgo�ernmen-talentitiesdescribedbyEthiopiaasroughlycomparabletoU .S .counties .Theyaredi�idedintokebeles,smallerareasofperhapsonehundredsquarekilometers,saidroughlytocorrespondtoaU .S .townshiporsmallerarea .Kebelesaredi�idedintotabias .)

75 . EthiopiabeganbyidentifyingtheweredaswheretheCommissionfoundspecifictypesof�iolations .Itthenidentifiedthekebeleswithineachweredawhereitbelie�edtheseoccurred .Theseincludedbothkebelesnearthefrontlines,andothersawayfromthelinesthatallegedlysufferedfromdepre-dationsbyEritreanpatrolsorotherconductunlawfulunderthejus in bello.Ethiopiaestimatedthepopulationofeachaffectedkebele,takingpopulationfiguresfromEthiopia’s1994census,increasingthemtoreflectnation-widea�erageincreasesinpopulationsince1994,andmakingfurtheradjustmentstoreflectsomechangesinkebeleboundaries .Intheaggregate,Ethiopiacon-tendedthatalmost242,000peoplewerepotentiallyexposedtoEritrean�iola-tionsofonekindoranother .

76 . Afterestimatingthepopulationsofareasaffectedbythewar,Ethio-piaestimatedthepercentageofeachsuchpopulationthatsufferedspecifictypesof�iolations .Ethiopiamaintainedthatsignificantproportionsofeachpopulationsufferedabuses,althoughitsestimates�ariedtoreflectdifferencesintheCommission’sfindingsregardingparticularweredas .Thus,Ethiopiacontendedthatinmostaffectedkebeles,Eritreanforcesunlawfullykilledfully9%ofthepre-warpopulation .Thepercentageofallegedkillingswaslower(7%)inGulomakhedaWereda,andhigher(12%)inIrobWereda .Inall,EthiopiacalculatedthatEritreanforcesunlawfullykilled13,394people .ItassertedthatfortheCommissiontofindfewerunlawfulkillingswould“renderitsawardsregardingthis�iolation�irtuallymeaningless .”

77 . Inasimilar�ein,Ethiopiaassertedthato�erathirdoftherele�antpopulations(almost83,000persons)sufferedbeatingorwoundingatthehandsofEritreanforces .(HalfofthepeopleinAhferomWeredaweresaidtoha�ebeenbeatenorwounded,butonly30%inGulomakhedaWereda .)Ethiopiaalsoclaimedthat1%ofthepre-warfemalepopulationsufferedrapeinthose


areaswheretheCommissionfoundEritrealiableforallowingrapetooccur(236women);andthatmanythousandsofpeoplesufferedabductions,forcedlabororconscription .

78 . Ethiopiapresentednonewe�idencesupportingitsallegationsthattherewerewello�er100,000�ictims,nordiditdirectlyrelatethemtospecifice�idencepre�iouslyintherecord .Instead,itarguedthattheCommission’spre�iousliabilityfindingsauthoritati�elyestablishedthat�arious�iolationswerefrequentandper�asi�einkebelesaffectedbythewar .InEthiopia’s�iew,thesefindingsestablished“serious�iolationsofthelawbytheparties,whichareusuallyillegalactsoromissionsthatwerefrequentorper�asi�eandconse-quentlyaffectedsignificantnumbersof�ictims .”Ethiopiacontendedthatthiswassufficienttoestablishthat�iolationsoccurredo�erwideareasandwiththefrequencyitasserted .

2. Eritrea’s Response

79 . Eritrea�igorouslydisputedallaspectsofEthiopia’sdamagesclaim,beginning with Ethiopia’s proposed compensation amounts . Eritrea ques-tionedboththemannerinwhichEthiopiacalculatedlifetimeearnings,andtheappropriatenessofusingthemasameasureofcompensation .EritreaurgedthatEthiopia’sproposalstocalculatedamagesbaseduponpercentagesoflife-timeearningswerewhollyarbitraryandwithoutfoundationintherecord .

80 . Regardingthefrequencyofinjury,Eritrea�igorouslycontestedEthi-opia’spopulationestimates,maintaining,inter alia,thatEthiopiasignificantlyo�erstatedtheareaswhereEritreanforceswerepresent,andthattheareasEthiopianowclaimedinthedamagesphasetoha�ebeenoccupiedbyEritreawerelargerthanthosecitedintheearlierliabilityproceedings .EritreaalsocontendedthatpopulationsnearthefronthadbeengreatlyreducedbecausetensofthousandsofEthiopianswereinternallydisplacedonaccountofthefighting,andbecause thousandsofethnicEritreanswere forciblyexpelledfromborderregionsofEthiopia,orleftoftheirownaccord .EritreaattackedEthiopia’sestimateofthepercentageofthepopulationsufferingparticulartypesof injuries,�iewingthemasartificialandwithout foundation intherecord .

81 . InEritrea’s�iew,particularlygi�enthemuch-reducedpopulationsremaininginaffectedareasfollowingtheexpulsionsofethnicEritreansanddeparturesforcampsforinternallydisplacedpersons(“IDPs”)andotherlocationsinEthiopia,Ethiopia’sestimatesofthousandsofkillings,beatingsandother�iolationswerewhollyimplausible .Eritreacitedse�eralreportspreparedbyEthiopianofficialsincludedinEthiopia’searlierliabilityphasee�idence listing far fewer�iolations thanthosenowclaimed . Italsopre-sentedadetailedre�iewofthehundredsofdeclarations,signedclaimsformsandothere�idencesubmittedbyEthiopiaintheearlierproceedings .Erit-reacontendedthatthisearliere�idenceoftencontainedfew—ifany—refer-


encesto�iolationsinmanylocationswhereEthiopianowclaimedtheywerefrequent,manytimesindicatingonlyoneortwo�iolationsinareaswhereEthiopianowclaimedhundreds .

3. The Commission’s Conclusions

82 . Theclaimshereareinter-Stateclaims,notclaimsonbehalfofspe-cificindi�iduals .AnycompensationgoestotheclaimantState,nottoinjuredindi�iduals(althoughtheCommissionremainsconfidentthatthePartiesaremindfuloftheirresponsibility,withinthescopeoftheresourcesa�ailabletothem,toensurethattheirnationalswhoare�ictimsoftheconflictrecei�erelief) .Thus,theCommission’staskdiffersfromthatfacing,forexample,theUNCC,whichconsideredclaimsonbehalfofnamedindi�iduals .

83 . TheCommissionrecognizesthattheo�erallapproachdescribedbyEthiopiamaybeausefulreferenceforassessingcompensationininter-Stateclaims,ifproperlyappliedinappropriatecases .Itmaypro�idearoughmeas-ureofaState’sinjurywhereagroupofitsnationalsofknownsizehassufferedsimilarinjuries .SomeofthetechniquesproposedbyEthiopiaha�ebeenusedinmodernmassclaimsprocessesdesignedtocompensateindi�idualsin�ol�-ingwidespreadinjury,utilizingrelaxedstandardsofe�idencecombinedwithreducedcompensationamountsreflectingtheselowere�identiaryburdens .30Inrecognitionofthis,ChapterThreeoftheCommission’sRulesofProcedure,co�ering“MassClaimsProcedures,”ga�ethePartiestheoptionoffilinglargenumbersof indi�idualclaimsforfixedamountdamages,althoughneitherPartydidso .

84 . Howe�er,Ethiopiaproposedsomethingdifferent .Itdidnotclaimreducedcompensationamountsreflectingalesserburdenofproof .Instead,itsoughtfixedamountssaidtoreflectthefullextentoftheinjuriessufferedbyitsnationals .Thiscreatesmanydifficulties .Theamountsclaimedperindi�iduallargelyrestonestimateandhypothesis .Further,theapproachdoesnotpermit�erificationorcheckingregardingtheclaimednumberof�ictims(the“claim-antclass”) .Othermodernprocedures, suchas thoseof theUNCCand inChapterThreeofthisCommission’sRulesofProcedure,requirethatmembersoftheclaimantclassbeidentifiedinawaythatallowslaterrandomsamplingofthee�idenceorothermeasuresto�erifywhetherclassmemberssufferedthequalifyinginjuryorotherwisewereproperlyincluded .Ethiopia,howe�er,defineditsclaimantclassesintheabstract,multiplyingpopulationestimatesbyestimatesofthepercentagesofthosepopulationsthoughttoha�esufferedparticular�iolations .Thislea�estheCommissionwithnowayto�erifytheanalysis .Itcannotsamplethee�idenceregardingtheparticularindi�iduals

30 See REDRESSING INJUSTICES THROUGH MASS CLAIMS PROCESSES:INNOVATIVERESPONSESTOUNIQUECHALLENGES(PermanentCourtofArbi-tration,ed .,2006) .


saidtobelongtoaclaimantclass,becausenoindi�idualswereidentified,andtherewasnosupportinge�idence .

85 . TheCommissionacceptsthatasystemin�ol�ingfixedamountcom-pensationinrespectofmultiple�ictimsrequiresapproximation,but—par-ticularlyinclaimsseekingmanymillionsofdollars—approximationmustbebasedonmorethansubjecti�eassertionsof“reasonableness .”

86 . Base Compensation Amounts. The Commission also has doubtsregarding specific elements of Ethiopia’s analysis, beginning with the useofestimatedlifetimeearningsasabasisfordeterminingcompensationforoffensesin�ol�ingpersons .Inthecaseofdeathsorlifelongdisabilities,pro-jectedlifetimeearningsmaybeanappropriatereference .Thecaseforusingthemisfarlesscompellingforinjuriessuchasabeatingthatlea�esnophysi-calimpairment,afewhoursordaysofforcedlabor,orothersimilar�iolationwithoutlastingphysicaleffects .Moreo�er,Ethiopia’sestimatesofthe�alueoflifetimeearningsinTigrayandAfarappearsignificantlyinflated .Theesti-matesoffutureincomewerenotdiscountedtopresent�alue,norweretheyadjustedforfactorssuchasthepossibleeffectofagingonearningpower .

87 . The Affected Population. Ethiopia’spopulationestimatesalsoappeartoo�erstatesignificantlythenumberofpersonspotentiallyatrisk .Forexam-ple,therele�antpopulationmustbereducedtotakeaccountoftheapproxi-mately15,000ruralEthiopiansofEritreanancestrywhowereexpelledfromborderareas,mostofthemearlyinthewar .31Italsomustbereducedtoreflectthetensofthousandsofpersonsinternallydisplacedfromlocationsnearthefightingfronts,andforwhomEthiopiaseparatelyclaimedcompensationinitsjus ad bellum claims .IDPsmayha�esufferedgreatlyonaccountoftheirdisplacementtoplacesawayfromthefront,buttheirrelocationsignificantlyreducedtheirriskofinjuriesorabusesatthehandsofEritreanforces .

88 . Initsjus ad bellum damagesclaims,Ethiopiacontendedthat,atitspeak,internaldisplacementintheWesternandCentralFrontareasinTigraytotaledabout316,000persons .ThousandsmorewereinternallydisplacedinIrobandAfar .ThereisafundamentalincongruitybetweenEthiopia’sjus ad bellum claimofmassi�einternaldisplacement,andthepresentclaimthattheentirepre-warpopulationremainedinareasclosetothefront,exposedtoabusesbyEritreanforces .Thelargenumbersof�ictimsassertedinbothclaimscannotbecorrect .Inthisregard,theCommissionnotesthatEthiopiapre-sentedmuchdetailede�idenceinitsjus ad bellum claim,showingsignificantinternal displacement, including much documentation from internationalorganizationsandotheroutsideobser�ers .Gi�en this e�idence, theCom-missionbelie�esthatalargeproportionofthepopulationsofthekebelesatornearthefrontlinesjoinedtheranksoftheinternallydisplaced,andwere

31 PartialAward,Ci�iliansClaims,Eritrea’sClaims15,16,23&27–32BetweentheStateofEritreaandTheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia(December17,2004)[hereinafterPartialAwardinEritrea’sCi�ilianClaims],atp .20 .


largelyabsentfromtheirhomeswhenEthiopiacontendedtheywereatriskofEritrean�iolations .Moreo�er,theCommissionbelie�esthatEthiopiaclaimedlargenumbersof�iolationsinareasthatwereatsubstantialremo�efromthefightingfronts,andthatwereexposed—atmost—onlytoepisodicraidsbysmallgroupsofEritreanforces .

89 . Ethiopia’srebuttalarguments—thatIDPsmightha�esufferedinjurybeforetheylefttheirhomes,whiletheywerefleeing,orwhilereturningtotheirhomestocheckontheirli�estockorotherproperty—didnotresol�ethesedifficulties .TherecordindicatedthatsomeIDPswereinjuredinthesecircum-stances,butitdidnotshowthatsuche�entsweresofrequentastoaltertheo�erallpicture .Inthisregard,thee�idenceincludedse�eralaccountsofmenwhowereshotbysoldiersduringhoursofdarknesswhilenearingEritreanpositionsorattemptingtore-enteroccupied�illages .Thesecircumstancesraisequestionsaboutwhetherthosedeathsin�ol�edajus in bello �iolation .

90 . Thea�ailablee�idencepermitsonly rough judgmentsas tohowmanyEthiopiansmayha�eremainedin�illagesandfarmsclosetothefight-ingfronts,atriskofEritreanjus in bello�iolationsagainsttheirpersons .ThenumbersclearlyweremuchsmallerthanEthiopianowclaims .Thepopulationpotentiallyexposedtosuch�iolationswasfarsmallerthanthe242,000per-sonsclaimedbyEthiopia—perhapshalf,butprobablyfewer .

91 . TheCommissionalsodoesnotacceptEthiopia’sestimatesofthelargepercentagesofthe�ulnerablepopulationwhoallegedlyexperienced�io-lationsagainsttheirpersons .TheseestimatesarenotsupportedbytherecordorbytheCommission’s liabilityfindings .TheCommissiondidsometimesconcludethatparticulartypesof�iolationswere“frequent”inparticularwere-das,butthisisfarshortoffindingthat40%ofthetotalpre-warpopulationofalargeareawasbeatenorshot,or9%killed .32“Frequent”isatermwhosemeaningdependsuponcontext .Thefrequencyof�iolationsfallingwithintheCommission’sliabilityfindingsmustbebasedone�idence,notassertionorartificialexegesisofliabilityAwards .

92 . TheCommissionalsonotesthatEthiopia’spopulationispredomi-nantlymadeupofwomenandchildren .Withtheexceptionofrape(discussedseparatelybelow),theaccountsofkillingsorattacksonpersonscontainedintherecordo�erwhelminglyin�ol�edattacksin�ol�ingadultoradolescentmales .Whate�erthefrequencyofattacksmayha�ebeenonmenandadoles-cents,therecorddidnotsupportEthiopia’sclaimthatwomenandchildrensufferedsimilarratesofdeathsorinjuries .

93 . Lackingadditionale�idencetosupportEthiopia’sclaimsthatEri-trean�iolationsresultedinthousandsofdeathsorinjuries,theCommissionhashadtomakeitsownappraisalofthee�idencepre�iouslyadduced .The

32 CounselforEthiopiaalsocontendedthattheCommissionfoundthatcertain�io-lationswere“per�asi�e,”butthedispositifs oftheCommission’sPartialAwardsonlyusedthetermonce,concerninga�iolationin�ol�ingEritrea’streatmentofprisonersofwar .


CommissionfoundEritreatobeliableforthefollowingrele�ant�iolationsontheCentralFrontinareasoccupiedbyitsarmedforcesfromMay1998toMay2000:

1 . ForpermittinginMerebLekheWeredafrequentphysicalabuseofci�il-iansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatingsandabductions . . .;2 . ForpermittinginAhferomWeredafrequentphysicalabuseofci�iliansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatings,abductionsandwoundscausedbysmall-armsfire . . .;3 . For permitting in Gulomakheda Wereda frequent physical abuse ofci�iliansbymeansofintentionalkillings,beatingsandabductionsduringthein�asioninJune1998andlessfrequent,butrecurring,physicalabuseofci�ilians . . .; . . .6 . Forpermitting in IrobWeredaa recurringpatternofexcessi�e�io-lencebyEritreansoldiersagainstci�ilians,includingfrequentbeatingsandintentionalkillings,andfrequentse�erebeatingandotherabuseofci�ilianstakenintocustody . . .;33

94 . OntheWesternFront,Eritreawasfoundliableforpermitting“fre-quentbeatingsofci�iliansinTahtayAdiaboWereda .”34FortheEasternFront,theCommissionfoundliability:

a . Forpermittingintentionalandindiscriminatekillingsofci�iliansinDalulandElidarWeredasfromJune11,1998toDecember12,2000; . . .c . Forpermittingbeatingsofci�iliansinDalulandElidarWeredas;and . . .e . For abduction, forced labor and conscription of ci�ilians in DalulWereda .35

a. Killings95 . TheCommissionbeginswiththemostseriousofthese�iolations,

Ethiopia’sclaimthat13,935ci�ilianswerekilledintentionallyorotherwisein�iolationofthejus in bello onthethreefrontsofthewar .Thereisnodoubtthatunlawful,intentionalandindiscriminatekillingsofci�iliansoccurred,astheCommissionfound .Menorboyscaringforli�estockinthefieldsappear

33 PartialAward,CentralFront,Ethiopia’sClaim2BetweentheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(April28,2004)[hereinafterPartialAwardinEthiopia’sCentralFrontClaims],dispositif,SectionV .D .

34 PartialAward,WesternandEasternFronts,Ethiopia’sClaims1&3BetweentheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(December19,2005)[hereinafterPartialAwardinEthiopia’sWesternandEasternFrontClaims],dispositif,SectionVI .F .2 .

35 Id.,dispositif,SectionVII .F .2 .


toha�ebeenparticularlyfrequent�ictims .Thereweremultipleaccountsintherecord,manybyeyewitnesses,describinghowraidingpartiesofEritreansoldiersshotnamedindi�idualsandstoletheiranimals .Suchkillingswere�eryseriousoffenses,anddeser�eanawardofsignificantdamages,aswellasuni�ersalcondemnation .

96 . Ne�ertheless,Ethiopia’sclaimregardingthefrequencyorextentofsuchkillingwasfundamentallyatoddswiththenumbersofci�iliandeathsfromallcausesreportedbyrelieforganizationsandEthiopianofficialsine�i-dencesubmittedpre�iously .Thesereportsoftenreferredingeneraltermstodeathsofci�ilians,usuallyfromartilleryfireorlandmines(forwhichEthiopiamadeseparatejus ad bellum claimsdiscussedbelow) .Theymadenomentionofthousandsofci�ilianssupposedlykilledintentionallyorindiscriminatelybyEritreansoldiers .TheCommissionwouldha�eexpectedEthiopianofficialsandrelieforganizationstoha�ein�estigatedanddescribedsuchmasskillingsindetail,hadtheyoccurredtoanythingliketheextentnowclaimed .

97 . Reports by Ethiopian officials and Ethiopian and internationalaidagenciesthataddresscasualtyfiguresindicatedaquitedifferentpictureregarding the number of ci�ilian deaths—from all causes—related to thewar .AreportbyaninternationalaidgroupcitedinEthiopia’sCentralFrontMemorialdescribedfi�ehundredci�iliandeathsfromallcausesinTigrayasofAugust2000 .Anotherreportcitedatotaloffortyci�iliandeathsinGulo-makheda .AthirdfromJune1999cited241ci�iliandeathscausedbyartilleryfire;therewasnomentionofintentionalkillingsbyEritreansoldiers .Numer-ousdeclarationsbykebeleortabiaadministratorsorotherEthiopianlocalofficialsdescribedwartimecasualtiesintheirareasofresponsibility;thesearediscussedfurtherbelowinconnectionwithEthiopia’sjus ad bellum claims .Withfewexceptions(particularlyinIrob),theselocalofficials’accountsmadeno mention of intentional killings of ci�ilians by Eritrean soldiers . Takentogether,thereportsandaccountsofEthiopianofficialsindicatedthatthetotalnumberofci�iliandeathswasfarbelowthenumberEthiopianowclaimswereintentionallykilled .

b. Beatings and Woundings

98 . Ethiopiaclaimedthat82,223peoplesufferedfrombeating,wound-ingorotherformsofphysicalabuseatthehandsofEritreanforces .Thee�i-denceintherecordagainfellfarshortofsupportingthisclaim .TherewasasufficientnumberofcredibleaccountsbylocalresidentsdescribingpersonsbeingbeatenorwoundedtojustifytheCommission’sholdingsthatsuchbeat-ingswerefrequent .Howe�er,therewerenoreportssuggestingphysicalassaultsonmorethan80,000Ethiopians,ordescribinglargenumbersofpeoplerecei�-ingmedicalcareorsufferinglastingdisabilitiesonaccountofsuche�ents .Afewwitnessstatementsbylocalpriestsorofficialslistedmuchsmallernumbersof�ictims;onesuchdocumentlistedeighty-fi�epersonswhowere“injuredor


tortured”inIrobo�erthecourseofthewar .Takenasawhole,thee�idenceagainfellfarshortofsupportingtheenormousnumbersof�ictimsclaimedbyEthiopia .

c. Abductions and Disappearances

99 . Ethiopiaclaimedthat20,354peoplewereabductedontheWestern,CentralandEasternFronts .Asnotedabo�e,theCommissionfoundthatci�il-ianswereabductedinMerebLekhe,AhferomandGulomakhedaWeredas .InIrobWereda,theCommissionfoundEritreatobeliablefor“frequentse�erebeatingandotherabuseofci�ilianstakenintocustody,”andfor“failingtoreleaseci�ilianstakenintocustodyinIrobWeredaandtopro�ideinformationregardingthem .”FortheEasternFront,theCommissionfoundliabilityfor“abduction,forcedlaborandconscriptionofci�iliansinDalulWereda .”OntheWesternFront,theCommissionfoundEritrealiableforpermittingthefre-quentabductionofEthiopianci�ilians,andforunexplaineddisappearances,fromTahtayAdiabo,LaelayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredas .

100 . Thee�idenceagainidentifiednumbersofabductionsanddisap-pearancesfarshortofthosenowclaimed .AnofficialfromthetownofZal-ambessalistedse�enteenpersons“disappeared”orabductedfromthetown,whichhadapre-warpopulationtheCommissionestimatedat7,000to10,000 .AJune1999assessmentbytheTigrayRegionalBureauofPlanningandEco-nomicDe�elopmentstatedthat641ci�ilianswereabductedfromTigray .Someaccountsbylocalofficialsandpriestspro�idedadditionaldetail;adeclarationbyapriestinIrobWeredalistedtwenty-ninenamedindi�idualssaidtoha�ebeenabducted .Notallabductionsresultedindisappearances .Se�eralaccountsdescribedhowgroupsofpersonstakenawaybyEritreanforcesduringthewarsubsequentlyreturned,eitherwiththeassistanceoftheInternationalCom-mitteeoftheRedCross(“ICRC”)orontheirown .Thee�idencefellfarshortofsustainingEthiopia’sclaimthato�er20,000personswereabducted .

d. Forced Labor and Conscription

101 . Asnotedabo�e,theCommissionfoundliabilityforthe“abduction,forcedlaborandconscriptionofci�iliansinDalulWereda,” locatedinthenorthoftheAfarregion .Ethiopiaclaimedthat9,443personsweremadetoperformforcedlabororwereforciblyconscriptedthere,basedontheassump-tionthat40%of thepopulation in theoccupiedareasof thatweredaweresubjecttothese�iolations .Ethiopiaweightedthe�alueoftheseharmssepa-rately,seekingoneyear’searningsforthoseforcedtoperformlaborand85%oflifetimeearningsforthoseforciblyconscripted,contendingthatahigheramountwasjustifiedtoaccountfortherisktoone’slifeofbeingconscriptedtomilitaryser�ice .Ethiopiaestimatedthattwo-thirdsofthispopulationgroupwasrequiredtodoforcedlaborandthatone-thirdwasconscripted .


102 . Attheliabilityphase,Ethiopiasubmittedtestimonyofse�eralwit-nesseswhoperformedforcedlabor,someforbriefperiodsofafewdaysandothersforuptoayear .Thisincludedabroadrangeoflabor,includingcookingforsoldiers,buildingroads,diggingtrenches,buildingfortificationsandfarm-ing .EthiopiasimilarlysubmittedtestimonyofEthiopianswhoallegedtheyweretakentoEritrea’smilitarytrainingcampatSawaandforcedtoser�eintheEritreanmilitary .EritreahadclaimedmuchoftheterritoryithadoccupiedinthisregionasitsownandbysomewitnessaccountslocalsweretoldtheywereEritreancitizenspriortoandatthetimeofconscription .Manyofthosewhotestifiedthattheywereconscriptedstatedthattheywerealsorequiredtoperformlaboreitherpriortoorduringtheperiodofconscription .Whiletheliabilityphasee�idenceshowedthatforcedlaborandconscriptionoccurred,itdoesnotsupportEthiopia’sclaimofo�er9,000�ictims .IntheCommission’s�iew,thise�idenceindicatedaconsiderablysmallerquantumofpersonssub-jecttoforcedlaborandconscription .

e. Award

103 . Gi�en the manner in which Ethiopia presented its claims, theCommissionhashadtomakeitsbestestimatesofthegra�ityandextentofEritrea’sjus in bello �iolationsonthethreefrontsin�ol�ingdeath,physicalinjury,disappearance,forcedlaborandconscriptionofci�iliansbasedonthee�idencepre�iouslyintherecord .Indoingso,ithasgi�enimportantweighttotheseriousnessoftheoffensesagainstlifeandhumandignitypro�edattheliabilityphase .Basedonitsanalysisofthee�idence,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$11,000,000inrespectoftheseclaims .

b. rape104 . AsitdidinconnectionwithitslimitedfindingsinbothParties’

claimsof liability forrape, theCommissionconsiders that thequestionofdamagesconnectedtoincidentsofrapedeser�esseparategeneralcomment .AlthoughtheCommissionreiteratesitsgratificationthat“therewasnosug-gestion,muchlesse�idence,thateitherEritreaorEthiopiausedrape,forcedpregnancyorothersexual�iolenceasaninstrumentofwar,”36theCommis-siondidfinde�idencethatbothPartiesfailedtoimposeeffecti�emeasures,asrequiredbyinternationalhumanitarianlaw,topre�ent“se�eral”rapesofci�il-ianwomenandgirlsincertainareas .TheCommission,whichacknowledgedtheculturalsensiti�itiessurroundingrapeinbothcountriesandtheunwill-ingnessof�ictimstocomeforward,hasnoillusionthattherecordbeforeit

36 E.g.,PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCentralFrontClaims,para .24;PartialAward,CentralFront,Eritrea’sClaims2,4,6,7,8&22BetweentheStateofEritreaandTheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopia(April28,2004)[hereinafterPartialAwardinEritrea’sCentralFrontClaims],para .36 .


re�ealsthefullscopeofrapeduringtheextendedarmedconflict .TheCom-missionisacutelyawarethatthefullnumberof�ictimsandthefullmagnitudeoftheharmtheysufferedcannotandwillnote�erbeknown .

105 . ItisthereforeperhapspredictablethateachPartyfailedtopro�eitsdamagesclaimforrape,eitherastoareasonablenumberof�ictimsorastoareasonablemeasureofeconomicharm .NordidthePartiespro�idetheCom-missionwithanagreedorusefulmethodologyforassessingcompensation .

106 . Ethiopiauseditsgeneralmethodologytoliquidateitsjus in bello damagesclaimsforEritrea’sliability,asfoundbytheCommissioninitsPartialAwards,for“failingtotakeeffecti�emeasurestopre�entrapeofwomenbyitssoldiersinIrobWereda”37andfor“failuretotakeeffecti�emeasurestopre-�enttherapeofwomeninDalulandElidarWeredas .”38Inathree-stepproc-ess,Ethiopia(a)estimatedthat1%ofthepre-warfemalepopulationsufferedrapeinIrob,DalulandElidarWeredas,totaling236women;(b)estimatedtheresultantinjuryat50%ofthetotala�eragelifetimelostearningsinTigrayandAfar;and(c)addedlargemoraldamagesintendedtoreflectthegra�ityoftheinjuryto�ictimsandtheirfamilies .Onthisbasis,Ethiopiasoughtmate-rialdamagesofUS$637,821andmoraldamagesofUS$6,101,820,foratotalawardofUS$6,739,641fordamagesconnectedtorape .(InSectionVIIabo�e,theCommissionaddressesanddismissesEthiopia’sclaims,calculatedusingalegallyunjustifiedandmechanisticmethodology,forlargeseparateawardsofmoraldamagesinthisandotherclaims .)

107 .E�enwiththeextremelyroughapproximationsnecessarilyunder-lyingthedamagesphase,theCommissionissurprisedthatEthiopiaclaimsthatonly1%oftherele�antfemalepopulationsufferedrape .Thispercentageappearsunduly lowin lightof thesocial stigmaofreportingrapeandthecomparati�elylargenumberofwomenandgirlsinthe�ulnerablepopulation .NorcantheCommissionacceptthatestimatedlifetimeearningsha�eanyusefulnessinthiscontext,orequatethefinancialimpactofarapewiththatofabeating .Therele�antpopulationisalsoimpossibletoascertain,asitwouldbethatwhichremainedinoccupiedareas .

108 . EritreaoriginallyproposedthateachPartysetasideUS$500,000toUS$1,000,000ofitsownfundsforitsownlocallyadministeredprogramsforwomen’shealthcareandsupportser�icesintheareaswheretheCommissionfoundliabilityforrape .WhenEthiopiadidnotagreetothisproposal,Erit-rearequestedanawardofUS$6,750,000,withoutexplanationoftheamount .Assetout intheparallelFinalAwardforEritrea, theCommissioncannotassessEritrea’sunexplainedmethodology,butcanonlyassumetheamountwasintendedtomirrorEthiopia’s .

37 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCentralFrontClaims,dispositif,SectionV .D .7 .38 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sWesternandEasternFrontClaims,dispositif,Section

VII .F .2 .b .


109 . DespitetheshortcomingsofbothParties’damagesmethodologies,theCommissionconsidersthatthisserious�iolationofinternationalhumani-tarianlawdemandsseriousrelief .Neithersymbolicnornominaldamageswillsufficeinthefaceofthephysical,mentalandemotionalharmknowntobesufferedbyrape�ictims .

110 . Accordingly,theCommissionawardsEthiopia(asitdoesEritreainitsparallelAward)US$2,000,000indamagesforfailingtopre�enttherapeofknownandunknown�ictimsinIrob,DalulandElidarWeredas .Insodoing,theCommissionexpressesthehopethatEthiopia(andEritrea)willusethefundsawardedtode�elopandsupporthealthprogramsforwomenandgirlsintheaffectedareas .

C. loss of ethiopian nationals’ Property111 . Intheliabilityphase,theCommissionfoundthatEthiopianci�il-

iansfrequentlylostpropertytolootingorunlawfuldestructionbyEritreanforces .OntheCentralFront,Eritreawasfoundliablefor“widespreadlootingandpropertydestructionintheareasthatwereoccupied”byEritreanarmedforcesfromMay1998toMay2000inMerebLekhe,AhferomandIrobWere-das .TheCommissionfoundsuchlootingandpropertydestructiontoha�ebeen“frequent”inGulomakhedaWereda .

112 . OntheWesternFront,EritreawasfoundliableforpermittingthelootingofpropertyinareasinTahtayAdiaboWeredaoccupiedbyEritreanarmedforces;forpermittinglooting,inparticularofli�estock,insuchareasinLaelayAdiaboWereda;andforpermittinglootingofpropertyandli�e-stockinareasinKaftaHumeraAdiaboWeredawhereEritreanarmedforceswerepresent .OntheEasternFront,EritreawasfoundliableforpermittingthelootinganddestructionofpropertyinDalulandElidarWeredas .Thus,theCommissionfoundEritrealiableforfrequentdestructionofpropertyinsixweredas,andforlootinginnine .


113 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$30,073,424onaccountoflootingintheareasco�ered by the Commission’s liability findings described in the precedingparagraphs,estimatingthat75%ofthepopulationinthe“frontline”kebelesinallnineweredaslostalloftheirpropertytolootingbyEritreanforces .ItalsoclaimedUS$24,879,342onaccountofdestructionin�ol�ingrealprop-erty,estimatingthat35%ofthepopulationofthe“frontline”kebelesinthesixweredaswheretheCommissionfoundpropertydestructionsufferedsuchdamage .

114 . Ethiopiacalculated its jus in bello propertyclaimsinamannersimilartothatusedinitscorrespondingclaimsforinjurytopersons .Ethiopiabeganwiththesameestimatesofthepopulationsofthe“frontline”kebeles .


Itestimatedthat75%ofthesepersonslostalloftheirpersonalpropertytoEritreanlooting .Noadditionale�idencewasofferedtosupportthisestimate .Instead,EthiopiacontendedthatEritreanforceswerepresentintheaffectedareasforsubstantialperiods,gi�ingthemampleopportunitytoloot .Ethiopiaalsoestimatedthat35%of thesepersonshadallof theirhousesandotherrealpropertydestroyed .Again,nonewe�idencewasofferedtosupportthisestimate .EthiopiainsteadarguedthatEritreadestroyed“the�astmajority”ofthesocialandeconomicinfrastructureinaffectedareas,and“thereisnoe�idencetosuggestthatEritreansdestroyedasignificantlylesseramount”ofci�ilianproperty .

115 . Ethiopia estimated per capita losses of property from lootingbaseduponofficialgo�ernmentstatistics .Theseindicateda�erageindi�idualholdingsofpersonalproperty(includingli�estock,amajorformofwealth,andcrucialformanyfamilies’sur�i�al)tobeUS$78percapitainTigrayandUS$683inAfar .Ethiopiacalculatedthe�alueofdamagedordestroyedrealpropertybasedonpre-wargo�ernmentdataindicatingthea�erage�alueofhousesinTigray(17,753,70birr,saidtoequalUS$2,580)andAfar(14,325,14birr,saidtoequalUS$2,082) .Thesea�eragesweremultipliedbythenumberofhousesinthekebeleswhererealpropertywasdamaged,gi�ingthetotal�alueofallhousesintheseareas .Ethiopiathendi�idedthisamountbytheareas’populations,gi�ingapercapitaamountreflectingthe�alueofrealproperty,whichEthiopiacon�ertedtoequalUS$506perpersoninTigrayandUS$339inAfar .Thesepercapitaamountswerelatermultipliedbytheestimatednumberofinjuredindi�iduals(thatis,the35%ofthetotalpopulationintheaffectedareas)togi�etheamountclaimedfordamagetoproperty .

116 . Ethiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorialcontendedthat therewere71,301housesinTigray“intheareaswheredestructionoccurred,”withanother5,707inAfar .Thistotaledslightlyo�er77,000housesintheaffectedareas .Ethiopiaestimatedthat35%ofthetotal�alueofallthesehouseswasdestroyedbyconductfoundto�iolatethejus in bello;itofferednonewe�i-dencetosupportthisestimate .Theestimatedidnotallocatetheassumeddam-ageamonghousesthatwerewhollydestroyed,partiallydestroyed,orsufferedonlymodestdamage .EthiopiaclaimedUS$24,879,342forthisdamage,equal-ingapproximatelyUS$925perhouse .


117 . Eritrea�igorouslycontestedtheamountofEthiopia’sclaimsforpropertydamage,inter alia,recallingitsearlierobjectionstoEthiopia’spor-trayaloftherele�antareasandpopulations,andmaintainingthattheestimat-edfrequencyofinjuriesrestedonassumptionandconjecture,note�idence .



118 . TheCommissionwillnotrepeatitsearliercommentsregardingEthiopia’smethodforcalculatingitsjus in bello claimsforinjurytopersons .Similarconcernsapplyhere .Ethiopiaclaimedlargeamounts,butkeyfactorsincomputingthem—particularly,theassumedfrequencyoflossesattributabletoEritreanconduct—werenotbasedupone�idenceintherecord .TheCom-missionalsohassubstantialdoubtsregardingEthiopia’sestimatesofhousing�alues .IntheareasofruralTigrayandAfarmostaffectedbythewar,occu-pantsoftenbuildtheirownhouses,usinglocalmaterials;damageoftencouldberepairedorreplacedbytheoccupants’laborutilizinglocalmaterials .Lossesofli�estockandagriculturalimplementscouldposeamuchgreaterthreatto�ictims’welfareandsecurity,but,inthecaseofTigray,suchlossesseemedtobeasmallpartofEthiopia’sclaim .

119 . Gi�enthesedifficulties,theCommissionagainmadeitsownre�iewofEthiopia’se�idenceintheearlierproceedings,seekingtoapproximatetheextentoflossescausedbylooting,orin�ol�ingdamagetoordestructionofrealproperty,fallingundertheCommission’sjus in bello liabilityfindings .

a. Looting

120 . Thea�ailablee�idenceregardingtheextentoflossesfromlootingbyEritreanforceswasfragmentaryandimprecise .Howe�er,thenumberofIDPspro�idesonereferencepointforassessinghowmanypeoplemayha�ebeen affected . Many thousands of IDPs left behind property such as li�e-stock,metalroofs,householdgoods,furniture,handtools,farmimplements,grainstoresandbeehi�es,all�ulnerabletolooting .TherecordincludedmanyaccountsdescribinghowIDPslefttheirfarmsand�illagestoa�oidthecon-flict,frequentlyunderconditionsmakingitdifficulttosafeguardpropertyandli�estock .Manyreturnedhometofindthatalloftheirgoodsweregone .

121 . Such lossesofpropertycouldbede�astating for thoseaffected .Manylooting�ictimslosttheirmeansofsubsistenceandwereleftdestitute,witho�erwhelmingeconomicandpsychologicalconsequences .Atbest,such�ictimswereleftwhollydependentonassistancefromgo�ernmentagenciesorinternationalreliefagencies,whichwerethemsel�esstrugglingtomeetneedswithlimitedresources .

122 . Howe�er,notallIDPsloste�erything .TherecordincludesaccountsofIDPswhobroughtalongatleastsomeoftheirli�estockandgoods,orwhowereabletomo�etheirli�estocktomoresecureareas .Inthisconnection,thee�idenceshowedthatmanythousandsofIDPsinTigraylefthomesinareaspotentiallyexposedtoshellingatgo�ernmenturginginlate1998orearly1999,whentherewasnohea�yfightinginthe�icinityandbothpeopleandpropertycouldbee�acuatedinanorderlyway .


123 . Thepre-warpopulationofareasexposedtolootingpro�idesanoth-er,albeitimprecise,referencepoint .TheCommissionpre�iouslyaddressedEthiopia’scontentionsregardingthenumberofpersonspotentiallyexposedtojus in bello �iolationsin�ol�ingkillingsorotherabusebyEritreanforces .39Ethiopiacontendedthatthisgroupnumberedabout242,000people .Howe�er,theCommissionconcludedthatthisestimatehadtobereducedtoremo�ethousandsofruralexpelleesofEritreanorigin .Thesameadjustmentisneces-saryhere .EthiopiashouldnotbeabletoclaimforlootedpropertyleftbehindbypersonswithEritreanantecedentswhowereexpelledfromEthiopia .Thenumbermustbefurtherreducedtoreflectmanythousandsofpeopleli�inginareasatsomedistancefromthefightingfronts,wherelootingbyEritreansoldiers—ifitoccurred—waslessfrequentandextensi�e .Howe�er,itisnotnecessarytomakeadjustmentstotakeaccountofdisplacedpersons .Asdis-cussedabo�e,muchIDPpropertyremainedaftertheownersdeparted,lea�ingitatriskoflooting .

124 . Estimating the extent of looting damage is further complicatedbecausemanypropertylossesbyIDPsandbypersonswhoremainedintheirhomesresultedfromothercauses .Therewase�idencethatmanyanimalswerelosttostar�ation,shellingorothercausesunrelatedtolooting .Muchpropertywaslosttoshellingorotherbattledamage,forwhichthereisnojus in bello liabil-ity .And,Ethiopianci�iliansandsoldierssurelyengagedinsomelooting .InitsPartialAwardonEritrea’sclaimforlootinglossesinthelargelydesertedbordertownofTserona,theCommissionaddressedthisproblembyfindingEthiopiatobeliableforonlyapercentageoflossesfromlooting .40TheCommissionwilladoptasimilarapproachhere .O�erall,howe�er,theCommissionconcludesthatIDPsinparticularlostmuchpropertytolootingbyEritreanforces .

125 . EstimatingtheValueofLootedProperty .Thea�ailablee�idenceisalsosketchyregardingthe�alueofpersonalpropertyandli�estock lost,althoughitunderscoresthepo�ertyofmanyresidentsofruralTigrayandAfar .Incalculatingitslootingclaim,Ethiopiautilizedgo�ernmentdataindicat-ingthatthea�eragepersoninTigrayhadproperty,includingli�estock,worth535 .69birr,whichEthiopiacon�ertedtoequalUS$78 .Thissuggestspropertyworthroughly3,200birrforafamilyofsixinTigray .Thisisbroadlyconsistentwithothere�idenceintherecord .A2000WorldBank/InternationalDe�elop-mentAssociationdocumentdescribedapackageofbasichouseholditemspro-�idedtobeneficiaryhouseholdsinTigrayandAfar,includingdiningutensils,sleepingmaterialsandwatercontainers,all�aluedatabout600–800birr .AnEthiopiango�ernmentstudyofdamagetoresidentsofZalambessaestimateda�eragepropertylossesat10,268birrperhousehold .Theseweretowndwell-ers,whotypicallyhadlargerandbetter-equippedhouses,withmorefurniture,electricalappliances,andotherformsof�aluablepropertynotownedbyrural

39 See SectionVIII .Asupra.40 PartialAwardinEritrea’sCentralFrontClaims,paras .67&69 .


people .AJune1999Ethiopiango�ernmentdamageassessmentestimatedthe�alueoflootedordestroyedpropertyofdisplacedpersonsuptothattimeat33 .9millionbirr .Thisestimateappearsnottoha�eincludedanimalsorfarmimplements,whichweresignificantelementsoftheIDPs’totallosses .

126 . Asnotedabo�e,lossofli�estock,toolsandotherpropertyrequiredforsubsistenceplacedmanypoorruralfamiliesindependencyanddespair .Takingthisintoaccount,andinlightofthegapsanduncertaintiesinthee�i-dence,theCommissionconcludesthatUS$12,000,000fairlyreflectsthe�alueofpropertylosttolootingbyEritreansoldiers .

b. Destruction of and Damage to Houses and Real Property127 . TheCommissionhassoughtthroughouttotreatEthiopia’sdam-

agesclaimsbasedonthejus in bello separatelyfromthosebasedonthejus ad bellum.ThishasbeendifficultinthecaseofEthiopia’sclaimsfordamagetohousingandrealproperty .Ethiopiamadeparallelclaimsforsuchinjurybasedonbothlegalgrounds,butdidnotallocateparticulardamagetooneortheother .Further,thegeographicareasco�eredbyEthiopia’sparallelclaimsfordamagetohousingandrealpropertylargelyo�erlapped,asdotheclaims’factualfoundations .

128 . TheCommissiondidnotmakeliabilityfindingsexplicitlyaddress-ingdamagetohousesorrealproperty,althoughitmadese�eralfindingsofliability for destroying property . On the Central Front, Eritrea was foundliablefor“widespread . . .propertydestruction”inareasoccupiedbyEritreanarmedforcesfromMay1998toMay2000inMerebLekhe,AhferomandIrobWeredas .Propertydestructionwasfoundtobe“frequent”inGulomakhedaWereda .OntheWesternFront,theCommissionfoundinsufficiente�idenceofunlawfulpropertydestruction .OntheEasternFront,EritreawasfoundliableforpermittingdestructionofpropertyinDalulandElidarWeredas .Thus,theCommissionfoundEritrealiableforpropertydestructioninsixweredasontheCentralandEasternFront .EthiopiadidnotaddresstheCommission’sspecificfindingsinframingitsjus in bello compensationclaimfordamagetohousesandrealproperty .

129 . TheCommissionrejectedasunpro�enEthiopia’sclaimthatEritreaengagedinshellingthatwasindiscriminateorotherwisecontrarytothejus in bello.Accordingly,destructionofpropertyduetoshellingisnotcompensableunderthejus in bello.

130 . Ethiopiadescribedbothitsjus in bello andjus ad bellum claimsasembracingdamagetohousesandtootherformsofrealproperty .Howe�er,therele�antdiscussioninEthiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorialandatthehearingfocusedonhouses,andtheCommission’sanalysisrespondstotheclaimsasEthiopiapleadedthem .Accordingly,theCommissionsoughttoassesstheextentofdamagetohousesfallingwithinthescopeofitsjus in bello liabilityfindingsfortheCentralandEasternFronts .


131 . Ethiopia’sDamagesMemorialcontendedthattherewere71,301housesinTigray“intheareaswheredestructionoccurred,”withanother5,707inAfar .Thistotaledslightlyo�er77,000housesintheaffectedareas .Ethiopiaestimatedthat35%ofthetotal�alueofallthesehouseswasdestroyedbycon-ductfoundto�iolatethejus in bello;itofferednonewe�idencetosupportthisestimate .Theestimatedidnotallocatetheassumeddamageamonghousesthatwerewhollydestroyed,partiallydestroyedorsufferedonlymodestdam-age .EthiopiaclaimedUS$24,879,342forthisdamage .

132 . Ethiopia’searliere�idence,includingreportsfromEthiopiango�-ernment sourcesanddamageassessmentsby international relief agencies,showsthatwartimedamagetohouses,whilesubstantial,wasfarlessextensi�ethanEthiopianowclaims .AnAugust1999assessmentcitedinEthiopia’sCen-tralFrontMemorialidentified7,684destroyedhomes .Post-warassessmentsbyUnitedNationsandinternationalreliefagenciesfrequentlyreferredtoaWorldBankassessmentidentifyingabout16,400housesinTigrayasha�ingbeendamagedordestroyedbyallcauses;aJanuary2002UNEmergenciesUnitforEthiopiaassessmentestimatedthatabout35%ofthese16,400werecompletelydestroyed .Howe�er,laterassessmentssuggestedthatinitialesti-matesofthenumberofhousesdamagedordestroyedmayha�ebeenhigh .TheJanuary2002assessmentmissionreported“thatonly33%(5,586houses)ofthehousingunitscountedinthepreliminaryassessment(16,848)wereinfacteligibleforrepairorreconstruction .”

133 . Asnoted,Ethiopiadidnotallocateparticularhousingdamagetoeitheritsjus in bello orjus ad bellum claims .Howe�er,Ethiopia’sjus ad bel-lum housingclaims,discussedinfra,41indicatedthatshellingcausedbyfarthelargestamountofdamagetohousing .Gi�enthis,damagetoordestructionofhousingbyEritreanforcesinareaswheretheCommissionfoundliabil-itywouldha�etobeless—indeed,substantiallyless—thanhalfofthetotalnumberofhousesdamagedordestroyed .

134 . Moreo�er,notalldamage tohousing resulted fromactions forwhichEritreaisliable .Somehousesdecayedfromlackofmaintenancedur-ingtheirowners’absences;traditionalhouseswereparticularlyatriskofthis .Somehouseslostcomponentssuchasstructuralsupports,roofsanddoors,to ci�ilian looters, or to Ethiopian soldiers seeking building materials fortrenchesorfortifications .Inaddition,initsjus in bello claimforthedestruc-tionofZalambessa(consideredbelow),Ethiopiaclaimedforthedestructionof1,220houses .Absentanycontraryindicationintherecord,theCommis-sionmustassumethatthosehouses,orsomesignificantproportionofthem,wereincludedinUNandotherestimatesoftheextentofhousingdamageinTigray .

135 . Theextensi�egapsandambiguitiesintherecord,andthelimitedgeographicscopeoftheCommission’sliabilityfindings,compeltheCommis-

41 See SectionXI .E .1supra.


siontoestimatetheextentofdamagetohousingforpurposesofEthiopia’sjus in bello claim .Indoingso,theCommissionhasgi�enconsiderableweighttointernationalagencies’estimatesofthenumberofdamagedordestroyedhousespreparedduringandafterthewar .Ithasalsogi�enweighttoe�idenceindicatingthatshellingwasamajorcauseofdamagetohousing .Suchdam-agefromshellingcanonlybeconsideredinconnectionwithEthiopia’sjus ad bellum housingclaim .TheCommissionaccordinglyawardsEthiopiathesumofUS$1,900,000forthejus in bello componentofitsclaimsfordamagetohousing .

iX. actual amount Jus in Bello damages Claims136 . ThisportionofEthiopia’sjus in bello claimsincludedmultipleele-

ments .Ethiopiaclaimedanamount itcon�ertedtoapproximatelyUS$120millionfordamagetothetownofZalambessa,tochurchesandgo�ernmentfacilities,andtonumerousEthiopianenterprisesandgo�ernmentagencies .Ethiopiaalsoclaimedactualamountsofdamagessaidtoresult fromErit-rea’sbombingattheAyderSchoolinMekele .Ethiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorialpresentedthesejus in bello claimsalongsidecertainjus ad bellum claimsforspecificamountsofactualdamages,includingclaimsfordeathsandinjuriescausedbylandminesandforinjuryfromthebombingoftheMekeleairport .Theseclaimswillbetreatedseparatelybelow,togetherwithEthiopia’sotherjus ad bellum claims .

a. destruction in Zalambessa137 . Zalambessa,anEthiopianbordertownwithapre-warpopulation

ofse�entotenthousand,liesonthemainroadbetweenAsmaraandAddisAbaba .ItwasafocalpointofthewarontheCentralFront .ThetownwasoccupiedforalmostallofthewarbyEritreanforces,andsufferedmassi�ephysicaldamageandextensi�elooting .InitsCentralFrontPartialAward,theCommissionfoundthatEritreawasliablefor75%ofthephysicaldamageandfor100%ofthelooting .Ethiopiaclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoequalUS$29,489,000asmaterialdamagesforthedestructionandlooting,reflectingthefullamountofdamageallegedlyinflicted .Inthisregard,Ethiopiacon-tendedthatEritreashouldberesponsiblebothforthe75%ofphysicaldamagetheCommissionattributedtothejus in bello �iolation,andfortheremaining25%becauseofEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum.

138 . Ethiopiaallegedthat1,489buildingswerese�erelydamagedordestroyedinZalambessa .Inall(includingboththejus in bello andjus ad bel-lum elementsofitsclaim),Ethiopiaclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoequalUS$23,677,400forthefullamountofthisphysicaldamage,equalingaboutUS$15,900perbuilding .Theclaimincludedamosqueandse�eralchurchesandtheirassociatedstructures,aswellas1,220“residentialhouses;”a�erage


damagetohouseswassaidtobeUS$10,266each .Thisamountwasconsider-ablylargerthanthea�erageamountclaimedbyEthiopiafordestructionofhousesinruralTigray .Howe�er,thee�idence(includinganumberofdeclara-tionsandsignedstatementsbyformerZalambessaresidentsfiledwithEritrea’sCounter-Memorial)indicatedthatmanyhousesinZalambessaweresubstan-tial,multi-roomedstructures .AnApril2002studyonthereconstructionofZalambessapreparedbytheTigrayEmergencyReco�eryProgrammega�efur-thercredencetotheamountclaimedforhouses .The2002studyusedaslightlyhigherper-housefigure,81,000birr,oraboutUS$11,740attheexchangerateusedinEthiopia’spleadings .

139 . Theprimarye�idenceforEthiopia’sclaimsfordamagetostructuresinZalambessawasanextensi�eanddetailedengineeringsur�eypreparedfortheTigrayWorksandUrbanDe�elopmentBureau .Ateamofengineers,assistantengineers,sur�eyors,localeldersandotherspreparedthissur�eyinOctoberthroughDecember2000,beforethisCommissionwascreated .Thesur�eywassupplementedbye�idenceshowingactualreconstructioncostsofsomepublicbuildings .Theengineeringsur�eyestimatedtotalrebuildingcostsat149,441,206birr .Atbirr6 .9:$1(thefa�orableexchangerateEthiopiausedinitspleadings),thiswasapproximatelyUS$21 .66million,roughlyUS$2millionlessthanEthiopiaclaimed .Thedifferencewasnotclearlyexplained,althoughthee�idenceincludedadeclarationbyaseniorEthiopianpublicworksofficialstatingthat,becauseofpriceincreases,“theactualcostsofrebuildingthesestructureswouldbesubstantiallyhigherthanourinitialestimate .”

140 . The Commission finds the engineering study to be thorough,reasonable and credible . It in�ol�ed a building-by-building assessment ofdamagedstructures,oftenincludingdrawingsshowingeachbuilding’stype,locationandsize .Thee�idenceincludednumerousindi�idualbuildingwork-sheetspreparedtoestimaterebuildingcosts .Therewerecarefulestimatesofthecostsofrepairingorreplacingeach,basedupontheextentofdamage,typeofconstruction,andsurfacearea .Thesecostestimateswerede�elopedsoonafterEthiopiareco�eredZalambessa,forgo�ernmentalpurposesunre-latedtolitigation .TheestimatesappearreasonabletotheCommissioninthecircumstances .Theyweremoredetailedandprofessionalthanmuchoftheothere�idenceadducedbyeitherPartyinotherclaimsin�ol�ingdamagetostructures .Thespecifiedcostsweretypicallywellwithin(orbelow)therangeofper-square-meterrepairorreplacementcostscitedinotherclaimsforsomesimilarstructures .

141 . Eritrea’s principal defense to Ethiopia’s claim for damages tostructureswasthattheclaimshouldbesignificantlyreducedbecausemorethanthreehundredpersonssaidtobeEritreannationalsownedmanyofthedestroyedstructures .InEritrea’s�iew,Ethiopiacouldnotassertaclaimfordamagetothesestructuresintheexerciseofdiplomaticprotection .Eritrea’sDamagesGroupOneCounter-Memoriale�idenceincludednumerousshortpreprintedformscompletedandsignedbypersonsli�inginSenafewhopre-


�iouslyli�edinZalambessa,ortheirrelati�es .TheseformsrecitedthatthesignerwasanEritrean,andhadbeen“sinceEritreabecameindependent .”Theythendescribedinafewhandwrittenwordspropertiesthesignerorthesigner’srelati�eallegedlyownedinZalambessa .Thise�idencealsoincludedlistsofEritreanssaidtoha�eownedpropertyinZalambessa,includingonelisting289owners .

142 . EthiopiarespondedwiththedeclarationofaseniorTigraysecurityofficialallegingthatfamilymembersoragentsofmanypersonsonEritrea’slistsremainedinEthiopia,andhadrecei�edgo�ernmenthousingreconstruc-tiongrantsandrehabilitationfunds .Thiswasaccompaniedbytheofficial’srebuttallistofthe289properties,saidtoshowthat,formany,Ethiopianown-ersoragentshadobtainedEthiopiango�ernmentconstructionorrehabilita-tionfunds .Ethiopiaaddedthat,inanycase,anyEritreanownerswouldha�ebeendualnationals,sinceEthiopianlawlimitsrealpropertyownershiptonationals .EthiopiaalsoarguedthatitwasclaiminginitsownrightforinjuryincurredonaccountofthedestructionofanEthiopiantown,aswellasforexpensesincurredortobeincurredinrebuildingthattown,notintheexerciseofdiplomaticprotection .

143 . TheCommissionhasnotreconciledtheParties’duelinglistsofhundredsofpropertiesinZalambessathatwere,orwerenot,ownedbyEritre-ans .ItagreeswithEthiopia’scharacterizationofitsclaimasbeingbasedupondamagedirectlyfallingupontheStateofEthiopia,intheformofsubstantialpublicexpenditurerequiredtorepairorreplacedamagedpublicstructuresandtoassistpri�ateowners .TheCommissionalsobelie�esthattheconsidera-tionofdamagesduemusttakeaccountofthenatureoftheunderlying�iola-tion,whichin�ol�edmassi�eanddeliberatedestructionofatownbyEritreanforceswithoutmilitaryjustification .

144 . Theengineeringsur�eydocumentingtheextentofphysicaldam-agetoZalambessaestimatedthecostsofrepairandreconstructionofchurch-es,housesand�ariouspublicbuildingsasofDecember2000tobe149,441,206birr .Asnotedabo�e,aseniorEthiopianpublicworksofficialprojectedthattheactualcostsofreconstructionafterDecember2000wouldbehigher,becauseofpost-war increases inconstructioncosts . IndeterminingcompensationforEritrea’sclaimsfordamagetoordestructionofalargenumberofidenti-fiedbuildings,theCommissionhastakenaccountofdocumentedpost-warshiftsinexchangeratesandincreasesinconstructioncostsinEritrea .InordertotreatthePartiesequally,itshouldaccordsimilartreatmenttoEthiopia’sclaim .Astherecorddidnotclearlyindicatetheamountofpost-warincreasesinconstructioncosts inEthiopia, theCommissionestimatesthemtoha�ebeen 20% . Increasing the December 2000 engineering study’s estimate by20%equals179,329,400birr .TheCommissionawards75%ofthisamount,orUS$16,815,000,ascompensationfordamagetoanddestructionofbuildingsinZalambessain�iolationofthejus in bello.


145 . Ethiopia’sclaimfor theremaining25%is treated inSectionXIalongwithEthiopia’sotherjus ad bellum claims .

b. looting in Zalambessa146 . Looting from Private Homes .PursuanttotheCommission’sfinding

thatEritreawasliablefor100%ofthelootinglossesinZalambessa,Ethio-piaclaimedUS$3,056,771forpersonalpropertyallegedlylootedfrompri�atehomes inZalambessa .ThisequalsaboutUS$2,500perhouseholdforeachofthe1,220“residentialhouses”thatallegedlysuffereddamage .Theclaimedamountwasderi�edfromasur�eycarriedoutinOctoberthroughDecember2001forreconstructionpurposesbytheRegionalStateofTigray .Thesur�eyutilizedquestionnairesadministeredto,andinter�iewswith,personsdisplacedfromZalambessa .Thedollaramountclaimedappearstobeacon�ersionoftheestimated�alueofhouseholdpropertydamageidentifiedinthe2001study(slightlyo�er21,000,000birr,10,268birrperhousehold),con�ertedatbirr6 .9:US$1 .Thereportdidnotincludethequestionnaires,butitcontainedareason-ableexplanationofthequestionnaireandinter�iewprocessusedtogatherandrefinethedata .Thenumbersstatedareinternallyconsistent,andappearrea-sonabletotheCommissioninthecircumstances .WhiletheamountsclaimedforlootingdamageperhouseholdwereappreciablyhigherthanlootinglossesEthiopiaclaimedinthewarzonesatlarge,theclaimsin�ol�edresidentsofathri�ingbordercommunitywhoweretypicallymoreprosperousandmorelikelytoownelectricalappliancesandother�ulnerableproperty .

147 . Because theTigray sur�eywasprepared forgo�ernmentalpur-posesotherthanlitigation,utilizingareasonablemethodology,theCommis-sionacceptsitasameasureofthelossesofpersonalpropertysufferedbytheresidentsofZalambessa .Howe�er, the reportdidnotdistinguishbetweenlossesattributabletolootingandtoothercauses .UndertheCommission’sliabilityAwards,only75%oflossesofpersonalpropertynotduetolootingare compensable, and some limited adjustment is required to reflect this .Basedontherecord,theCommissionbelie�esthatlossesofpersonalpropertywerepredominatelyattributabletolooting,andaccordinglyawardsEthiopiaUS$2,500,000inrespectofthisdamage .

148 . Other Looting Losses .Ethiopiaalsoclaimedsmalleramountsinrespectofpropertyallegedlylootedfrombusinesses,go�ernmentagenciesandotherentities .(Forclarity,theamountsoftheclaimedlootinglossesha�ebeencon�ertedtoU .S .dollarsbytheCommissionatthebirr8:US$1rate .)Ethiopiaclaimed: – US$11,798forsafesandotherpropertylootedfromtheCommer-

cialBankofficeinZalambessa; – US$64,079forpropertyallegedlylootedfromtwochurchesanda

mosqueinthetown; – US$12,945forpropertylootedfromtheZalambessacustoms


house,includingUS$1,000foramini�anandUS$2,500forcon-trabanditemsstoredatthecustomswarehouse;

– US$7,246forpropertylostbytheTigrayRegionalDisasterPre-�entionandPreparednessBureau(thenarrati�eaccompanyingthisclaimstatedthatthisamountincluded300,000quintalsofgrain,alargequantitythatpresumablyreflectedatypographicalerror);and

– US$3,269forfurnitureandrecreationalequipmenttakenfromtheTigrayYouthAssociationoffice .

Theseamountswereappropriatelydocumentedandappearreasonableinthecircumstances .TheCommissionawardsUS$99,000ascompensationfortheselootingclaims .

149 . Ethiopia claimed US$107,355 for a Rubb hall (a portable grainstorehouse)lootedfromtheReliefSocietyofTigray .Thee�idenceshowedthattheRubbhallwasoriginallydonatedbyCatholicReliefSer�icesin1993,andwasplacedontheSociety’sbooksinthatyearataninitial�alueof858,840birr .Gi�enthatthepropertywasse�eralyearsoldatthetimeofitsloss,theCom-missionawards80%oftheamountclaimed,orUS$86,000 .

150 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$167,578 forproperty looted fromtheTig-rayRegionalAgricultureBureaufollowingthein�asionofZalambessa .The�aluationwasbasedonthedeclarationofaseniorAgriculturalandNaturalResourcesDe�elopmentOfficeofficialandaccompanying listsofpropertylostatse�erallocations .Theofficialstatedthatthelistswere“compiledbasedonestimatesofthe�alueandin�entoryoftheseitemsasofthetimeofthewar,”butdidnotstatea�alueofpropertyallegedlylootedinZalambessa .Theaccompanyingtablesappearedtobebasedontheauthorizedle�elsofsupplies,notonamountsactuallyonhand .TheyalsolistedsomesupplieslostfromBadme(andperhapsalsootherlocations)aswellasfromZalambessa .Theclaimedlossesdonotappearunreasonableinthecircumstances .Howe�er,asthee�idencewasbasedonestimates(albeitbyaknowledgeableofficial),andwasimpreciseinotherrespects,theCommissionawards75%oftheclaimedamount,orUS$126,000 .

151 . EthiopiaallegedthatEritrealootedconstructionmachineryandmaterialbeingusedbytheTigrayRegionalRuralRoadsAuthorityintheZal-ambessaareaattheoutbreakofthewar,tothe�alueofUS$1,132,694 .Morethanhalfofthisclaimwasfortheoriginalacquisitioncostofthreebulldozersandtwodumptrucksallegedlylooted .Therewasnoe�idenceshowingthatthismachineryandmaterialactuallywastakenbyEritrea;therewase�idenceshowingthat,priortothewar,muchofitwasstoredinafacilityse�eralkil-ometerssouthofZalambessa .Roadbuildingmaterialandhea�yconstruc-tionequipmentwouldha�ebeenequally�aluabletobotharmiesforbuildingtrenchesandothermilitaryengineeringworksonthestaticZalambessafront .Inthisregard,therewasuncontestede�idencethatbotharmieswereusingbulldozerstodigtrenchesintheZalambessaareainmid-May1998,priorto


Eritrea’sattack .Gi�entheambiguitiesofthee�idence,theCommissionawardsEthiopiathedollarequi�alentof50%oftheamountclaimed,orUS$566,000 .

152 . Finally,EthiopiaclaimedUS$3,269forlootingoftables,chairs,atennistableandrackets,andapooltablefromtheofficeoftheTigrayYouthAssociation .Whilethee�idenceforthisclaimwaslimited,thecharacterandamountoftheclaimappearreasonableinthecircumstances .TheCommissionaccordinglyawardsUS$3,000inrespectofthisclaim .

153 . WithrespecttoEthiopia’sclaimsforlootinginZalambessaasdis-cussedinthissubsection,theCommissionawardsthetotalofUS$3,380,000 .

C. deaths, injuries and Property damage in mekele154 . TheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundthatEritrea�iolatedthejus in

bello intheconductofitsairoperationsinMay1998,inconnectionwithtwoattacksthatdroppedclusterbombsneartheAyderSchoolinMekele .Thesee�entscausedextensi�edeathsandinjuries,aswellassomepropertydam-age .Ethiopiaclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoequalUS$882,539fordeaths,injuriesanddamagefromthebombings .ThisamountwasthenincreasedbyaboutUS$4milliontoreflectmoraldamagetothedeadandinjuredandtheirfamilies .Ethiopiaalsoclaimeddamagesfordeath,damageandinjuryfromastrafingattackontheMekeleAirportearlieronthesameday .WhiletheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundtheairporttobealegitimatemilitarytarget,Ethiopiaclaimedcompensationforthisattackonjus ad bellum grounds .TheCommissionaddressesthisclaiminSectionXIofthisAward,inconnectionwithEthiopia’sotherjus ad bellum claims .

155 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$322,392forthedeathsofsixtypersons inthebombingintheAyderSchool�icinityandUS$333,997forinjuriesto168others .Ethiopiacalculatedtheseamounts in themannerusedtocomputeitsfixed-sumclaims,withadjustmentsreflectingtheagesofthosekilledandinjuredandafurtheradjustmenttoreflect�ariationsintheextentofinjuriesrecei�ed .Thus,Ethiopiasought100%ofprojectedlifetimeearningsforthosewhowerekilled,andapercentageofareducedle�eloflifetimeearningsforthosewhowereinjured .AswithEthiopia’sfixedamountclaims,projectedlifetimeearningswerenotdiscountedtopresent�alue .

156 . Eritreadidnotcontestthenumbersofpersonskilledandinjured,butarguedthatEthiopiacouldnotreco�ermorethanUS$1,500per�ictim,themaximumamountindicatedintheCommission’s2001Decisionsregard-ingelementsofapossiblemassclaimssystem .42(Asnotedpre�iously, thatsystemwasnotcompletedoradopted,inlightoftheParties’decisionstofile

42 Eritrea-EthiopiaClaimsCommissionDecisionNo .2(“ClaimsCategories,FormsandProcedures”);DecisionNo .5(“MultipleClaimsintheMassClaimsProcess,Fixed-SumCompensationatthe$500and$1500Le�els,MultiplierforHouseholdClaims”)(bothdatedAugust2001) .


theirclaimsasState-to-Stateclaims .)Eritreaalsocontended,inter alia,thatEthiopia’sclaimsformedicalcareinEthiopia(approximatelyUS$43,000fortreating168injuredpersons)wereexcessi�e,andthatitsclaimsfordamagetotheAyderSchoolandsurroundingbuildingswereexcessi�eandunpro�en .

157 . Ethiopia’se�idenceincludeddeathcertificates,extensi�ehospitalrecords, and other contemporaneous documents . These pro�ed numerousdeathsand thehospitalizationandsubsequent treatmentofmanypersonswoundedinthebombings .Thise�idencewasnotcontested .Basedonthissubstantialrecord,theCommissionacceptsEthiopia’scontentionthatsixtypersonswerekilledand168injuredinthebombingsattheAyderSchool .

158 . Howe�er,theCommissiondoesnotacceptEthiopia’smethodofcalculatingthecompensationdueonaccountoftheseriouslossoflifeandinjuryin�ol�edhere .Ethiopia’smethodofcalculationresultedinabasicawardofaboutUS$5,400foreachdeath,reflectingthe�ictims’estimatedlifetimefutureearnings,undiscountedandcon�ertedatanexchangerateselectedbyEthiopia .Thisamountthenwasroughlydoubledbyadditionalmoraldam-ages,calculatedusingEthiopia’selaboratematrixofbaseimpact�alues,familymultipliersandse�erityfactors .TheCommissionpre�iouslynoteditsreser-�ationsregardingtheuseofundiscountedprojectionsoffutureearningsincomputingdamages .ItalsohasrejectedEthiopia’smechanisticapproachtocalculatingmoraldamages,althoughitbelie�esthatsome�iolationsofinter-nationallaw,takingaccountoftheirseriousness,characterandconsequences,requireanadditionalmeasureofdamages .

159 . Ethiopiaalsoclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoequalUS$96,326formedicaltreatmenttopersonsinjuredinthebombingsincludingUS$40,050forcostsoftreatmentpro�idedattheMekeleHospitalandUS$3,087fortreat-mentinAddisAbaba .TheclaimfortreatmentinMekeleandAddisAbabawasadequatelydocumentedandreasonableinthecircumstances,subjecttoadjustmentoftheexchangerate .ThebalanceofUS$53,189wasforexpensesincurredindollarsbyasingleindi�idualwhowenttoIsraelfortreatment .TheCommissionappro�estheclaimsreflectingthisindi�idual’smedicalexpensesandairlinetickets,intheamountofUS$15,900 .Howe�er,thee�idencedidnotpermitassessmentofthereasonablenessoftheremainingelementsoftheclaim,whichweresupportedbyaone-page lettermentioningthepatient’seightannual�isitsoftwentydaystoIsraelfor“medicaloperationandcheckup .”Theyaredenied .

160 . Ethiopianextclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoUS$42,882fordamage to the Ayder School and its contents (US$26,974 for repairs, andUS$15,908toreplacebooks,schooldesks,otherfurniture,and�ariousfixturesandeducationalmaterials),andUS$86,942fordamagetohomesandotherbuildingsandpropertyneartheschool,includingaprintingplantthatwasextensi�elydamaged .Eritreaarguedthattheclaimfordamagetotheschoolanditscontentswasexcessi�e,buttheCommissiondoesnotfindtheamounttobeunreasonableinthecircumstances .Italsofindstheamountsclaimedin


regardtodamagetohomes,businessesandotherstructuresdamagedbythebombingtobesufficientlydocumentedandreasonableinthecircumstances,allsubjecttoadjustmentoftheexchangerateforcon�ersion .

161 . Takingaccountof theconsequences followingfromtheserious�iolationofinternationallawin�ol�edhere,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$2,500,000inrespectofdeathsandinjuries,medicalexpensesandpropertydamageresultingfromthedroppingofclusterbombsinthe�icinityoftheAyderSchoolinMekele .

d. other looting and damage to Property1. Government Buildings and Infrastructure

162 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$13,963,982indamagesforthedestructionandlootingof“atleast”331administrationbuildings,schools,clinics,�eteri-naryclinics,watersupplysystemsandagriculturaltrainingcentersinTigrayontheCentralandWesternFronts,includingUS$536,765formo�eableprop-ertyallegedlylootedfromthoselocations .EthiopiaalsosoughtUS$2,566,002forthedestructionandlootingofatleast35schools,clinics,�eterinaryclinicsandwatersupplysystemsinAfarontheEasternFront,includingUS$93,891formo�eablepropertyallegedlylootedfromthoselocations .

163 . Ethiopiapleadedentitlement tocompensationundereither theCommission’sjus in bello orjus ad bellum liabilityfindingsand,accordingly,didnotspecifytheliabilitybasisforitsclaimsforspecificproperty .Howe�er,theCommissionhassoughtthroughouttheseproceedingstoassesscompen-sationonthebasisofliabilityforeitherbreachofthejus ad bellum orthejus in bello.Ethiopia’sfailuretorelateitsclaimstotheCommission’sspecificliabil-ityfindingshasgreatlycomplicatedassessmentofthisclaim,andhaslimitedEthiopia’sreco�eryofjus in bello damages .

164 . Thejus ad bellum damages,whichcomprisealargercomponentoftheseclaims,areaddressedseparatelyinSectionXIofthisAward .Amoreextensi�ere�iewofe�idenceandargumentrelatedtotheseclaimsisreser�edfor that section .Ashorter re�iewof thee�idencebearingondeterminingamountsawardedunderthejus in bello followshere .

165 . Eritrea’sliabilityforlootinganddestructionofpublicbuildingsonthethreefrontswasnotuniform .OntheCentralFront,theCommissionfoundEritrealiablefor�iolatingthejus in bello bypermitting“widespreadlootingandpropertydestruction in theareas thatwereoccupied”byEri-treanforcesinAhferom,IrobandMerebLekheWeredas .TheCommissionalsofoundEritrealiableforpermitting“frequent”lootinganddestructioninGulomakhedaWereda .

166 . OntheWesternFront,theCommissiondidnotfindjus in bello liabilityfordestructionofproperty .Itfoundliabilityonlyforlootinginare-asoccupiedbyEritreantroopsinTahtayAdiabo,LaelayAdiaboandKafta


HumeraWeredas(thefindingsinLaelayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredasemphasizedlootingofli�estock) .Gi�enthelimitedscopeofthesefindings,theCommissionmustexcludeEthiopia’sjus in bello claimsfordamagetobuild-ingsontheWesternFront,exceptinsofarasthee�idenceshowsthatdamagein�ol�edlooting .Asdiscussedbelow,thee�idencerarelyofferedsuchdetail .

167 . OntheEasternFront,EritreawasliableforpermittinglootinganddestructionofpropertyinDalulandElidarWeredas .

168 . Intheearlierproceedings,theCommissionrejectedasunpro�enbothParties’claimsthattheotherengagedinshellingthatwasindiscriminateorotherwisecontrarytothejus in bello.Accordingly,destructionofpropertyduetoshellingisnotcompensableunderthejus in bello.Thejus ad bellum liabilitycomponentoftheseclaimsisconsideredseparatelyinSectionXIofthisAward .

169 . Foritsclaimofdamagestothe331buildingsontheCentralandWesternFronts,EthiopiaproducedinAnnex66toitsDamagesGroupOneMemorialanitemizedlistofalltheclaimedgo�ernmentbuildingsandinfra-structure .This list identified their locationbyweredaand listed�aluesofallegeddamageandlosstostructuresandmo�eableproperty .Eachentryonthelistreferredtoaseparateannex .Theseannexescontained�aryingamountsofsupportinge�idence,suchaspurchaseorders,in�oicesandconstructioncontracts .FortheEasternFront,EthiopiaproducedasimilarlistinAnnex242toitsDamagesGroupOneMemorial, itemizingallegedlossesrelatingtothirty-fi�ebuildings .Annex242alsoreferencedseparateannexesforeachstructure,containingpayment�ouchersandconstructioncontractsforrecon-structionwork .Ethiopiaalsosubmitteddeclarationsoflocalofficialsin�ol�edwithemergencyreco�eryprogramsattestingthatthee�idencerelatedtowardamage .

170 . EritreaarguedthatmuchofthedamageforwhichEthiopiasoughtreco�erywascausedbyshellingforwhichEritreawasnotfoundliable .EritreaalsoarguedthatitwasnotpossibletodeterminefromEthiopia’se�idencethelocationsofmanystructures,andthatthosethatcouldbelocatedoftenwerefarfromthebattlefronts .EritreanotedinthiscontextthatundertheCom-mission’sliabilityAwards,itwasonlyliableforpropertydestructioninareasofthoseweredasthatitoccupied .

171 . Eritreaalsocontendedthatmuchoftheconstructionacti�ityforwhichEthiopiaclaimedcompensationwasnottorepairorreplacestructuresdamagedduringwartime,andinsteadwasnewconstructionrelatingtoEthio-pia’sinternalde�elopmentplans .Withrespecttowatersupplysystems,EritreaarguedthatmanywaterpointsforwhichEthiopiaclaimedwereunderde�el-opmentbecauseofdrought,notthewar .

172 . Ethiopia’se�idenceforjus in bello damagetopublicbuildingsandinfrastructureisproblematicinse�eralregards .Itgenerallydidnotshowtheallegedcauseofparticularpropertydestruction,whethershellingorother-


wise .ItoftendidnotidentifylocationsoffacilitieswithsufficientdetailtoallowEritreaortheCommissiontolocatetheminordertodeterminewhetherallegeddamageorreconstructionwasrelatedtothewarandfellwithinthescopeoftheCommission’sjus in bello liabilityfindings .In�iewoftheimpos-sibilityinascertainingthecauseofmuchoftheclaimeddamage,theCommis-sioncannotassumethatitwascausedbyactionsforwhichEritreawasliableunderthejus in bello.Inthisregard,wheretheliabilitye�idencedidindicateacauseforparticulardamage,itgenerallyreferredtoshellingdamage .Gi�enthelackofspecificityinEthiopia’se�idence,andtheabsenceofliabilityforpropertydestructionontheWesternFront,Ethiopia’sclaimsforjus in bello propertydamagefailonallthreefronts .

173 . Thislea�esEthiopia’sclaimsforjus in bello damageresultingfromlooting .AsexplainedinmoredetailinSectionXIonjus ad bellum compensa-tion,thee�identiaryinconsistenciesandlackofdetailinthedamagesphasee�idencefortheseclaimsrequiredtheCommissiontorelyonliabilityphasee�idencetocorroborateclaimsofdamagetoparticularstructures .Becausethedamagesphasee�idenceoflootingalsoincludedpurchaseordersfornewitemswithoutfurthercorroborationofactuallooting,theCommissionreferredtotheliabilityphasee�idencetodeterminewhethercompensationwasappropri-ateforlossesclaimedtoresultfromlooting .

174 . Duringtheliabilityphaseproceedings,Ethiopiasubmittedexten-si�ee�idencerelatedtolootingofci�ilianproperty,churches,healthinstitu-tionsandeducationalinstitutions .Withrespecttothepublicbuildingsandinfrastructureaddressedhere,howe�er,thedeclarationssubmittedtoshowlootingdamageweregenerallynotspecificinidentifyingspecificlootedprop-ertiesand/ortheir�alue .AlthoughtheCommissionestablishedliabilityfortheseclaimsintheearlierproceedings, itcannotderi�efiguresfor lootingdamagewithoute�idence .

175 . Someofthematerialssubmittedattheliabilityphase,howe�er,pro�ided sufficient information upon which the Commission can base anawardofcompensationforlootingtopublicbuildingsandinfrastructureontheCentralandWesternFronts .

176 . OntheCentralFront,Ethiopia’sliabilityphasefilingsincludedaDecember2000reportoftheTigrayRegionalStateHealthDepartmentoftheEasternZonecataloguinglootingtohealthinstitutionsforwhichEritreawasfoundtobeliableinIrobWereda .Thisreportcrediblyitemizedandpro�idedamountsforpropertieslootedintheamountof1,148,160birr .AJune1999DamageAssessmentReportoftheTigrayBureauofRegionalPlanningandEconomicDe�elopmentalsonotedthatmaterialstobeusedforawaterpumpinAlitena,inthe�alueof132,000birr,werelootedduringthewar .ASeptem-ber2000ReportofDamagesSustainedbyEducationalEstablishmentsoftheTigrayRegionalBureauofEducationseparatelyidentified1,040birrforloot-ingattheAdiFitawSchoolinthiswereda(butthatreportdidnototherwisepro�ideasufficientbasisseparatelytoidentifyanyotherlootedproperties) .


Consequently, theCommissionfindsadequatee�identiarysupport for thedollarequi�alentof1,281,200birrincompensationforthelootingofpublicbuildingsandinfrastructureontheCentralFront .

177 . OntheWesternFront, theTigrayRegionalBureauofPlanningandEconomicDe�elopmentnotedinitsJune1999reportthatawatersup-plyfacilityinBadmewaslootedofpropertyinthe�alueof256,000birrandanotherwatersupplyfacilityinSheraroTownwasburned,causinglossesof125,000birr .TheCommissionfindsadequatee�identiarysupportfor381,000birrincompensationforthelootingofpublicbuildingsandinfrastructureontheWesternFront .

178 . OntheEasternFront,Ethiopiapro�idedcrediblewitnesstestimo-nyindicatingthatEritreansoldierssetfiretoaschool,�aluedat436,355Birr,andahealthclinic,�aluedat413,340birr,inBada-AdiMurug .TheCommis-sionfindsadequatee�identiarysupportfor849,695birrindamagefortheseinstitutions .

179 . The total amount awarded for Ethiopia’s jus in bello actualamountclaimstopublicbuildingsandinfrastructureonallthreefrontsisUS$315,000 .

2. Religious Institutions

180 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$9,238,669incompensationformaterialdam-agesresultingfromEritrea’slooting,destructionanddamageto“atleast”164churches,monasteries,mosques,church-runclinicsandparochialschoolsintheregionsofTigrayandAfar .Ethiopiapleadedthatitisentitledtocompensa-tionundereithertheCommission’sjus in bello orjus ad bellum findings,butdidnotspecifytheliabilitybasisforitsclaimsinspecificinstances .Eritrea’sjus in bello claimforcompensationfordamagetoreligiousinstitutionswasgener-allybasedontheCommission’sfindingsofpropertydestructionand/orloot-ingonallthreefronts .Thejus ad bellum componentofthisclaimisaddressedinSectionXIofthisAward .

181 . Attheliabilityphase,Ethiopiasubmittedtestimonyregardingthelootinganddestructionofreligiousinstitutionsonallthreefronts,portray-ingaseriousdisregardofthesanctityofthoseinstitutionsbyEritreanforces .Credibletestimonyindicatedthatmanychurcheshadbeenransacked,des-ecrated,destroyedandusedfor�ariouspurposesotherthanworship .E�idenceofsuchreprehensibleconductcomprisedacomponentoftheCommission’sfindingsonlootingandpropertydestructionatthatstageoftheproceedings .TheCommissionismindfulofthecentralroleofreligiousinstitutionsinthelifeofEthiopiansandrecognizestheconcernanddistressmanycongrega-tionsexperiencedfromthedamageanddesecrationoftheirplacesofworship .TheCommissionhassoughttoaccountfortheseriousnessofthisharminitsassessmentofcompensationforthisclaim .


182 . Thee�idencesubmittedatthedamagesphasetosupportthisclaimconsistedgenerallyofreportsfromOrthodoxandCatholicdiocesanauthori-ties,aswellaslettersandclaimsformssubmittedbypriestsorotherofficialsofindi�idualOrthodoxandCatholicchurches,charitiesandotherreligiousinstitutionsregardingdamagedandlootedproperties .

183 . Thenatureofthee�idence�ariedwidelyfromclaimtoclaim .Someofthelocalreportswereaccompaniedbyoathsfromchurchofficialsattestingtodamageandamounts,somecontainednosupportingdocumentation,andsomecontainedlettersfromchurchofficialsthatpro�idedin�oicesandpay-ment�ouchersshowingthepurchaseofnewitemsorconstruction .Insomeinstances,Ethiopiacitedtothedeclarationsoflocalreligiousfiguressubmittedattheliabilityphasetocorroboratereportsoflocalofficialsthatcontainednosupportingdocuments .Ethiopiaindicatedatthedamageshearingsthatithadsubmittedallclaimsfordamagetoreligiousinstitutionsthatappearedtobereasonable,buthadnototherwisesoughtto�erifytheextentoramountofthedamagesclaimed .

184 . Eritreaarguedthatshellingcausedmuchoftheclaimeddamage,soitwasnotcompensableundertheCommission’sjus in bello findings .Eri-treafurtherarguedthatlargeportionsoftheEthiopiane�idenceconcernedareasthatwerenotoccupiedbyEritreaduringthewarandthereforepro�idednobasisforliability .EritreaallegedthatEthiopia’se�idencedidnotpro�ideenoughinformationand/orcorroborationtodeterminethatdamageactuallyoccurred,particularlywherenewconstructioncontractsandpurchasein�oic-eswereusedase�idence .EritreanotedinthisregardthatEthiopiaundertooknoeffortsindependentlyto�erifytheamountscitedinthereportsoflocalofficials .

185 . On theCentralFront, theCommission foundEritrea liable forwidespreadlootingandpropertydestructioninoccupiedareasoftheIrob,AhferomandMerebLekheWeredas,andforfrequentlootingandpropertydestruction inGulomakhedaWereda .During the liabilityphase,Ethiopiapro�idedextensi�ewitnesstestimonyoflootinganddestructionofreligiousinstitutionsinIrob,AhferomandGulomakhedaWeredas,indicatingasignifi-cantlossof�aluablereligiousarticles,damagetochurchesusedbyEritreanforcesfor�ariousacti�ities,anddestructionofmanyoftheseinstitutions .InMerebLekhe,incomparison,Ethiopiadidnotpro�idespecifice�idenceofdamagetoandlootingofreligiousinstitutionsattheliabilityphase .

186 . OntheWesternFront,theCommissionfoundEritrealiableforpermittingthelootingofpropertyintheTahtayAdiabo,LaelayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredas .Thee�idenceEthiopiapresentedattheliabilityphaseregardingLaelayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredasemphasizedlootingofli�estock,while,intheTahtayAdiaboWereda,Ethiopiapresentedlimitede�i-denceoflootinganddamagetoreligiousinstitutions .

187 . OntheEasternFront,Eritreawasfoundliableforpermittingthelootinganddestructionofproperty inoccupiedareasofDalulandElidar


Weredas .Theliabilityphasee�idenceinthoseweredasalsoemphasizedloot-ingofli�estock .Noe�idencewasputforwardforthelootingofreligiousinsti-tutionsontheEasternFrontattheliabilityphase .

188 . With regard to the assessment of the �alues of religious itemsdestroyedor looted thatmayha�euniquecultural�alue, theCommissiongenerallyacceptsthatthereligiousofficialswhoattestedtothe�aluesoftheseitemswouldbebestpositionedtomakethose�aluations .

189 . On the Central Front, Ethiopia claimed US$5,229,389 in com-pensationforlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutions .TheliabilityphasetestimonypresentedfortheCentralFront,inparticularintheIrob,AhferomandGulomakhedaWeredas,con�eyedaseriousdisregardforthesanctityofreligiousinstitutions,manyofwhichwereusedbyEritreansoldiersduringthewarfor�ariouspurposesorotherwisedamaged,lootedordesecrated .

190 . Thee�idencepresentedinsupportofEthiopia’sdamagesclaimsforthesethreeweredasincludedliabilityphasedeclarations,acollectionofreportsfromtheEthiopianOrthodoxChurchinAhferomcontainingindi-�iduallyswornaccountsofdamagetoparticularchurches,andareportoftheEasternTigrayDiocesefordamageinIrob .Additionalreportssubmittedatthedamagesphasefortheseweredasweregenerallysupportedbytheliabilityphasetestimony;swornstatementsfromlocalreligiousofficialsattachedtothereportspro�idedfurthercorroborati�esupport .

191 . TheCommissionfoundEritrealiableforfrequent(asopposedtowidespread)lootinganddestructionofpropertyinGulomakhedaWereda .Thedamagese�idencepresentedforthatweredaduplicatedthatproducedattheliabilityphase,whichtheCommissionfoundtobecrediblee�idenceoffrequentlootingandpropertydestructionatthatphaseoftheproceedings .Ethiopiasubmittedthoroughlydocumentedreportsofextensi�edamagetoCatholicchurchesinGulomakhedaandIrobWeredaspreparedbytheAdi-gratDioceseCatholicSecretariat,includingstatementsfromlocalofficialsastothecauseofdamageanddocumentationoflossassociatedwithmo�eableandimmo�eableproperty .TheCommissionfindsthesematerialstobecred-ibleandawardssuchdamagesthatarecompensableunder�iolationsofthejus in bello.

192 . InMarebLekheWereda,EthiopiareliedonacollectionofreportssubmittedatthedamagesphasefromtheEthiopianOrthodoxChurch,whichwereswornbylocalchurchofficialsattestingtodamageandlootingcausedtotwochurches .TheCommissionfindstheswornreportsofthoselocalofficialstobegenerallycredible .

193 . Someofthee�idenceonwhichtheCommissionreliesforassessingcompensationontheCentralFrontindicatedthatclaimeddamagewascausedbyshellingorpro�idednobasistodeterminethecauseofdamage .Consider-ingthatshellingisnotcompensableundertheCommission’sjus in bello find-


ings,theCommissionhassegregatedthoseinstancesforseparatetreatmentunderthejus ad bellum inSectionXIofthisAward .Inconsiderationofallofthea�ailablee�idenceandtheseriousnessofthe�iolationsin�ol�ed,theCom-missionawardsEthiopiaUS$4,000,000incompensationfordamagecausedtoreligiousinstitutionsontheCentralFront .

194 . OntheWesternFront,EthiopiaclaimedUS$3,956,528incompen-sationforlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutionsinTahtayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredas .

195 . InKaftaHumera,EthiopiaofferedareportoftheHumeraDio-ceseitemizinglossesassociatedwiththelootingof�ariouschurchesandotherdamageforwhichthecausewasunclear .TheCommissionacceptsthee�idenceoflootingforthepurposeofassessingjus inbello compensationinthisclaim,yetnotesthatEritreawasnotfoundliableunderthejus in bello forpropertydamageontheWesternFrontandwillthereforetreate�idenceofsuchdam-ageseparatelyunderthejus ad bellum.Ethiopiasubmittedfurthere�idenceofdamagetotheHumeraMosque,whichwillalsobere�iewedseparatelyunderthejus ad bellum componentofthisclaim .

196 . InTahtayAdiabo,Ethiopiareliedona letteroftheManageroftheNorthwesternZoneofTigrayDioceseof theOrthodoxChurch listingdestroyedanddamagedchurchproperties .Thisletterwasnotaccompaniedbyswornreportsoflocalofficials,howe�er .Insomeinstances,theclaimeddam-agewascorroboratedbyliabilityphasedeclarations .Thecauseofthedamageinthoseinstanceswasunclear,howe�er,andwillthereforebetreatedinthejus ad bellum componentofthisclaim .Inconsiderationofallofthea�ail-ablee�idenceandtheseriousnessofthe�iolationsin�ol�ed,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$475,000incompensationfordamagecausedtoreligiousinstitutionsontheWesternFront .

197 . OntheEasternFront,EthiopiaclaimedUS$52,752incompensa-tionforlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutionsintheweredaofElidar .Ethiopia’se�idenceconsistedofareportoftheAfarDioceseSecretar-iatthatsummarizeditsin�estigationintowardamageandpro�ideddetailedreportsofdamageandlootingtochurchesintheregion .Ethiopia’sliabilityphasee�idencealsoincludedwitnessdeclarationsregardingthedestructionofse�eralmosques,althoughtheseinstitutionswerenotspecificallyidentifiedinEthiopia’sdamagescalculations .Thecauseofdamagetothosemosquesfurthermore remained unclear . In consideration of the a�ailable e�idenceandthese�erityofthe�iolationsin�ol�ed,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$25,000incompensationfordamagecausedtoreligiousinstitutionsontheEasternFront .

198 . TheCommissionawardsatotalofUS$4,500,000incompensationformaterialdamagestoreligiousinstitutionsonallthreefrontsunderjus in bello liability .


3. Saba Marbles Quarry

199 . EthiopiasoughtUS$3,252,961forlootedequipmentandtwoyears’lostprofitsonaccountofSabaDimensionalStonesShareCompany(“SabaMarbles”),whichhadalargemarblequarryandassociatedcamplocatedinthe�icinityofDichinamainTahtayAdiaboWereda .Theclaimisbasedonalle-gationsoflootinginTahtayAdiaboWereda,anareawheretheCommissionfoundEritrealiableforpermittinglooting .Astheclaimfallswithinthescopeofafindingofjus in bello liability,theCommissionwillconsiderithere .

200 . ThequarryandcampwereinanareaenteredandoccupiedbyEri-treanforcessoonaftertheirattackonBadmeinMay2008 .Eritrea’se�idencerecognizedthatEritreanforcestookthequarry;thestatementofanEritreanofficerinEritrea’sDamagesGroupOneCounter-Memoriale�idencereferredtoa“[m]arblefactorytakenbyourside”intherele�antarea .Thebulkoftheclaim,US$3,005,264,wasforlootedmachineryandequipment .Ethiopiaalsosoughtapproximately3 .5millionbirrforlostprofitsbetween1998and2000,and1 .7millionbirrforsalarypaymentsmadetoretainskilledworkersfromMay1998toSeptember1999 .

201 . Theclaimidentifiedthemachineryandequipmentallegedlyloot-ed,andwassupportedbyawitnessdeclarationfromtheSabaMarblesGeneralManagerandsubstantialdocumentationastotheexistenceand�alueofthelostmachineryandequipment .Thee�idencealsoincludeddeclarationsbyfourcompanyemployeesdescribinghowinMay1998theywitnessedEritreanforcesarri�ingatthequarryanditsassociatedcamp,andlaterlootinghea�ymachinery,equipment,partsandpersonalproperty .ThesewitnessesdescribedEritreantroopsremo�ingbulldozers,exca�ators,trucks,generators,compres-sors,drillsandothertypesofequipmentusedinquarrying .Theirstatementswereconsistentwitheachotherandwiththedocumentarye�idenceregardingtheequipmentatthequarry .

202 . InitsStatementofDefenseattheliabilityphase,Eritreaassertedthat thequarrywas locatedon the front lines,and thatanydamage therewas“incidentalwardamage”andnotcompensable .Eritreafurtherallegedthat“theDichinamamarblequarryisinEritrea,notinEthiopia,”andthat“[d]amagesufferedatDichinamaisdamagetotheEritreaneconomy,nottotheEthiopianeconomy .”Eritreasubmittednoe�idencetosupportthesecon-tentions .TheCommissionsoughttoclarifytheexactlocationofthequarryduringthehearings,buttheissuewasnotresol�ed .Inanye�ent,theclaimatissuewasforlootingofequipmentandlossesstemmingfromtheinterruptionofthequarryingbusinessinanareapre�iouslyunderpeacefuladministra-tionbyEthiopia .Forthesepurposes,regardlessofwhetherthequarrywasinEritreaorEthiopia,itwasnotlawfulforEritreantroopstoseizethecompany’sequipmentandotherpropertyandremo�eitbyforceinthemannerdescribedbythewitnesses .


203 . TheCommissionconcludesthatthee�idencesupportsEthiopia’sclaimfortwel�ecategoriesoflootedmachineryandequipmentinthetotalamountofUS$2,882,285(applyingtheMay12,1998U .S .dollarexchangeratespro�idedbyEthiopiaforthein�oicedItalian,BelgianandSwedishcurrencies) .TheCommissiondisallowstheclaimfornineallegedlylootedtankersandrelatedsparepartsworth844,435birrasunsupportedbythee�idence .

204 . TurningnexttoEthiopia’slostprofitsclaim,theCommissionissatisfiedfromtherecordintheliabilityphaseandthedeclarationoftheGen-eralManagerthatSabaMarblesdidloseprofitsfromMay1998untilsomepointin2000 .Itisreasonablethat,asrecountedbytheGeneralManager,thecompanyhadtoclearlandminesafterOperationSunsetinFebruary1999andsocouldnotresumequarryingoperationsuntilSeptember1999,afterwhichproductionwaslimitedbecauseofthelackofequipmentcausedbythelooting .Howe�er,thee�idenceofferedtosupportthequantumofthoselostprofitswassparse .InadditiontotheGeneralManager’sdeclaration,itconsistedofaone-pageProductionPlanfor1989–1992E .C .andin�oicesshowingasalepriceformarbleof3,322birrpercubicmeter .AlthoughtheProductionPlanindicatedananticipated10%growthinproductioneachyear,andtheGeneralManagerstatedthatSabaMarbleshadenjoyeda25%profitratepriortothewar,therewasnodocumentarysupportforthesefigures .Onbalance,theCommissionhasdeterminedtomeasurelostprofitsagainsttheactualpre-warannualpro-duction,whichwas1,684cubicmetersofmarblein1989E .C .,andtoacceptthe25%profitrateinlightofanacti�epost-warconstructionmarket .Apply-ingthesecriteria,theCommissioncalculatesEthiopia’slostprofitsrelatedtoSabaMarblestoequalUS$333,446 .

205 . TheCommissiondeniesEthiopia’sclaimforsalarypaymentsmadefromMay1998toSeptember1999toretainskilledworkers,notforlackofmeritbutforfailureofproof .TheGeneralManagerattachedtohisdeclara-tiontwoundatedchartslistingthetotalsalarypaymentsallegedlymadepermonth,withreferencesto“Journal�oucherNo .”and“PaymentorderLettersNo .,”butwithoutanysupportingdocumentation .Thislea�estheCommissionwithnowayofassessinghowmanyworkersmayha�ebeenin�ol�edorthereasonablenessofsalaryamounts .

206 . TheCommissionawardsEthiopiaatotalamountofUS$3,216,000forEritrea’sillegalseizureandlootingofSabaMarbles .


X. ethiopia’s other Jus in Bello Compensation Claims

a. Prisoners of War

1. The Commission’s Liability Findings

207 . Eritreawas found liable for the following�iolationsof interna-tionallawcommittedbyitsmilitarypersonnelandotherofficialsoftheStateofEritrea:

1 . Forrefusingpermission,fromMay1998untilAugust2000,fortheICRCtosenddelegatesto�isitallplaceswhereEthiopianPOWsweredetained,toregisterthosePOWs,tointer�iewthemwithoutwitnesses,andtopro�idethemwithreliefandser�icescustomarilypro�ided;2 . ForfailingtoprotectEthiopianPOWsfrombeingkilledatcaptureoritsimmediateaftermath;3 . ForpermittingbeatingsorotherphysicalabuseofEthiopianPOWs,whichoccurredfrequentlyatcaptureoritsimmediateaftermath;4 . Fordepri�ingallEthiopianPOWsoffootwearduringlongwalksfromtheplaceofcapturetothefirstplaceofdetention;5 . ForpermittingitspersonneltothreatenandbeatEthiopianPOWsdur-inginterrogations,whichoccurredfrequentlyatcaptureoritsimmediateaftermath;6 . For the general confiscation of the personal property of EthiopianPOWs;7 . Forpermittingper�asi�eandcontinuousphysicalandmentalabuseofEthiopianPOWsinitscampsfromMay1998untilAugust2002;8 . ForseriouslyendangeringthehealthofEthiopianPOWsattheEmbaka-la,Digdigta,AfabetandNakfacampsbyfailingtopro�ideadequatehous-ing,sanitation,drinkingwater,bathingopportunitiesandfood;9 . Forfailingtopro�idethestandardofmedicalcarerequiredforEthio-pianPOWs,andforfailingtopro�iderequiredpre�enti�ecarebysegre-gatingprisonerswithinfectiousdiseasesandconductingregularphysicalexaminations,fromMay1998untilAugust2002;10 . ForsubjectingEthiopianPOWstounlawfulconditionsoflabor;11 . ForpermittingunnecessarysufferingofPOWsduringtransferbetweencamps;and12 . ForfailingtoallowtheEthiopianPOWsinitscampstocomplainabouttheirconditionsandtoseekredress,andfrequentlypunishingPOWswhoattemptedtocomplain .43

43 PartialAward,PrisonersofWar,Ethiopia’sClaim4BetweentheFederalDemo-craticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(July1,2003)[hereinafterPartialAwardinEthiopia’sPOWClaims],dispositif,SectionV .D .



208 . WhilebothPartiesrequestedfixed-sumdamagesascompensa-tionforcertain�iolationsofinternationalhumanitarianlawthattheCom-missionfoundduringtheliabilityphaseinrelationtoPOWs,theCommissionhasdecidedonadifferentmannerofassessingtheappropriatecompensation .Toaconsiderableextent,thisdecisionflowsfromtheCommission’sgeneralapproachtoitsdeterminationsofliability .TheCommissionseesitstasknotasbeingtodetermineliabilityforeachindi�idualincidentofillegalitysuggestedbythee�idence,butratherasbeingtodetermineliabilityforserious�iolationsofthelaw .Theseareusuallyillegalactsoromissionsthatwerefrequentorper�asi�eandconsequentlyaffectedsignificantnumbersof�ictims .

209 . TheclaimsbeforetheCommissionaretheclaimsoftheParties,not the claims of indi�idual �ictims . Particularly when deciding damagesowingforunlawfultreatmentofPOWs,thosedamagescanappropriatelybeassessedonlyfortheClaimantState,becausefixed-sumdamagesdesignedtobedistributedtoeachindi�idualwhowasaprisonerofwarwouldnotreflectthepropercompensationforthatindi�idual .DifferentPOWswereheldunderdifferentconditionsat�ariouscampsfor�ariousperiodsoftime .Somewereinjuredinthecamps,andsomediedofthoseinjuries .Otherswereaffectedad�erselyinotherwaysthat�ariedfromindi�idualtoindi�idual .WhiletheCommissionencourages theParties tocompensateappropriately the indi-�idual�ictimsofwarfare,itcalculatesthedamagesowedbyonePartytotheother,includingformistreatmentofPOWs,onthebasisofitse�aluationofthee�idencewithrespecttotheseriousnessoftheunlawfulactsoromissions,thetotalnumbersofprobable�ictimsofthoseunlawfulactsoromissions(wherethosenumberscanbeidentifiedwithreasonablecertainty)andtheextentoftheinjuryordamagesufferedbecauseofthoseunlawfulactsoromissions .

210 . SeriousnessoftheViolations. WhiledamagesmustbeawardedforallPOW�iolations,theCommissionfindsthat�iolations1,2,3,5,7and8(asquotedabo�efromthedispositif inthePartialAwardonliability)werethemostserious,andrequirethehea�iestdamages .Theseriousnessofthefirst�iolationflowsfromtheexperienceofmanywars,whichhasshownthatproperaccesstoPOWcampsbyICRCofficialsandbyrepresentati�esofPro-tectingPowers is themosteffecti�emeansofrestrainingabusesofPOWs .Theabsenceofanysuchexternalobser�ersmakessuchabusesmorelikely .TheseriousnessofkillingPOWsneedsnoexplanation,nordoespermittingfrequentbeatingsofPOWs .Such�iolationsoflaw,aswellasper�asi�eandcontinuousphysicalandmentalabuse,seriouslyandad�erselyaffectallPOWs,includingthosewhomayha�ehadthegoodfortunenotthemsel�estobe�ic-tims .AsnotedintheCommission’sPartialAwardonliability,theCommis-sionwasalsotroubledbye�idencethatEritreaunlawfullytreatedsomePOWsfromTigrayworsethanothers,andunlawfullytreatedcertainotherPOWs


asdeserterstowhomitga�efa�oredtreatment .44Failuretopro�ideadequatehousing,sanitation,drinkingwater,bathingopportunitiesandfoodatfourofthefi�ePOWcamps,therebyseriouslyendangeringthehealthofthePOWsheldinthosecamps,wasaserious�iolationthatad�erselyaffected�irtuallyallEthiopianPOWs .

211 . NumbersofVictims. ThetotalnumberofEthiopiansdetainedasPOWsduringthearmedconflictapproached1,100 .BetweenMay2000andthefinalrepatriationinAugust2002,1,017wereheldinEritrea’sNakfaCamp,butthee�idenceindicatesthat628werereleasedandrepatriatedbetweenDecem-ber2000andMarch2001 .TheotherswerenotreleasedandrepatriateduntilAugust,2002 .

212 . SeriousnessofInjuries. Thenatureofthemostserious�iolationswassuchthatseriousandlingeringphysicalandmentalinjurieswereine�i-table .TheCommissionalsonotedinitsPartialAwardonliabilitythatitwas“sadlyimpressed”bythehighnumber(saidtobeapproximatelyfifty)oftheEthiopianPOWswhodiedintheEritreanPOWcamps .45

213 . Award .Onthebasisof theabo�econsiderations, theCommis-sionawardsEthiopiaUS$7,500,000fortheunlawfultreatmentofEthiopianPOWs .

b. Treatment of ethiopian Civilians in eritrea


214 . In its Group Number Two damages claims, Ethiopia claimedUS$2,055,188,660inrespectof injuries, includingmoral injuries,allegedlyinflicteduponmore than120,000Ethiopianci�ilianspresent inEritreaatsometimeduringthewar .Aswithsomeofitsotherclaims,Ethiopiablendedtogetherclaimsbasedon�iolationsofthejus in bello andthejus adbellum.Thefollowingdiscussiontreatstheportionsofthisclaimin�ol�ingtheCom-mission’s jus in bello liabilityfindings .The jus ad bellum elementsaredis-cussedbelow,togetherwithEthiopia’sotherjus ad bellum claims .EarlierinthisAward,theCommissionhasdiscussedandrejectedEthiopia’sclaimsforlargeseparateawardsofmoraldamages .Ethiopia’sGroupNumberTwoclaimsforadditionalmoraldamageswillnotbefurtherconsideredhere .

215 . Ethiopia’sClaim5in�ol�edEritrea’streatmentofEthiopianci�ilianspresentinEritreaduringthewar .TheCommissionfoundEritrealiable:

Forthefollowing�iolationsofinternationallawin�ol�ingactsoromissionsbyitsci�ilianofficials,militarypersonnelorothersforwhoseconductitisresponsible:

44 Id.,para83 .45 Id.,para .110 .


1 . ForfailingtoensurethatEthiopiansinEritreawhowerenotindeten-tionwereprotectedagainstactsorthreatsof�iolencebyci�ilianandmili-tarypoliceandtheci�ilianpopulationasrequiredbyArticle27ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

2 . ForfailingtoensureEthiopianstherighttofindpaidemploymentonthesamebasisasnationalsaftertheJune2000Cease-FireAgreement,con-trarytoArticle39ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

3 . ForfailingtoensurethatEthiopianswereabletorecei�emedicaltreat-menttothesameextentasEritreannationalsasrequiredbyArticle38ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

4 . FordetainingEthiopiansinpolicestations,prisonsandjailswithoutclear legalbasis,withoutchargeor trialorminimumprocedural rights,includingthoseunderArticle75ofProtocolI,andforconcealingsomeoftheseEthiopiansfromtheICRCin�iolationofArticle143ofGene�aCon-�entionIV;

5 . ForpermittingEthiopianssodetainedtobesubjectedtophysicalandpsychologicalabuseandsubstandardli�ing,sanitaryandhealthconditionscontrarytoArticles27and37ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

6 . FordetainingEthiopiansatHawshaitecampinwesternEritreaduringandafterFebruary1999withoutlegaljustification,andforpermittingtheEthiopianssodetainedtobesubjectedtoinhumanetreatmentandtoinad-equatefood,sanitaryandhealthconditionscontrarytoArticle27and37ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

7 . Fordetainingse�eralthousandEthiopianci�iliansduringandafterMay2000withoutsufficientjustificationsatisfyingArticle42ofGene�aCon�en-tionIV;

8 . Forfailingtopro�idethesedetaineeshumanetreatmentandthemini-mumstandardsoffoodandaccommodationin�iolationofArticles27,89and90ofGene�aCon�entionIV;

9 . Forpermittingthesedetaineestobesubjectedtoactsof�iolenceandphysicalabusebycampguards,andinparticular,forpermittinguntrainedandundisciplinedcampguardstouseindiscriminateandexcessi�elethalforceagainstdetaineesatWi’adetentioncampinJuly2000,causingnumer-ousdeathsandseriousinjuries;

10 . Forexpellingse�eralthousandEthiopiansfromEritreadirectlyfromdetentioncamps,prisonsandjailsduringthesummerof2000undercondi-tionsthatdidnotallowthemtoprotecttheirpropertyorinterestsinErit-rea;

11 . ForfailingtoensurethesafeandhumanerepatriationofdepartingEthiopiansintransportsthatwerenotconductedorsuper�isedbytheICRC;and


12 . ForallowingtheseizureofpropertybelongingtoEthiopiansdepartingotherthanfromdetentioncamps,prisonsandjails,andotherwiseinterferingwiththeeffortsofsuchEthiopianstosecureordisposeoftheirproperty .46


216 . Ethiopia’sGroupNumberTwocompensationclaimsdidnotspecif-icallyaddresstheCommission’sliabilityfindings .EthiopiainsteadcontendedthattheCommission’sliabilityfindingsshowedEritrean�iolationsofinterna-tionallawtoha�ebeensoseriousandper�asi�eastoestablishthate�eryoneofthe120,000EthiopiansinEritreaexperiencedsome�iolation .Hence,Ethiopiaasserted,itshouldbeawardedadditionalcompensationinrespectofe�eryoneofthe120,000 .Ethiopiadidnotpresentnewe�idenceregardingthefrequencyorextentof�iolations,butitdidsubmitlistsofwitnessdeclarationspre�iouslyintheliabilityrecordsaidtoshowthese�erityandextentof�iolations .

217 . Ethiopiacalculateditsclaimsusinga�ariantoftheapproachusedinitsGroupNumberOneclaims .Itfirstdi�idedalloftheestimated120,000EthiopianslocatedinEritreawhenthewarbeganintothreecategories,contend-ingthatpersonsineachcategorysufferedbroadlysimilarle�elsofmistreat-mentwarrantingsimilarcompensation .Inde�isingitsthreecategories,EthiopianotedthattheCommission’sliabilityAwardindicatedthatthenatureandextentofEritrea’s�iolations�ariedo�ertime,withasignificantdeteriorationofEthio-pians’treatmentduringandafterEthiopia’sin�asionofEritreainMay2000 .

218 . Ethiopia’sfirstcategory(“CategoryI”),saidtocontain35,000per-sons,includedEthiopianswholeftEritreabeforeMay2000,includingsomedetainedunderabusi�econditionsattheHawshaitecampbeginninginFebru-ary1999 .(ThePartiesdisputethenumberdetainedatHawshaite .)Thesecondcategory(“CategoryII”),with69,700persons,includedallEthiopiansremain-inginEritreaasofMay2000,butwhowerenotdetainedinEritreandeten-tioncamps .Thethirdcategory(“CategoryIII”),of15,300persons,includedEthiopiansremaininginEritreaasofMay2000whoweredetainedinsuchcamps .Thesegroupswerethenfurtherdi�idedincalculatingEthiopia’sdam-agesclaims,reflectingdifferentdeparturedatesandother�ariablefactors .

219 . Forall threecategories,EthiopiaclaimeddamagesbasedonanestimateofthelifetimeearningsofEthiopiannationalsworkinginEritrea,hadtheyworkedtherealltheirli�esundisturbedbypoliticalchange,agingorothere�ents .Lifetimeearningswereestimatedthroughacomplexproc-ess .EthiopiafirstestimatedtheoccupationsofEthiopiansworkinginEritrea,basedonastatisticalsampleof384personsdrawnfrom30,073personslistedina“CompilationofEthiopianNationalsWhoSufferedLoss,Damage,or

46 PartialAward,Ci�iliansClaims,Ethiopia’sClaim5BetweentheFederalDemo-craticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(December17,2004)[hereinafterPar-tialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaims],dispositif,SectionVIII .D .


InjuryUnderStatementofClaimNo .5”preparedbyEthiopia’sDisasterPre-�entionandPreparednessCommission(the“DPPCCompilation”) .The384indi�idualsinthesamplethenweregroupedintonineoccupationalgroups .Salariesforeachgroupwereobtainedfrom“aregionalgo�ernmentofficialfamiliarwiththeeconomicconditionsofEthiopiansli�inginEritreaduringthewar,”andfromEthiopiansli�inginEritreawhenwarbegan .

220 . Theensuingcalculationsproducedanestimatedweighteda�erageannualincomeofEthiopiansinEritreaofUS$1,684,se�eraltimesthecor-respondingfigureforEthiopiaandtheamountof�ariousestimatesofpercapitagrossdomesticproductinEritrea .Lifeexpectancieswerecalculatedbydeterminingthea�erageageofasampleofreturningEthiopians(28 .9years),andsubtractingthisfromthea�eragelifeexpectancyofpersonsofthatage(44 .3years),gi�ingaremaininglifeexpectancyof15 .4years .A�erageannualincomewasmultipliedbythatremaining lifeexpectancy,gi�ingprojectedlifetimeincomeofEthiopiansinEritreaofUS$25,934 .Thisamountwasnotreducedtopresent�alue,orotherwiseadjustedtoreflectfactorssuchastheeffectofagingonearningcapacity .AswithitsGroupNumberOnedamagesclaims,Ethiopiacontended that�ariouspercentagesof lost future incomereflectedthegra�ityandfrequencyofparticulartypesof�iolations .

221 . Ethiopia’s Category I Claims .EthiopiaclaimedUS$509,932,000withrespectto35,000personssaidtofallinCategoryI .ThisincludedUS$9,012,000inrespectof3,000personsheldforaperiodatHawshaitecampafterEthio-pia’ssuccessinOperationSunset,plusclaimsformaterialandmoraldamagesandforlostpropertyforthe35,000 .TheseequaledUS$14,312perindi�idual,includingUS$9,077 inmaterialdamages(lost income),US$4,114 inmoraldamages,andUS$1,121forlostproperty .Forthiscategory,Ethiopiasubmit-tedthat35%offutureearnings(US$9,077perperson)was“anappropriatedifferential .”Ethiopiaofferednonewe�idenceorstatisticalorotheranalysistosupporttheestimateof35% .

222 . Asindicatedabo�e,Ethiopia’sclaimsformoraldamagesasasepa-rateandadditionalelementoftheCommission’sdamagesAwardsha�ebeendismissedandwillnotbeconsideredfurther .TheclaimforUS$1,121percap-itaforpropertylosswasderi�edfromanotherstatisticalsampleofpropertylossesclaimedbypersonslistedintheDPPCCompilation .

223 . Ethiopia’s Category II Claims .EthiopiaclaimedUS$1,213,362,700foritsCategoryII .Thisgroupincludedanestimated69,700personsremain-inginEritreaasofMay2000,butwhowerenotdetainedinEritreandetentioncamps .Ethiopiadi�idedthiscategoryintosubgroups,becausesomeoftheCommission’sliabilityfindingsappliedonlytolimitedgroupsofpersonsoronlyduringMaythroughDecember2000(whichEthiopiaregardedastheendoftheCommission’sjurisdictionalperiod) .Ethiopiacontendedthate�erypersoninCategoryIIexperiencedoneormoreofthe�iolationsaffectingper-sonsinCategoryI,andwasalsoatriskofadditional�iolationsfoundbytheCommissionafterMay2000 .


224 . EthiopiaarguedthatpersonsinCategoryIIwereexposedtomoreegregious forms of Eritrean beha�ior and were at risk for a longer periodoftime,andhencethatpercapitacompensationle�elsshouldbeincreasedaccordingly .Ethiopiaclaimed45%ofprojectedlifetimeearningsasmaterialdamagesinrespectofeachof36,700peopleinonesubgroup(US$11,670perperson) .Itclaimed50%(US$12,967)withrespecttoeachof33,000peoplesaidtobeco�eredbytheCommission’sliabilityfindingregardingdeparturefromEritreaunderunsafeandinhumaneconditions .

225 . Ethiopiaagainsoughtlargemoraldamages;theseclaimsha�ebeendismissed .EthiopiaalsoclaimedUS$1,121percapitaforpropertylossforeachof31,200persons;thelowernumberreflectsthefactthatmanydepartures(andassociatedpropertylosses)occurredafterDecember2000 .

226 . Ethiopia’s Category III Claims . Finally, Ethiopia claimedUS$331,893,960 for Category III, in�ol�ing persons detained under harshconditionsinEritreandetentioncampsafterMay2000 .Ethiopiapre�iouslycontendedthattherewere7,000suchdetainees;itmaintainedatthisstagethatfurtheranalysisshowedthecorrectnumbertobe15,300 .Ethiopiaclaimeddifferentamountsforsub-groupswithinthiscategory,belie�ingthatforjuris-dictionalreasonsitcouldnotclaimforpropertylossesandpoorconditionsofdepartureforpersonswholeftafterDecember2000 .

227 . EthiopiacontendedthatpersonsinCategoryIIIexperiencedpar-ticularlyse�eresufferingandabuse,and itaccordinglysoughthigherper-centagesofprojectedlifetimeearningsandlargerdamagesformoralinjuryforthem .Bywayofillustration,EthiopiasoughtUS$21,824inrespectofthelossesofeachof13,800people(thelargestsinglegroupinCategoryIII) .ItalsosoughtadditionaldamagesforpersonskilledorinjuredbytheJulyshootingsatWi’acamp,andforpropertylosses .Italsosoughtsubstantialmoraldam-ages,claimsthatha�ebeendismissed .


228 . Eritrea�igorouslycontestedthesizeofEthiopia’sdamagesclaimandmuchofitsanalysis .Amongotherthings,EritreacontendedthatEthiopiamisconstruedordisregardedtheCommission’sliabilityfindings,andsoughtcompensationforthousandsofpeoplewholeftEritreaforreasonsforwhichEritreaisnotlegallyresponsible .ItmaintainedthatEthiopia’spercentagesofassumedlostfutureearningswerewhollyarbitraryandunpro�en,andcriti-cizedbasingtheclaimoninflatedhypotheticalannualearningsinEritrea .ItmaintainedthatEthiopia’se�idencedidnotpro�elossesofsalaryincomeofthemagnitudeasserted,andthatclaimsformsandothere�idencepre�iouslyfiledbyEthiopiashowedthatthesalaryle�elsofEthiopiansinEritreawerefarlowerthanEthiopiaclaimed .Eritreaalsourgedthate�idencepre�iouslyfiledbyEthiopiadidnotbearoutitspresentclaimsofwidespreadunemploymentordisabilityamongEthiopianswholeftEritrea .


229 . EritreadisputedinformationinthesampleEthiopiausedtodeter-minea�eragesalaryle�els,introducingEritreango�ernmentrecordsshowingincomesformanypersonsinthesamplethatweremuchlowerthanEthiopiaclaimed .EritreaalsocriticizedEthiopia’slistsofpre�iouswitnessdeclarationssaidtoshowthefrequencyofEritrea’s�iolations .ItcontendedthatEthiopiamischaracterizedmanyof thesedeclarations,andthat itcontinuedtorelyuponwitnesseswhohadbeenimpeachedduringtheearlierproceedings .Eri-treaalsoaccusedEthiopiaofextensi�edoublecounting,bothintheselistsandincalculatingitsdamagesclaims .

230 . EritreaquestionedEthiopia’sdoublingofthenumberofci�iliansallegedlyheldinEritreandetentioncamps,andrespondedinconsiderabledetailtoEthiopia’sclaimsfordamagesforpersonswholeftEritreaafterMay2000ingo�ernmenttransports .Eritreamaintainedthatthee�idenceshowedthattheICRCplayedasignificantroleinmostdepartures,andthatonlyafewpeopleleftwithoutICRCin�ol�ement .

4. The Commission’s Conclusions: Introductory Comments

231 . TheCommissionunderstandsthelogicofthemannerinwhichEthiopiaorganizeditsGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims .Ne�ertheless,thisapproachhascreateddifficulties for theCommission .TheclaimswerenotdirectlyrelatedtotheCommission’sactualjus in bello liabilityfindings .Keyestimatesregardingthefrequencyof�iolationsandthenumbersof�ictimswerenotconnectedtothee�idence .Jus in bello andjus ad bellum elementswerewo�entogether .Damageswerecalculatedusingtechniquesthatdidnotappearappropriateinthecircumstances .

232 . AswithsomeofEthiopia’sGroupNumberOnedamagesclaims,theCommissiondoesnotaccepttheuseofpercentagesofprojectedlifetimeearnings inEritreaas thebasis fordeterminingcompensation .Itdoesnotbelie�ethesepro�ideanappropriatereference,absente�idenceofpermanentorlong-lastinglossorimpairmentofindi�iduals’physicalorpsychologicalabilities . Moreo�er, if projected earnings were to be used, the benchmarkwouldha�etobepotentialearnings inEthiopia,not inEritrea .Indi�idualEthiopiansworkinginEritreadidnotha�etheassuredlegalrighttoremainthere permanently, and there was insufficient basis for Ethiopia’s seemingpremisethat“butfor”thewar,theywouldha�edoneso .TheCommissionalsodoubtsthehugedifferentialEthiopiaportrayedbetweenEthiopians’earningsinEritreaandtheirearningsinEthiopia .TheCommissionfoundinitsPartialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaimsthatmanyEthiopiansinEritrea“hadlimitedfinancialresourcesandheldlowpayingjobs .”47Ethiopia’se�idenceattheliabilityphasealsosuggestedadifferentpicture .A2002UNreportintherecordindicatedthatmostreturneesfromEritreawerepersonswithrelati�ely

47 Id.,para .11 .


lowle�elsofeducationandskills .Further,theclaimedamountswerenotdis-countedtopresent�alue,orotherwiseadjustedtoreflectfactorssuchasagingthatmayaffectearnings .

233 . Gi�enthelackofclearcorrelationbetweense�eralofEthiopia’sdamagesclaimsandtheCommission’sspecificliabilityfindings,andthelackof persuasi�e e�idence regarding the claimed frequency of �iolations, theCommission’sanalysisdoesnotmirrorEthiopia’spresentationofitsclaims .TheCommissionhasinsteadsoughttoassessdamagesduewithintheframe-workofitsactualliabilityfindingsandonthebasisofthee�idencepre�iouslyintherecord .

234 . ThisassessmentmusttakeaccountofthenumberofEthiopiansinEritreapotentiallyaffectedbyEritrean�iolations .InitsPartialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaims,theCommissionestimatedapre-warEthiopianpopulationinEritreaintheorderof110,000–120,000 .48TheCommissionesti-matedthatbetween20,000and25,000EthiopiansleftEritreainthesummerandfallof1998,soonafterthewarbegan .49Indeed,therecordincludedmul-tiplereportssuggestingthatthenumberlea�ingduringthisearlyperiodmayha�ebeencloserto30,000 .

235 . SomeEthiopianslea�ingEritreaduringtheearlymonthsofthewardoubtless suffereddifficultyanddiscomfort,but thee�idencedidnotindicatefrequentabuseofthekindsidentifiedintheCommission’sliabilityfindingsduringthisperiod .Thus,approximately25,000personswholeftearlyinthewarshouldbesubtractedfromtherele�antpopulation .TheCommis-sionalsofoundthat“perhaps5,000EthiopiansleftEritreaduring1999,”50fur-therreducingthenumberpotentiallyexposedtothesignificant�iolationstheCommissionidentifiedinthefinalstagesofthewaranditsaftermath .


236 . TheCommissionfoundEritrealiableforanumberof�iolationsofthejus in bello,of�aryinggra�ityandextent .Insomecases,itwaspossiblefromtherecordtodeterminewithreasonablecertaintytheprobablenumberof�ictims,pro�idinganimportantreferencepointinassessingthecompensa-tiondue .Inothercases,thee�idencedidnotsupportsuchquantification .

237 . FailuretoProtectFromThreatsandViolence. TheCommissionfirstfoundEritrealiable“forfailingtoensurethatEthiopiansinEritreawhowerenot indetentionwereprotectedagainstactsor threatsof�iolencebyci�ilianandmilitarypoliceandtheci�ilianpopulationasrequiredbyArti-cle27ofGene�aCon�entionIV .”AsindicatedintheCommission’sPartialAward,theliabilityphasee�idenceincludednumerousaccountsdescribing

48 Id.,para .6 .49 Id.,para .7 .50 Id.


suchacts .51 Indeed,a fewdeclarationsallegedmurdersandotherextreme�iolenceagainstEthiopianci�ilians,althoughthesewereuncorroboratedandphrasedinwaysthatledtheCommissionnottogi�ethemmuchweight .Erit-reapresentedrebuttale�idenceshowingthatsomeoftheseaccountsin�ol�edbarroombrawlsorlegitimatelawenforcementactions,butthiswasnotsuf-ficienttoalterthecumulati�epicture .

238 . It is apparent fromthe record thatmany threatsweredirectedagainstEthiopians,andthatthreatssometimesturnedtoofficialorpri�ate�iolence .Conditionsworsenedasthewarprogressed,leadingtoawidespreadclimateofanxietyandfearamongEthiopiansinEritrea .Thiswasaseriousmatter,butitwasnotpossibletodetermineaccuratelythenumberofincidentsorthenumberofEthiopiansaffected .ThesizeoftheEthiopianpopulationinEritreaofferedonereferencepoint,particularlythemalepopulationwhoappearedtoha�ebeentheprincipaltargetsofseriousabuseonthestreets .Takingaccountoffactorssuchasthesizeofthe�ulnerablepopulationandthenumberofaccountsallegingthreatsor�iolence,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$2,000,000 for failure toprotectEthiopianci�ilians inEritreafromthreatsand�iolence .

239 . FailuretoEnsureAccesstoEmployment . TheCommissionfoundEritrealiable“[f]orfailingtoensureEthiopianstherighttofindpaidemploy-mentonthesamebasisasnationalsaftertheJune2000Cease-FireAgree-ment,contrarytoArticle39ofGene�aCon�entionIV .”ThisfindingwasbasedupontheCommission’sassessmentofthetotalityofthecircumstancesaftertheceasefire,“includingthewidespreaddischargeofEthiopiansbypublicandpri�ateemployers,theirejectionfrompublichousingandthewidespreadifnottotalterminationofEthiopians’businesslicenses .”52

240 . Thee�idencedidnotclearlyshowhowmanypersonslostorcouldnotobtainemploymentonaccountofconductattributable totheGo�ern-mentofEritrea,althoughmanypeopleapparentlywereaffected .Analysiswasfurthercomplicatedbecausetheperiodco�eredbythisfindingwasatimeofeconomicandsocialturmoilinEritreaafterEthiopia’sin�asioninMayandJune2000,affectingbothEritreansandEthiopians .And,whilemanyEthio-piansmayha�ejoinedthepost-warexodusfromEritreabecausetheywereunemployed,othersleftforotherreasons .

241 . Inassessingtheextentofdamages,theCommissionhastakenasonereferencepointtheearningsthatindi�idualsmightha�elostinEthio-piaonaccountofbecomingunemployedinEritreaandha�ingtoreturntoEthiopia .IthasalsotakenintoaccountthatmanyEthiopiansinEritreawereemployedincasualoragriculturallabor,asdomestics,orinotherlowpay-ingjobs .Takingaccountoftheseandothercircumstances,theCommission

51 Id.,paras .40–43 .52 Id.,para .52 .


awardsEthiopiaUS$1,500,000forfailuretoensureEthiopianci�iliansinEri-treaaccesstoemployment .

242 . AccesstoMedicalCare. TheCommissionfoundEritrealiable“forfailingtoensurethatEthiopianswereabletorecei�emedicaltreatmenttothesameextentasEritreannationalsasrequiredbyArticle38ofGene�aCon�en-tionIV .”Thisfindingwasbasedonalimitedamountofe�idenceindicatingthatpublichospitals,particularly inAsmarawheremostEthiopians li�ed,“often”or“byandlarge”refusedtotreatEthiopians .Se�eralwitnessdeclara-tionsindicatedthatmedicalcarewasa�ailabletoEthiopiansthroughpri�ateclinicsandphysicians,butthatithadtobepaidfor .Somedeclarantsdidnotclaimtoha�ebeendeniedcareinpublichospitals,insteadindicatingtheydidnotseekcareinthebeliefitwouldberefused .Otherdeclarationscomplainedaboutthepoorqualityofcare,notthatitwasuna�ailable .Therewasrebuttale�idenceshowingthatsomeEritreanhospitalsdidcareforsomeEthiopians .

243 . Thee�idencedidnotshowthatthis�iolationbyEritreaaffectedlargenumbersofpeopleorcausedwidespreadorsignificantinjury,andErit-rea’srebuttale�idencesuggestedthattherewasnotauniformgo�ernmentpol-icyofrefusingaccesstocare .Accordingly,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$50,000forfailuretoensurethatEthiopianci�iliansinEritreahadequalaccesstomedicalcare .

244 . WrongfulDetentionandAbusi�eTreatmentWhileinCustody. TheCommissionfoundEritrealiablefor“detainingEthiopiansinpolicesta-tions,prisonsandjailswithoutclear legalbasis,withoutchargeortrialorminimumproceduralrights,”“forconcealingsomeoftheseEthiopiansfromtheICRC,”andforpermittingthosedetained“tobesubjectedtophysicalandpsychologicalabuseandsubstandardli�ing,sanitaryandhealthconditions .”

245 .TheCommissionfoundthat“anunknownbutappreciablenumberofEthiopianswasdetainedinEritreanprisonsandjailspriortoMay2000”incircumstancesco�eredbytheseliabilityfindings .53Thesewereserious�iola-tionsofhumanitarianlaw .TheCommissionwasparticularlyconcernedbythecredibleindicationsintherecordthatEthiopianauthoritiessometimesmo�edorhiddetaineestopre�entaccessbytheICRC .54Howe�er,thenumberofthese�iolationsagainwasunclear,andtherecordcontainedconflictingindications .AstheCommissionnotedinitsPartialAward,approximately15%ofEthio-pia’s402declarantsclaimedthattheyweredetained .Se�eralclaimedtheywereheldforlongperiodsonsuspicionsrelatedtosecurity .Former“Fighters”ormembersoftheTigrayanPeople’sLiberationFrontorTigrayanDe�elopmentAuthorityappearedtoha�ebeenparticularlyatriskofprotractedandharshdetentiononsecuritygrounds .55

53 Id.,para .75 .54 Id.,paras .74&75 .See also PartialAwardinEthiopia’sPOWClaims,paras .55–62 .55 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaims,para .74 .


246 . Howe�er, the U .S . Department of State’s 2001 Human RightsReport(co�eringthesensiti�eperiodin2000)tookacautiouspositionregard-ingthefrequencyofimproperorabusi�edetentions .Itconcludedthat“[a]nunknownbut believed to be small number ofEthiopians,particularlymen,arebelie�edtobeheldinpolicestations,prisons,andjailsinAsmaraandpossiblyinotherareas . . . .Internationalmonitorsha�eaccesstothemajorityofdetain-eesinpolicestationsandjails .”56Foritspart,Eritreacontendedthatdeten-tionswereforordinarycriminaloffensesorimmigration�iolations .Eritreapresentede�idencethattherewere3,000to4,000arrestsforimmigrationlaw�iolations,whichtheCommissionfounddidnot�iolateinternationallaw .57

247 . Takingaccountoftheseriousnessofthe�iolationsin�ol�ed,butalsooftheuncertaintiesregardingtheirfrequencyandextent,theCommis-sionawardsEthiopiathesumofUS$2,000,000forwrongfuldetentionandabusi�etreatmentofEthiopiansinEritreancustody .

248 . Hawshaite Camp . The Commission found Eritrea liable “fordetainingEthiopiansatHawshaitecampinwesternEritreaduringandafterFebruary1999withoutlegaljustification,andforpermittingtheEthiopianssodetainedtobesubjectedtoinhumanetreatmentandtoinadequatefood,sani-taryandhealthconditions .”TheCommissionnotedthatthee�idenceregard-ingdetentionsatHawshaite,while“notextensi�e,”establishedanunrebuttedprimafacie casethat“asignificantnumberofEthiopians”wasdetainedthereforse�eralmonthsduring1999 .58InthecaseofHawshaite,EthiopiaframeditsdamagesclaimonthebasisoftheCommission’sliabilityfinding,claimingUS$3,004per�ictim,consistingofUS$2,593formaterialdamagescalculatedonthebasisofpurportedlostearningsandUS$411foramoraldamagescom-ponent .EthiopiaclaimedatotalofUS$9,012,000forthe3,000detaineesitallegeswereatHawshaite .

249 . Inthedamagesproceedings,thePartiessharplydisagreedregard-ingthenumberofpersonsdetainedatHawshaite .Eritreacontendedthattherewerefarfewerthanthe3,000Ethiopiaallegedtobeheldthere .TherecordregardingHawshaite,whilesparse,wassufficienttoshowthataconsiderablenumberofpeoplewereheldthere,someforsubstantialperiods,under�erypoorandabusi�econditions .Takingaccountofthea�ailablee�idence,theCommissionawardscompensationintheamountofUS$1,500,000inrespectoftheharshtreatmentofdetaineesatHawshaite .

250 . DetentionsAfterMay2000 . TheCommissionmadese�eralrelatedliabilityfindingsin�ol�ingthedetentionoflargenumbersofEthiopianci�il-iansinEritreaunderharshconditionsduringandafterMay2000 .Itfound

56 CountryReportsonHumanRightsPracticesfor2001,Eritrea(U .S .DepartmentofState,Mar .4,2002),available at http://www .state .go�/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2001/af/8370 .htm(�isitedAug .14,2009) .(Emphasisadded .)

57 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaims,para .71 .58 Id.,para .78 .


Eritrealiable“fordetainingse�eralthousandEthiopianci�iliansduringandafterMay2000withoutsufficient justification,”andfor“failingtopro�idethesedetaineeshumanetreatmentandtheminimumstandardsoffoodandaccommodation .”ItalsofoundEritrealiable“forpermittingthesedetaineestobesubjectedtoactsof�iolenceandphysicalabusebycampguards,andinparticular,forpermittinguntrainedandundisciplinedcampguardstouseindiscriminateandexcessi�elethalforceagainstdetaineesatWi’adetentioncampinJuly2000,causingnumerousdeathsandseriousinjuries .”TheCom-missionaddressesitsfindingsrelatingtotheuseofforceatWi’acampsepa-ratelybelow .

251 . Inthecurrentproceedings,theprincipaldisagreementbetweenthePartiesin�ol�edthenumbersofEthiopianswhoweredetainedbyEritreadur-ingthisperiod .Attheliabilityphase,Ethiopiacontendedthatapproximately7,000Ethiopiansweredetained,andthisclaimwasnotedintheCommission’sPartialAward .59Howe�er,thePartialAwardalsocitedICRCreportsreferringtosmallernumbersofEthiopianci�iliansheldincamps(althoughitwasnotcleariftheICRC�isitedallofthelocationswheredetaineeswereheld),aswellasaU .S .StateDepartmentreportcitingarangeof10,000to20,000personsin�aryingformsofconfinementorrestraint .60

252 . At the damages phase, Ethiopia contended that further studyshowedthattherewereapproximately15,000detainees,morethantwicethenumberpre�iouslyclaimed .Eritreadisputedthisclaim .

253 . TheCommission’sre�iewoftheconflictinge�idencesuggeststhatthenumberofdetaineesprobablywaslargerthanthe7,000citedbyEthiopiaattheliabilityphase,butwasnotaslargeasnowclaimed .(WhiletheCom-mission’sPartialAwardnotedEthiopia’sclaimthattherewere7,000detainees,itdidnotmakeafindingthatthiswasthenumber,andindeedcitedothere�idenceseeminglyinconsistentwiththatclaim .Accordingly,questionsofres judicata donotarise .)Thee�idencedidshowthatdetaineeswereheldunderharsh,impro�isedconditions,andoftenexperiencedbrutaltreatment .

254 . Takingaccountofthea�ailablee�idence,andoftheharshcondi-tionsunderwhichsignificantnumbersofEthiopiansweredetainedwithoutsufficientjustification,theCommissionawardscompensationofUS$10,000,000forthesedetentions .

255 . DeathsandInjuriesatWi’aCamp .TheCommissionfoundEritrealiableforpermittingdetainees“tobesubjectedtoactsof�iolenceandphysi-calabusebycampguards,andinparticular,forpermittinguntrainedandundisciplinedcampguardstouseindiscriminateandexcessi�elethalforceagainstdetainees atWi’adetentioncamp in July2000, causingnumerousdeathsandseriousinjuries .”Theawardofcompensationimmediatelyabo�etakesintoaccountthe�iolenceandabusedirectedagainstdetaineesbysome

59 Id.,para .100 .60 Id.


campguards .Howe�er, theCommissionwasparticularlyconcerned in itsliabilityfindingaboutaseriousshootingincidentattheWi’aCamponJuly11,2000,inwhichguardskilledatleastfifteendetaineesandinjuredatleastanothersixteen .Anadditionalawardisrequiredinrelationtothisincident .Inconsiderationofthatincidentandotherconditionsatthecamp,theCom-missionawardscompensationintheamountofUS$500,000fordeathsandinjuriesatWi’aCamp .

256 . Expelled Detainees’ Property . The Commission found Eritrealiable“forexpellingse�eralthousandEthiopiansfromEritreadirectlyfromdetentioncamps,prisonsandjailsduringthesummerof2000undercondi-tionsthatdidnotallowthemtoprotecttheirpropertyorinterestsinEritrea .”Therecordindicatedthatmost,ifnot�irtuallyall,oftheEthiopiansdetainedduringandafterMay2000weredirectlyexpelledtoEthiopiafromtheplaceswheretheywereheld .Ethiopiacontendedthatthesedetaineesona�eragesuf-feredpropertylossesitcon�ertedtoequalUS$1,121perperson,basedonastatisticalsampleofpropertylossesclaimedbypersonsreturningtoEthiopialistedintheDPPCCompilation .

257 . TheCommissionquestionswhetherthissur�eyofferedareliableguidetothetrueamountofpropertylossesexperiencedbyexpelleddetainees .Theclaimedamountappearsexcessi�e,gi�entheeconomicpositionofmostEthiopiansinEritrea,andisinconsistentwithotherindicationsintherecord .Forexample,aJune1999damageassessmentreportbytheGo�ernmentofTigraysubmittedbyEthiopiaintheearlierproceedingsindicatedthat14,600personswhohadleftEritreaandresettledinTigrayasofMay1999claimedtoha�elostpropertyestimatedat34,000,000birr .Thisself-appraisaloflossesequaledabout2,330birrpercapita,roughlyUS$290atanexchangerateofbirr8:US$1 .Thisfigure(whileperhapshigh,asself-appraisalsoflossesoftenare)seemedamorereliablepointofreference .

258 . Basedonitsre�iewofalimitedrecord,theCommissionawardsEthiopia the sumofUS$2,000,000 fornotprotectingexpelleddetainees’property .

259 . OtherDepartingEthiopians’Property .TheCommission foundEritrealiablefor“allowingtheseizureofpropertybelongingtoEthiopiansdepartingotherthanfromdetentioncamps,prisonsandjails,andotherwiseinterferingwiththeeffortsofsuchEthiopianstosecureordisposeoftheirproperty .”EthiopiaagaincalculateditsclaimbasedonanassumedlossofUS$1,121worthofpropertypercapita,asderi�edfromtheDPPCCompilation .Ethiopiaclaimedthisamountinrespectofe�eryEthiopianadultandchildwholeftEritreaatanytimeduringtheCommission’sjurisdictionalperiod,includingthoselea�ingbeforeMay2000,contendingthattheCommission’sliabilityfindingregardinglossofdepartees’propertyappliedthroughoutthisperiod .Thisisnotcorrect .TheCommission’sfindingrelatedonlytoEthiopi-answhodepartedbetweenMay2000andtheendofDecember2000 .Thefind-ingwassetoutinaseparatesectionofthePartialAwardcaptioned“Claims


AfterMay2000,”andtherelateddiscussioninthetextofthePartialAwardclearlyconcernedonlye�entsduringandafterMay2000 .61

260 . Ethiopiapro�idednoadditionale�idencetosupportitsclaimthatEthiopianswholeftEritreaduringtherele�antperiodpossessedandlostsig-nificantamountsofproperty(althoughtherewase�idencethatmanyEthiopi-ansreturningtoEthiopiawerelargelydestituteandrequiredassistancefromreliefagencies) .Ethiopia’sclaimthattherewereextensi�elossesofpropertyfromactionsattributabletoEritreawasatoddswiththeobser�ationintheCommission’sPartialAwardthatdepartingEthiopianswhowerenotexpelledhadreasonableopportunitytoarrangetheiraffairspriortodeparture .62Ethio-pia’scontentionsregardingthenumbersaffectedwerealsounsustainable .Toassess thenumberofpersonswhopotentially lostproperty, it isnecessarytoexcludethosewholeftin1998,1999and2001 .ThosewhowereexpelleddirectlyfromEritreandetentioncampsalsomustbeexcluded,astheirprop-ertylossesareco�eredabo�e .TheCommissionalsomusttakeaccountoftheeconomicsituationofEthiopiansinEritrea,manyofwhomhadlow-payingjobsandlittleopportunitytoacquireproperty .Basedonthetotalityoftherecord,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$1,000,000fornotprotectingthepropertyofotherdepartingEthiopians .

261 . Failure to Ensure Safe and Humane Repatriation . Finally, theCommissionfoundEritrealiable“forfailingtoensurethesafeandhumanerepatriationofdepartingEthiopiansintransportsthatwerenotconductedorsuper�isedbytheICRC .”Ethiopiaclaimedthatthisfindingco�eredmorethan33,000people .Eritreacontendedthatthenumbersweremuchlower,refer-ring,inter alia,toe�idencepre�iouslysubmittedbyEthiopiasuggestingthatICRCpersonnelfrequentlyorganizedandassistedEthiopiansreturningtotheircountry .

262 . Thee�idencecitedbyEritreadidrefertosubstantialICRCin�ol�e-ment, but was ambiguous as to time, referring to repatriations occurringthroughJune2002 .Otherdocumentsintherecord,includingtheICRC’sownreportsandinformationoriginatingfrombothgo�ernments,indicatedthatmanyEthiopiansmadethereturnjourneyduringtheperiodatissuewithoutICRCin�ol�ement .Indeed,theICRC’sAnnualReportfor2000referredtoha�ingrepatriatedonly12,000EthiopiansfromEritreaduring2000,theyearinwhichthelargestnumberofrepatriationsoccurred .Basedonitsre�iewofthee�idence,theCommissionconcludesthatmanythousandsofEthiopianswerereturnedtotheircountryintransportsthatwerenotarrangedorsuper-�isedbytheICRC .Theirexperiencescouldbeharshandsometimesdanger-ous,asillustratedbya�ideoinEthiopia’se�idenceshowingagedandinfirmdeporteesandsmallchildrencrossingtheMarebRi�erfromEritrea,someonthebacksofEthiopiansoldiers .Ne�ertheless,thediscomfortsanddistress

61 Id.,paras .132–135 .62 Id.,para .134 .


ofthetripwerelimitedinduration,andthee�idencedidnotestablishanysignificantlossoflifeorphysicalinjuryconnectedwiththesethousandsofrepatriations .Accordingly,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$1,100,000inrespectoftheseinjuries .

C. Treatment of diplomatic Property and Personnel


263 . EthiopiaandEritreaeachfiledextensi�eclaimsforallegeddamagesufferedfrominjuriessustainedbyitsdiplomaticmissionandconsularpostandpersonnelasaresultoftheother’salleged�iolationsoftheinternationallawofdiplomaticandconsularrelations .

264 . In its Partial Awards in the Diplomatic Claims, the Commis-sionnotedtheParties’commendabledecisionsnottose�erdiplomatictiesthroughoutthearmedconflict,“despiteuna�oidablefrictionande�engreatpersonalriskfordiplomatsandstaff .”Furthernotingthat“thisunusualsitu-ationhascreatedunusualchallengesfortheapplicationofdiplomaticlaw,”theCommission,inassessingliability,lookedtothe“foundationalprincipleofdiplomaticreciprocity”andappliedthecriticalstandardof“theimpactofthee�entscomplainedaboutonthefunctioningofthediplomaticmission .”Onthisbasis,theCommissionmadelimitedfindingsofliabilityagainsteachPartyfor“serious�iolationsimpedingtheeffecti�efunctioningofthediplo-maticmission .”

265 . InthecaseofEthiopia,theCommissionfoundEritrealiablefortwosuchserious�iolations:

a . for�iolatingArticle29oftheViennaCon�entiononDiplomaticRelations by arresting and briefly detaining the Ethiopian Chargéd’AffairesinSeptember1998andOctober1999withoutregardtohisdiplomaticimmunity;andb . ha�ingretainedaboxcontainingEthiopianEmbassycorrespond-enceincludingblankpassportsforfi�eyears,for�iolatingofficialEthio-piandiplomaticcorrespondenceandinterferingwiththefunctioningofthemissioninbreachofArticles24and29oftheViennaCon�entiononDiplomaticRelations .

2. Ethiopia’s Claim

266 . Atthedamagesphase,EthiopiatookthepositionthattheCom-mission’s liability findings for the diplomatic claims, for both Parties,“should be regarded as sufficient reparation in the form of satisfaction .”Ethiopianotedthattherele�antharmwassuffereddirectlybytheStateoritsdiplomaticemployeesand,comparedtotheharmcausedtoci�iliansinotherclaims,wasrelati�elyminor .Inthealternati�e,Ethiopiarequesteda


monetaryawardcommensuratewiththoseawardedforpersonalinjuryandpropertyloss .Ethiopia,whichpresentednonewe�idenceatthedamagesphase,explicitlywithdrewitsjus ad bellum claimasitrelatedtodamagestodiplomaticpersonnelandproperty .


267 . Inresponse,Eritrearejectedanynotionofreciprocalfindingsofsatisfaction without monetary awards . Eritrea argued that Ethiopia couldrefrainfromseekingsuchdamagesifitsochose,butEritreawasentitledtofullmonetarydamagesforthecomparati�ely“fargreater”diplomaticliabili-tiesassessedbytheCommissionagainstEthiopia .


268 . Ha�ingre�iewedtheParties’submissionsande�idencesubmittedattheliabilityphase,theCommissionagreeswithEthiopiathattheharmitsuf-feredwasindeednonmaterialandcomparati�elyminor .Ethiopiafailedtopro�eaneconomicallymeasurableinterferencewithdiplomaticfunctionineitherofitssuccessfulclaims .ThearrestanddetentionoftheChargé,whileaserious�iolationofhisimmunity,kepthimfromhisofficialdutiesonlyfortwoshortperiods .AstotheofficialcorrespondenceretainedbyEritrea,therewasnosug-gestionthattheEmbassyorEthiopiannationalssufferedeconomicharm;Ethio-piadidnotclaimforthe�alueofthelostblankpassportsorotherdocuments .

269 . AsrecognizedbytheInternationalCourtofJustice intheCorfu Channel case,whereinjuryisnon-materialandhencenotcompensablebyresti-tutionorcompensation,theappropriateformofreparationforaState’swrongfulactissatisfaction .63Intheinstantcase,gi�enEritrea’sseriousbutnon-materialinterferencewithEthiopia’sChargéandofficialcorrespondence,theappropriatereliefissatisfactionintheformofadeclarationofwrongfulness .

270 . Accordingly,asappropriatereparation,theCommissionreiteratesits liabilityfindingsanddeclaresthatEritrea�iolatedtheViennaCon�en-tiononDiplomaticRelationsbyarrestinganddetainingtheEthiopianChargéd’AffairesinSeptember1998andOctober1999withoutregardtohisdiplo-maticimmunity,andby�iolatingofficialEthiopiandiplomaticcorrespondenceandinterferingwiththefunctioningoftheEthiopiandiplomaticmission .

63 CorfuChannelCase(U .K .� .Alb .),Judgment,1949I .C .J .REP .p .244(Dec .15) .


Xi. ethiopia’s Claims for Compensation for eritrea’s Violation of the Jus ad Bellum

a. introduction271 . The Commission’s Liability Findings . In response to Ethiopia’s

Claims1–8,in�ol�ingtheJus Ad Bellum,theCommissionmadethefollowingfindingsofliabilityfor�iolationofinternationallawbyEritrea:

1 . TheRespondent�iolatedArticle2,paragraph4,oftheCharteroftheUnitedNationsbyresortingtoarmedforceonMay12,1998andtheimme-diatelyfollowingdaystoattackandoccupythetownofBadme,thenunderpeacefuladministrationbytheClaimant,aswellasotherterritoryintheClaimant’sTahtayAdiaboandLaelayAdiaboWeredas .2 . TheClaimant’scontentionthatsubsequentattacksbytheRespondentalongotherpartsoftheircommonborderwerepre-plannedandcoordi-natedunlawfulusesofforcefailsforlackofproof .3 . ThescopeofdamagesforwhichtheRespondentisliablebecauseofits�iolationofthejus ad bellum willbedeterminedinthedamagesphaseoftheseproceedings .64

272 . ThequestionofthescopeorextentofEritrea’sresponsibilityforbreach of the jus ad bellum per�aded Ethiopia’s Group Number One andGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims . Many�erylargeclaimsresteduponthecontentionthatEritreaislegallyresponsibleforparticulardamageasthecon-sequenceoftheCommission’sDecember2005findingthatEritrea�iolatedthejus ad bellum,theinternationallawrulesregulatingtheresorttoarmedforce,inrelationtoitsMay1998armedattackintheBadmearea .65

273 . Ethiopiasought�erylargefixed-sumandactualamountdamagesforthesejus ad bellum claims,frequentlymakingseparateclaimsforsimilardamageonaccountof�iolationsofboththejus ad bellum andthejus in bello.Ethiopiainitiallyad�ancedclaimsforjus ad bellum damagesfortwenty-threeseparatetypesofdamage: 1 . internallydisplacedpersons; 2 . ci�iliandeathsonthewarfronts; 3 . ci�ilianinjuriesonthewarfronts; 4 . ci�ilianpropertydamage,includingreligiousinstitutions,

primarilyfromshelling; 5 . deathsandinjuriescausedbylandmines; 6 . propertydestructionandlossesbybusinesses;

64 PartialAward,Jus Ad Bellum,Ethiopia’sClaims1–8BetweentheFederalDemo-craticRepublicofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(December19,2005)[hereinafterPar-tialAwardinEthiopia’sJus Ad Bellum Claims],dispositif,SectionIV .7 .

65 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sJus Ad Bellum Claims;DecisionNo .7,supra note10 .


7 . harmtonaturalresourcesandtheen�ironment;

8 . strafingandbombingoftheMekeleairportin1998;

9 . deathsofEthiopianprisonersofwarwhileinEritreancamps;

10 . costsofoperatingEthiopianPOWcamps;

11 . departuresofEthiopiansfromEritrea;

12 . lossesofpropertyatEritreanportsbyEthiopiango�ernmententities,businesses,NGOsandpersons;

13 . lossoftaxre�enues,includinglossofcustomsre�enuerelatedtopropertylostatEritreanports;

14 . damagesufferedbyEthiopianAirlines;

15 . damageassociatedwithlossoftourism;

16 . declinesininternationalde�elopmentassistance(lossoffor-eignloans,grantsandassistance);

17 . lossofforeignanddomesticin�estment;

18 . costsofreconstructingandrehabilitatingareasinEthiopiadamagedbythewar;

19 . costsofassistinginternallydisplacedpersons;

20 . costsofassistingpersonsexpelledordisplacedfromEritrea;

21 . loss,damageandinjurysufferedbyEthiopia’sRoadAuthority;

22 . lossofre�enuesfromimportsandexportsduetodisruptionoftradethroughEthiopiaports;and

23 . lossesduetoharassmentandintimidationofEthiopianEm-bassystaffinEritreaand�isitorstotheEmbassy .

274 . PriortotheMay2008hearingonEthiopia’sGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims,Ethiopiawithdrewaclaimformigrationorlossofwildani-malspre�iouslyincludedaspartofitsClaim7foren�ironmentaldamage .ItalsowithdrewClaims10(costsofadministeringprisonerofwarcamps),13(lossoftaxre�enues),21(lossbyEthiopia’sRoadAuthority)and22(lossesfromdisruptionofinternationaltrade) .

275 . TheCommissionconsiderseachofEthiopia’sseparatecategoriesofclaimsbelow .Beforedoingso,itmustaddresstwopreliminaryissues:(a)thegeographicalandtemporalscopeofliabilityfollowingfromthe�iolationofthejus ad bellum identifiedbytheCommission,and(b)theprinciplesapplicabletodeterminingcompensationforsucha�iolation .


b. ethiopia’s Jus Ad Bellum Claims—The scope of liability

1. The Parties’ Positions

276 . ThePartiesportrayedthepotentialextentofjus ad bellum liabil-ityindramaticallydifferentterms .Ethiopiamaintainedthatallofthetypesofinjurylistedabo�ewereproximatelycausedbyEritrea’sMay1998armedattackandEthiopia’sdefensi�eresponses .AllweresaidtobearareasonableconnectiontoconductthattheCommissionfoundtobeunlawful,suchthatEritreashouldbeartheirfullcosts .InEthiopia’s�iew,theconsequencesoftheCommission’sjus ad bellum PartialAwardcouldnotbelimitedeithertempo-rallyorspatially .Instead,“thejus ad bellum �iolationinescapablyresultedinthiswidercondition[ofwidescalehostilities]and,totheextentthatthereisloss,damageorinjuryassociatedwithit,thenthatiscompensable .”

277 . InalettertotheCommissiondatedDecember26,2005,Eritrea’sPresidentwrotethat“despitestrongreser�ationsaboutthemannerinwhichthefactsande�entsofMay1998wereappraisedandthesubsequentjudgmentrendered,”hisGo�ernmentwouldrespecttheCommission’sad�ersejus ad bel-lum ruling“in�iewofitspriorcommitmentsandtreatyobligationstoabidebyalltherulingsoftheCommissionestablishedinaccordancewiththeAlgiersPeaceAgreement,”andEritrea’scounselacknowledgedEritrea’sresponsibilitytopro�idereparationforinjuriespro�entoresultfromthespecific�iolationtheCommissionidentified .Howe�er,EritreacontendedthatEthiopia’sclaimsfarexceededthescopeofdamagesproximatelycausedbythat�iolation,andthatEthiopiafailedtopro�emanyoftheclaimedinjuries .Eritreaurgedthat,gi�entheseshortcomings,reliefshouldbelimitedtosatisfaction,perhapsintheformofafurtherdeclarationbytheCommissionthatEritreahad�iolatedinternationallaw .

278 . TheCommissionaddressedtheParties’conflictingpositionsininformalguidancepro�idedatameetingfollowingtheApril2007hearing,andingreaterdetailinDecisionNumber7ofJuly27,2007 .66ItdidnotaccepteitherParty’sinitialpositionsregardingthescopeofcompensationforthejus ad bellum �iolation .Ontheonehand,itdidnotacceptEthiopia’sconten-tionthatEritrealaunchedanaggressi�ewartriggeringfinancialresponsibilityforextensi�eliabilityfore�entsthroughoutthetwo-yeardurationandwidegeographicextentoftheconflict(andafter,inthecaseofEthiopia’sclaimsforthecostsofoperatingitsprisonerofwarcamps) .Ontheotherhand,itdidnotacceptEritrea’scontentionthatEthiopia’sclaimsformonetarycompensationforthejus ad bellum �iolationshouldbedismissed .

279 . InDecisionNumber7,theCommissionre�iewedthetestspro-posedbythePartiesandthe�iewsoftribunalsandcommentatorsregardingthelegalconnectionbetweenaninternationaldelictandthescopeofcom-pensableinjury .Itconcludedthat,notwithstandingtheconcept’slimitations,

66 Id.


thisconnectionwasbestunderstoodthroughtheconceptofproximatecause,informedbyjudgmentsonwhetherparticulartypesofdamagewereforesee-ableconsequencesofadelict .TheCommissionalsore�iewedpastprecedentsin�ol�ingcompensationforusesofforce,concludingthatthehistoricalrecordcounseledcaution .Becauseoftheimportanceoftheissue,andtoallowfurtherreflectionbybothParties,theCommissionreser�eddecisiononmostelementsofEthiopia’sjus ad bellum compensationclaims,resumingconsiderationoftheissueinconnectionwithEthiopia’sGroupNumberTwodamagesclaims .

280 . InitsDamagesGroupTwoMemorialandattheMay2008hearing,Ethiopiaagainarguedforbroadjus ad bellum liability .InEthiopia’s�iew,thenecessaryimportoftheCommission’sliabilityholdingwasthattheentiretyof thearmedconflictbetweenEritreaandEthiopiaresultedfromtheMay1998jus ad bellum �iolation .Ethiopiaarguedinthisregardthatthereshouldbeliabilityforthefullrangeofadelict’spotentiallyforeseeableconsequenc-es,notjustthosethatappearmostlikely .InEthiopia’s�iew,thepotentiallyforeseeableconsequencesofEritrea’sMay1998actionsincludedthatwhichoccurred—acostlytwo-yearwaralongalongfrontier .Accordingly,Eritreashouldpaycompensationformultipletypesofdamages,onallthreefrontsforthewar,fortheentiretyofthewar,aswellasfor�ariouskindsofpublicexpendituresrelatedtothewar,extensi�eeconomicdamagetoci�ilians,andothertypesofdamage .

281 . EritrearespondedbyreaffirmingargumentsitmadeattheApril2007hearing .InEritrea’s�iew,thescopeofitsliabilityshouldbeconfinedtothespecificareasandtimesidentifiedintheCommission’sJus Ad Bellum PartialAward .Eritreaalsocontestedthecausalconnectionofse�eraloftheclaimedtypesofdamage to theCommission’s liabilityfinding,andmain-tainedthatEthiopiafrequentlyfailedtopro�etheextensi�einjuriesforwhichitsoughtcompensation .


282 . TheCommission’sDecember19,2005liabilityfindingonEthio-pia’sjus ad bellum claimwascarefullydrawn,anditsmeaningisilluminatedbytheexplanationsinthePartialAwardandinDecisionNumber7 .Notwith-standingEthiopia’scharacterizationofthePartialAward,theCommissiondidnotfindthatEritreaboresolelegalresponsibilityforallthathappenedthroughoutthetwoyearsoftheconflict .TheCommissionidentifiedabreachofthejus ad bellum limitedastoplaceandtime .

TheRespondent�iolatedArticle2,paragraph4,oftheCharteroftheUnitedNationsbyresortingtoarmedforceonMay12,1998andtheimmediatelyfollowingdaystoattackandoccupythetownofBadme,thenunderpeaceful


administrationbytheClaimant,aswellasotherterritoryintheClaimant’sTahtayAdiaboandLaelayAdiaboWeredas .67

283 . Inmakingthisfinding,theCommissiondismissedasunpro�enEthiopia’sclaimthattheattackatBadmewaspartofawider,pre-plannedassault .

TheClaimant’scontentionthatsubsequentattacksbytheRespondentalongotherpartsoftheircommonborderwerepre-plannedandcoordinatedunlawfulusesofforcefailsforlackofproof .68

284 . TheCommissionnowmustdeterminetheextentofcompensa-bledamagesfollowingfromthespecificdelictitidentified .Itisnotthecase(asEritreaurges)thattheCommission’sfindinglimitedtheextentofdam-agestothespecificplacesandperiodsitcited .Instead,theCommissionmustdeterminewhatinjurywasproximatelycausedbyEritrea’sdelict,informedbyjudgmentsregardingtheconsequencesthatshouldha�ebeenreasonablyforeseeabletoEritrea’smilitaryandci�ilianleadersatthetimeofitsunlawfulaction .Thisin�ol�esbothlegalandfactualconsiderations .

285 . Legal Considerations. The International Court of Justice hasemployedbroadlanguagetodescribethereparationthatshouldfollowfromabreachofthejus ad bellum,butitsjudgmentsha�enotaddressedconcretelythetypesorextentofdamagetoberegardedasproximatelycausedbyadelict .Mostrecently,theCourtinCongo v. Uganda affirmedinbroadterms“thataStatewhichbearsresponsibilityforaninternationallywrongfulactisunderanobligationtomakefullreparationfortheinjurycausedbythatact,”butitleftittothepartiestodetermineinthefirstinstancewhatthismeantthroughnegotiations .69Thisprocesshasnotyetbornefruit .InCameroon v. Nigeria,theCourtfoundthatNigerianarmedforcesandpolicewerepresentinlargeareasfoundtobelongtoCameroon,but itdeniedfurtherrelief,concludingthat“bythe�eryfactofthepresentjudgmentandofthee�acuationoftheCam-eroonianterritoryoccupiedbyNigeria,theinjurysufferedbyCameroonbyreasonoftheoccupationofitsterritorywillinalle�entsha�ebeensufficientlyaddressed .”70Nicaragua v. United States affirmedtheUnitedStates’respon-sibilityforunlawfulusesofforce,butthecasewaswithdrawnbyNicaraguawhilethedamagesphasewasunderway .71

67 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sJus Ad Bellum Claims,dispositif,SectionIV .B .1 .68 Id.,SectionIV .B .2 .69 ArmedActi�itiesontheTerritoryoftheCongo(Congo� .Uganda),Judgment,

2005I .C .J .REP .p .82,paras .259–260(Dec .19) .70 CaseConcerningTheLandandMaritimeBoundaryBetweenCameroonAnd

Nigeria(Cameroon� .Nig .:Eq .GuineaInter�ening),Judgment,2002I .C .J .REP .p .153,para .319(10Oct .) .

71 MilitaryandParamilitaryActi�itiesinandagainstNicaragua(Nicar .� .U .S .),Orderof26Sept .1991,1991I .C .J .REP .p .47 .


286 . Someotherinternationalcourts,tribunalsandcommissionsha�ewrestledwithwhetherparticulartypesofdamageha�etherequisitecausalconnectiontoadelict .Theirdecisionsoffersomeguidance,attwole�els .First,somedecisionssuggesttheouterboundariesofcompensabledamage .SinceatleasttheAlabama arbitration,panelsha�erejectedclaimsfordamagestogeneralizedeconomicinterestsofthe�ictoriousStateoritsnationals,ortoitsexpensesinwagingwar .TheAlabama CommissionersthusconcludedthattheclaimsoftheUnitedStatesforthetransferofAmericanmerchant�esselstoBritishregistry,increasedinsurancecosts,andtheprolongationofthewarandassociatedcosts“donotconstitute,upontheprinciplesofinternationallawapplicabletosuchcases,goodfoundationforanawardofcompensation .”72TheUnitedStates-GermanMixedClaimsCommission,citedwithappro�albybothParties,emphasizedtheneedforadirectcausalconnectionbetweenalossandtheactionsofthedefendantState,andrejectedclaimsfor“alldam-ageorlossinconsequenceofthewar .”73Morerecently,increatingtheUnitedNationsCompensationCommission,theSecurityCouncilsoughttolimittheextentofcompensabledamagebyconfiningjurisdictionto“direct”claimsagainstIraq .74

287 . MostofEthiopia’sjus ad bellum damagesclaimsrespectedtheprin-ciplesreflectedinthesepastdecisions,andEthiopiahaswithdrawnsomethatarguablydonot .Ne�ertheless,asdiscussedbelow,someofEthiopia’sclaimsin�ol�edtypesofdamagetobroadereconomicintereststhatweresubstantiallyremo�edfromEritrea’sdelict .

288 . Onasecondle�el,pastdecisionsofferinformati�eprecedentsforsomespecifictypesofdamagenowclaimed .Thus,inthecaseofpost-conflictinjuriesfromminesofunknownorigin,theCommissionfoundpersuasi�eUmpireParker’sanalysisinaclaimbeforetheU .S .-GermanMixedClaimsCommission .75TheUNCCalsoaddressedsomequestionsandtypesofinjuryakintothosehere;theCommissionfoundpersuasi�etheUNCC’spracticeof includingdamageresulting fromactionsby the forcesofbothparties

72 RecordoftheProceedingsoftheTribunalofArbitration,June19,1872,reprinted in IIIMarjorieM .Whiteman,DamagesinInternationalLawp .1773(1943) .

73 Id.,pp .1793–94 .74 SeeN .Wühler,CausationandDirectnessofLossasElementsofCompensability

BeforetheUnitedNationsCompensationCommission,inTheUnitedNationsCom-pensationCommissionp .205(R .Lilliched .,1995) .

75 EisenbachBrothers&Company(U .S .� .Germ .),Administrati�eDecisionsandOpinionsofaGeneralNatureandOpinionsandDecisionsinCertainIndi�idualClaimspp .857–858(Parker,Umpire,1933),quoted in WHITEMAN,supra note72,atpp .1796–97(thelosswhenacargo�esselstruckaminein1919wasdirectlyattributabletothehostileactofplantingthemine,e�enifthelossoccurredafterhostilitiesended,andtheminecouldha�ebeenplacedeitherbyGermanyorbyanopposingbelligerent) .


toaconflict .76Howe�er,forse�eraltypesof injuriesclaimedbyEthiopia,Whiteman’sobser�ationremainsapt:“Whiletherehasbeenmoreor lessagreementthatcertaintypesofdamageareunreasonable,therehasbeennosuchagreementastothereasonablenessorunreasonablenessofawide�arietyoftypesofdamage .”77

289 . Factual Considerations, Proximate Cause and Foreseeability .Pastdecisionsandpracticesuggestelementsofalegalframeworkforanalyzingcompensation claims for �iolation of the jus ad bellum, but they do notanswerotherbasicquestions .LiketheU .S .-GermanMixedClaimsCom-missionbeforeit, theCommissiondoesnotbelie�ethataState’s interna-tionalresponsibilityinacasesuchasthisextendstoallofthelossesanddisruptionsaccompanyinganinternationalconflict .Abreachofthejus ad bellum byaStatedoesnotcreateliabilityforallthatcomesafter .Instead,theremustbeasufficientcausalconnection .TheCommissionconcludedinDecisionNumber7thatthiswasbestexpressedthroughtheconceptofproximatecause .ThenatureandextentofthecausalconnectionbetweenEritrea’sconductinMay1998andensuinge�entsin�ol�esassessmentsoffactsregardingthecharacterandcourseofthearmedconflict .Thistaskhasbeencomplicatedanduncertain .Astimepassed,theconflictwasdri�enorshapedbybothParties’actions,bytheactionsofoutsideparties,andbytheelementofchance thatper�adesbattlefields .Notsurprisingly, therecordrarelyilluminatedeitherParty’smoti�ationsandintentions .

290 . Inassessingcausation, theCommissionhastried, inter alia, toweighwhetherparticularconsequenceswere,orshouldha�ebeen,foreseenbyEritrea’sleadersintheexerciseofreasonablejudgmentatthetimeofEritrea’sdelictinMay1998 .Inthisregard,Ethiopiaurgedabroadnotionofforesee-ability,contendingthatEritreashouldha�eforeseen,andshouldbeheldtoaccountfor,awiderangeofresultsofitsMay1998actions,includingeachofthetypesofinjuryforwhichEthiopiaclaimedcompensation .TheCommis-sionbelie�esthatamorenuanced�iewisrequired .Itagreesthatthetestofforeseeabilityshouldextendtoabroaderrangeofoutcomesthanmightneedtobeconsideredinalessmomentoussituation .Asubstantialresorttoforceisaseriousandhazardousmatter .Apartyconsideringthiscourseisboundtoconsidermatterscarefully,weighingthecostsandpossiblebadoutcomes,aswellastheoutcomeitseeks .Thisisparticularlysogi�entheuncertaintiesof

76 See, e.g.,UNCCDecision17,S/AC .26/1991/Re�/1(March17,1992)(co�eredclaimsinclude“anylosssufferedasaresultof . . .[m]ilitaryactionorthreatofmilitaryactionbyeitherside . . . .”) .

77 WHITEMAN,supra note72,atp .1767 .


armedconflict .78Atthesametime,ifapartyisdeemedtoforeseetoowidearangeofpossibleresultsofitsaction,reachingtoofarintothefuture,ortoofarfromthebattlefield,foreseeabilitylosesmeaningasatooltoassessproximatecause .Ifallresultsareforeseeable,thetestismeaningless .

3. The Temporal and Territorial Scope of Liability

291 . Basedon itsassessmentof the factsa�ailable,andasdescribedmorefullybelow,theCommissionconcludesthatinjuriesin�ol�ingEthio-pianci�iliansandci�ilianpropertyconnectedwiththeconflictintheareasandduringtheperiodsdescribedbelowwereproximatelycausedbyEritrea’sMay1998delict .

292 . The Western Front. Theclearestcasein�ol�esinjurytoci�iliansanddamagetoci�ilianpropertyresultingfromtheconflictontheWesternFrontofthewar,fromMay1998untilEthiopia’smilitarysuccessinitsOpera-tionSunset,concludinginMarch1999 .Duringthisperiod,EritreanforcesoccupiedareasontheWesternFrontthatwereclaimedbyEritreabutpre�i-ouslypeacefullyadministeredbyEthiopia,aswellasEthiopianterritorythatwasnotindispute .Gi�enthatthepurposeoftheoperationatBadmewastogaincontrolofterritoryEritrearegardedasitsown,itwas,orclearlyshouldha�ebeen,foreseeabletoEritrea’sleadersthatEritreanforceswouldseizeandoccupytheareas in�ol�ed inthe initialattacks,aswellasadditionalareasclaimedbyEritreaorthatwererequiredtosecureandholdterritoryoccupiedbyEritreanforces .

293 . Moreo�er,itwas,orshouldha�ebeen,readilyforeseeabletoErit-rea’sleadersthatEthiopiawouldresistthein�asionofBadmeandassociatedareas .Itwas,orshouldha�ebeen,readilyforeseeablethattheresultwouldbeasubstantialconflictontheWesternFrontforsolongasEritreanforcesoccupiedBadmeandotherareasonthatfronteitherinEthiopiaorpre�iouslyunderEthiopianadministration .Indeed,thele�elofEritreanforcesinitiallydeployedatBadmeinMay1998—whichtheCommissionfoundin�ol�edse�-eralbrigadessupportedbytanksandartillery—suggeststhatEritrea’scom-mandersdidanticipatethepossibilityofsignificantEthiopianresistanceandofasubstantialconflict .

294 . Itwas,orclearlyshouldha�ebeen,foreseeablethatthesemilitaryoperationswouldresultinEthiopianci�iliancasualtiesanddamagetoEthio-pianci�ilianproperty,bothintheareasontheWesternFrontoccupiedbyEritrea’sforces,andontheEthiopiansideoftheopposingarmies’lines .

78 TheCommissionthusdoesnotsharethe�iewoftheBritishandAmericanCom-missionersassessingtheSamoanclaimswhobelie�edthat,inapre-Chartercasein�ol�-ingresorttoforce,damagesshouldbelimitedonlytothose“whichareasonablemaninthepositionofthewrong-doeratthetimewouldha�eforeseenaslikely toensuefromhisaction .”WHITEMAN,supra note72,atp .1780(emphasisadded) .


295 . OperationSunsetin�ol�edextensi�emilitaryoperationsthroughwhichEthiopianforcesretooktheBadmeareaandotherdisputedorEthiopianterritoryoccupiedbyEritreaontheWesternFront .Thereafter,theprincipallinesofengagementonthatfrontmo�edintoterritorythatwasunquestion-ablyEritrean .79Afterthattime,manydisplacedci�ilianswereabletoreturntotheirlocalities,althoughsomereturnsweredelayedbytheneedtoclearlandmines .Howe�er,asdiscussedmorefullybelow,someadditionalcasualtieswerecausedbylandminesplantedwhiletheconflictwasacti�e .

296 . Eritrea is liable topro�idecompensation for injuries in�ol�ingEthiopianci�iliansandci�ilianpropertyresultingfromthemilitaryconflict(a)intheareaincludingBadmeanditsen�irons,and(b)throughoutallotherareasontheWesternFrontwhereEthiopianforcesfacedEritreanforcesoccu-pying,orengaginginhostilitieswithin,territoryinEthiopiaorpeacefullyunderEthiopianadministrationpriortoMay1998 .Exceptforcertaintypesofdamagenotsubjecttotemporallimitation(notablyinjuriescausedbyland-mines,andcontinuingcostsofcareforinternallydisplacedpersonsunabletoreturntotheirhomes),therele�antperiodextendedfromMay1998untilEthiopia’sOperationSunsetoffensi�eendedinMarch1999,bringingabouttheremo�alofEritreanforcesasdescribedabo�e .

297 . Assessments of proximate causation and foreseeability becomemorecomplexandlesscertainastoinjuriesoccurringatgreaterremo�einspaceandtimefromtheinitialfightinginBadmeandontheWesternFront .Inmakingtheseassessments,theCommissionhasgi�ensignificantweighttotheseriousnessofadecisionbyaStatetoresorttothelarge-scaleuseofforce .Suchamomentousdecisionplacesahea�yobligationontheactingState’sleaderstoanalyzeandweighcarefullythepotentialconsequencesoftheirintendedaction .Inthisregard,aStatechoosingtoresorttoforcein�iolationofthejus ad bellum bearsresponsibilityfortheforeseeableresultsboththatitdesires,andthoseitdoesnot .

298 . The Central Front .TheCommissionrejectedasunpro�enEthio-pia’scontentionthatthelarge-scaleclashesbetweenEritreanandEthiopianforcesastheconflictspreadeastinMayandJune1998reflectedapre-plannedEritreancampaignofattacks�iolatingthejus ad bellum.80Ne�ertheless,fol-lowingtheattackonBadme,powerfulnewforcescameintooperationthatshouldha�ebeenreadilyforeseenbyEritrea’sleadersandmilitarycommand-ersatthetimeoftheattackonBadmeinMay1998:theimperati�esofmili-tarystrategyandgeography .Zalambessaislocatedatakeystrategiclocation

79 OnFebruary27,1999,followingsignificantre�ersesinthecourseofOperationSunset,EritreasentlettersacceptingtheOrganizationofAfricanUnity(“OAU”)Frame-workAgreementforsettlementofthedispute .Ethiopiahadpre�iouslyacceptedtheagree-mentaswell .Thatsameday,theUNSecurityCounciladoptedapresidentialstatementwelcomingEritrea’saction,anddemandingthatthepartiesceasehostilities .ForreasonsthataredisputedbetweentheParties,hostilitiescontinued .

80 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sJus Ad Bellum Claims,para .18 .


onwhatbecameknownas theCentralFront .Theprincipal roadconnect-ingAddisAbabaandAsmara—oneofthefewall-weatherroadsconnectingEthiopiaandEritrea,andtheprincipalandmostdirectroutebetweenthetwocapitals—crossesthefrontierthere .Itwas,orshouldha�ebeen,readilyapparenttoEritrea’sleadersthat,onceaconflictbegan,neitherPartycouldlea�etheprincipala�enueconnectingtheircapitalsopenforcontrolbytheotherParty .

299 . Gi�enthis,theCommissionbelie�esthattherapidspreadoftheconflictalongthegenerallineofthebordereastwardtowardsZalambessa,andtheseriousfightingthatensuedatZalambessaandatotherlocationsontheCentralFront,wastheproximateresultofEritrea’sbreachofthejus ad bel-lum.Itwas,orshouldha�ebeen,readilyforeseeabletoEritrea’sseniorleadersthat,followingtheseizureofBadme,fightingwouldquicklyspreadeastwardtowardtheZalambessaareaandintoIrobWereda,andthatEthiopiawouldmountastiffresistancethroughouttheCentralFrontarea .

300 . OntheCentralFront,thePartiessettledintolinesofengagementthatremainedlargelystablethroughoutthewar .Inmanyareas,EritreanforcesheldpositionsinEritreanorthoftheMarebRi�er,orinotherareasunques-tionablylocatedwithinEritrea .Howe�er,Eritreanforcesalsooccupiedorcon-ductedshellingorotherwiseengagedinhostilitiesinotherterritorythatwaseitherinEthiopiaorwasunderpeacefuladministrationbyEthiopiapriortoMay1998 .Intheseareas,EritreaisliableforinjurytoEthiopianci�iliansorci�ilianpropertythroughouttheperiodofEritreanforces’presenceoropera-tions,whichinsomecasesextendeduntilJune2000 .Further,asinthecaseoftheWesternFront,Eritreaisliableforcertaintypesofdamagenotsubjecttotemporallimitation,notablyinjuriescausedbylandmines,andpro�encostsofcareforinternallydisplacedpersonsunabletoreturntotheirhomes .

301 . The Eastern Front .TheEasternFrontofthewarwasthemostgeo-graphicallydistantfromEritrea’sinitialattackonBadme .ItwaslocatedinthesparselypopulatedAfarRegion,whichincludessomeofthehottestandharshestterrainonEarth,withfewroadsandlittlewater .Thefightingwasmost intense inElidarWereda in theeastof theAfarRegion,particularlyaroundtheEthiopianbordertownofBure .Therewasalsofightingelsewhere,particularlyinDalulWereda,asparselypopulatedborderareaadjoiningIrobWeredainthenorthwestoftheRegion .

302 . Bureislocatednearthetri-pointofEthiopia,EritreaandDjibou-ti,ontheroadconnectingEthiopiatotheEritreanportatAssab .AssabwasEthiopia’sprimaryoutlettotheseabeforeEritrea’sattackonBadmeinMay1998,andmuchofEthiopia’socean-borneexportandimportcargotra�eledthisroad .AsdiscussedintheCommission’sAwardinEthiopia’sPortsClaim,81

81 FinalAward,Ports,Ethiopia’sClaim6BetweentheFederalDemocraticRepub-licofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(December19,2005)[hereinafterFinalAwardinEthiopia’sPortsClaim] .


thoseinEritrearesponsibleforoperatingtheportatAssaballowedsignificantamountsof�aluablecargotocontinuetomo�etoEthiopiaforsometimeaftertheattackonBadme,perhapshopingthatthegeographicscopeoftheconflictwouldsomehowbecontained .

303 . Ne�ertheless,theCommissionbelie�esthatitwas,orshouldha�ebeen,readilyforeseeabletoEritrea’sleadersthattheconflictcouldnotbecon-tained,andthatitwouldspreadtoElidarWereda,particularlyaroundBure,withassociatedhea�ycoststoEthiopianci�iliansandci�ilianinfrastructure .JustaswithZalambessa,theimperati�esofmilitarystrategyandgeographyga�erisetoasituationthatwaslikelyto,anddid,leadtointensefighting .Inthisharshsetting,theall-weatherroadconnectingAssabinEritreawithEthi-opia,andultimatelywithAddisAbaba,hadenormousstrategicimportance .AsuccessfulEthiopianattackuptheroadintoEritreatowardtheRedSeamightbringthecaptureofAssab,gi�ingEthiopiacontrolofanoceanportandagreatpoliticalandpsychological�ictory .AsuccessfulEritreanattackintheoppositedirectionmightallowEritreatocuttheroadandraillinksbetweenEthiopiaandtheportofDjibouti .Thiswoulddepri�emostofEthiopiaofaccesstoaseaportformostofitsimportsandexports .Neithersidecouldriskallowingtheothersucha�ictory,asEritrea’sleadersshouldha�eforeseen .

304 . Accordingly,theCommissionconcludesthatthecausalconnec-tionbetweenEritrea’sinitialattackatBadmeandtheconflictthatsubsequent-lyde�elopedinElidarWeredaissufficientlyclearanddirecttoholdEritrearesponsiblefortheensuinginjuriestoEthiopianci�iliansandci�ilianinfra-structureinthatweredathroughouttheperiodofEritreanforces’presenceoroperations,whichsometimesextendeduntilJune2000 .Further,asinthecaseoftheWesternandCentralFronts,Eritreaisliableforcertaintypesofdamagenotsubjecttotemporallimitation,notablyinjuriescausedbylandmines,anddocumentedcostsofcareforinternallydisplacedpersonsunabletoreturntotheirhomes .

305 . DalulWeredaisanarealargelypopulatedbynomadicAfarPeopleintheareaofthescorchingandaridDanakilDesertandDepression .Itsgeo-graphicandstrategicsituationdiffersfromthatofElidarWereda .Ne�ertheless,theCommissionbelie�esthat,gi�entheParties’pastmilitaryencountersinthearea,itshouldha�ebeenreasonablyforeseeabletoEritrea’sleadersthatthecon-flictwouldspreadheretoo,withensuinginjurytoci�ilians .EritreahadallegedthatEthiopiaunlawfullyintrudeduponitsterritoryinthisregioninJuly-August199782whenEthiopiapurportedlysenttroopsintodealwithinternalarmedoppositionoftheAfarpeople,establishingbasesonwhatEritreaconsideredtobeitsterritory .Gi�enthishistoryandEritrea’sterritorialclaims,itshouldha�ebeenforeseeabletoEritreanleadersthat,ifEthiopiarefusedtoaccepttheEritreanoccupationofBadme,thentheconflictwouldine�itablyspreade�entotheAfararea,inwhiche�entEritreawouldoccupyitsclaimedterritoriesin

82 See OAUFrameworkAgreement,supra note79 .


thatarea .Accordingly,asinthecaseofElidarWereda,EritreaisliablefortheresultinginjurytoEthiopianci�iliansorci�ilianproperty .

C. determining the amount of Jus Ad Bellum Compensation

306 . TheCommissionfacesdifficultandunsettledquestionsregardingtheprinciplestobeappliedinassessingtheamountofcompensationdueonaccountofEritrea’sjus ad bellum�iolation .

307 . PastjudicialdecisionsandStatepracticeofferlimitedguidance .Whiledecisionspro�idesomeassistanceinidentifyingtypesofdamagesthatmaybecompensableincasesin�ol�ingusesofforce,theyrarelyexamineques-tionsrelatingtoquantification .Asnotedearlier,afewInternationalCourtofJusticejudgmentsha�ecalledfor liabilityinbroadtermsincircumstancesin�ol�inguseofforce,buttheCourthasonlyoncedeterminedcompensationinaconcretesituation .Thatcase—Corfu Channel—in�ol�eddamageclaimsmuchdifferentfromthosehere .83

308 . Gi�enthelimitedguidancea�ailablefrompastdecisions,theCom-missionweighedse�eralfactorsinassessingtheamountofcompensationthatshouldfollowfromabreachofthejus ad bellum.Athresholdquestionwaswhetheranyawardofdamagesshouldbedesignedtoser�etheexceptionalpurposeofhelpingtodeterfuture�iolationsofArticle2,paragraph4oftheCharterof theUnitedNations,orshould, instead,ser�ethemorecon�en-tionalpurposeofpro�idingappropriatecompensationwithintheframeworkofthelawofStateresponsibility .Astothis,theCommissionunderstandsthelattertobeitsresponsibility,anditdoubtsthatpossibleawardsofmonetarycompensationwouldbelikelytodeteraStatecontemplatingactioninbreachofthejus ad bellum. UndertheCharteroftheUnitedNations,theSecurityCouncilhasprimaryresponsibilityforaddressing(anddeterring)�iolationsofArticle2,paragraph4oftheCharter,inter alia,byitsauthoritytoimposesanctions .Otherdeterrentsarefoundintherightsofindi�idualandcollecti�eself-defense,andintheriskofcriminalpunishmentofgo�ernmentofficialsresponsiblefordecidingupontheunlawfulresorttoforce .Theprospectofpotentialmonetaryliabilitiesseemsoflittlecomparati�eweight .

309 . TheCommissionconsideredwhetheranawardofcompensationshouldreflectaprecisequantificationoftheamountsofparticularphysical,economicorother�arietiesofdamagecausedbyEritrea,nototherwisecom-pensableunderthejus in bello,oramoregeneralassessmentofthecharacteroftheinjuryinflictedupontheStateofEthiopiainlightoftheCommission’sdecisionsregardingEritrea’sjus ad bellum liability .

83 See CorfuChannel,supra note63,atp .244 .


310 . Theanswerwasdictatedbythenatureof theclaimsandof theunderlyinge�idence .Theseclaimsoftenin�ol�eddamagethatwasuncertaininextentandeffect,andthatoccurred inremote locations .Clearproofofspecificinjurywasoftenlacking,butrequiringrigorousproofinthecircum-stancescouldbothdefeattheobjecti�eofpro�idingcompensationforinjuryandexceedthecapacitiesofboththePartiesandtheCommission .Accord-ingly,aswithotherclaims,theCommissionmadeitsbestassessment,draw-ingupona�arietyofindicators .Theextentofcompensableinjuryanddam-age,andtheamountofappropriatecompensation,frequentlyin�ol�edroughapproximations .

311 . Inassessingcompensation for�iolationsof the jus in bello, theCommissionsoughttolinktheamountofcompensationtothegra�ityofeachtypeof�iolation .Suchconsiderationsha�efarlessweightinassessingdam-agescompensablesolelyonaccountof�iolationofthejus ad bellum.Ethiopia’sjus ad bellum claimsoftenallegedinjuryconnectedwithmilitaryacti�itiesthattheCommissionearlierdeterminedwerenotthemsel�esunlawful .Forexample,Ethiopiaclaimedfordamagetohousingcausedbyartillery,ci�iliancasualtiesfromlandmines,anddamageandci�iliancasualtiesfromEritrea’s1998bombingoftheMekeleAirport .TheCommissionearlierdeterminedthatalloftheseactionsdidnot�iolatethejus in bello. Theseunderlyingacts,bydefinition,werenotthemsel�esunlawful,andshouldnotgi�erisetocompen-sationonthesamebasisas�iolationsofthejus in bello.

312 . Inasimilar�ein,theCommissionbelie�esthatthelawofStateresponsibilitymustmaintainameasureofproportionbetweenthecharacterofadelictandthecompensationdue .Ethiopiastronglyurgedthisprincipleinadifferentsetting,inclaiminghugemoraldamages,onthegroundthatEritreahadcommittedegregiousdelictsmeritingmassi�eadditionalcompen-sation .Eritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum inMay1998asfoundbytheCommissionwasserious,andhadseriousconsequences .Ne�ertheless,that�iolationwasdifferentinmagnitudeandcharacterfromtheaggressi�eusesofforcemarkingtheonsetoftheSecondWorldWar,thein�asionofSouthKoreain1950,orIraq’s1990in�asionandoccupationofKuwait .TheCom-missionbelie�esthatdeterminationofcompensationmusttakesuchfactorsintoaccount .

313 . TheCommissionalsoconsideredwhetheranawardofcompensa-tionshouldbelimitedasnecessarytoensurethatthefinancialburdenimposedonEritreawouldnotbesoexcessi�e,gi�enEritrea’seconomicconditionanditscapacitytopay,asseriouslytodamageEritrea’sabilitytomeetitspeople’sbasicneeds .Asdiscussedpre�iously,claimsofcompensationinclaimsofthismagnitudemayraisesignificantquestionsattheintersectionofthelawofStateresponsibilityandfundamentalhumanrightsnorms,notablythosecontained


incommonArticleI(2)of theICESCRandtheInternationalCo�enantonCi�ilandPoliticalRightsandinArticle2(1)oftheICESCR .84

314 . Inthisregard,theCommissionnotesthat, insituationsin�ol�-ingunlawfuluseofforce,StatesandtheUnitedNationsha�ecreatedregimesoracceptedoutcomesin�ol�ingcompensationforfarlessthanthedamagecausedbytheunlawfuluseofforce .Doubtlesstheexperienceof1918whenthe�ictorstriedtoextractsubstantialcompensationfromGermanywasanimportantlearningexperience,asitcontributedtodreadfulconsequences .NeitherGermanynorJapanwasmadetobearfinancialresponsibilityformorethanafractionoftheinjurycausedbytheirconductinstartingandwagingtheSecondWorldWar,althoughbothsufferedsomemandatedcessionofter-ritory .TheexperienceoftheUNCC,frequentlycitedbybothParties,isalsoinstructi�e .UnlikethePartiesintheseproceedings,Iraqisacountrywithgreatnaturalwealth .Ne�ertheless,whentheUNCCwascreated,theUNSec-retary-GeneralandtheSecurityCounciltookpainstoassurethatanyfundspro�idedtotheUNCCtopayclaimswereinexcessofamountsrequiredforIraq’simportsanddebtser�ice .85

315 .Thecautioninsettingle�elsofcompensationreflectedinthesepastexperienceshighlightsanother importantconcern .Theprocessofmo�ingfromwartoastableandmutuallybeneficialpeaceoftenisdifficultanduncer-tain,astheParties’currentrelationsshow .Informedbytheunhappyconse-quencesofreparationsundertheTreatyofVersailles,mostStatesha�ebeenconcernedtoensurethatprogramsforcompensationorreparationdonotthemsel�esundermineeffortstoaccomplishastablepeace .TheCommissionwouldbegreatlyconcernedifitseffortstocarryoutthemandategi�enitbythePartiesledtoafurtherdeteriorationoftheirrelations,andimpairedtheprospectsforadurablepeace .86

316 . Furtherconsiderationswarrantcaution .IfcompensationtoaStatefora�iolationofthejus ad bellum istobecalculatedonthesamebasisasforthe�iolationofthejus in bello,andif,asEthiopiacontends,aStateinitiatingaconflictthroughabreachofthejus ad bellum isliableunderinternationallawforawiderangeofensuingconsequences,theinitiatingStatewillbearexten-

84 See para .19et seq.supra.85 ReportoftheSecretary-Generalpursuanttoparagraph10ofSecurityCouncil

Resolution687,S/22559(May2,1991);LetterfromtheSecretary-GeneraltothePresidentoftheSecurityCouncil,S/22661(May31,1991) .O�ertheyearsofitsoperation,theUNCCfoundliabilityagainstIraqinaprincipalamountofaboutUS$52billiondollars,roughly15%oftheamountclaimed .Lessthanhalfofthatamounthasbeenpaid,andfurthersubstantialpaymentsthroughtheUNCCmechanismdonotappearlikely .See StatusofProcessingandPaymentofClaims,available at www2 .unog .ch/uncc/status .htm(�isitedMarch31,2009) .

86 See CarstenStahn,“Jus ad Bellum,” “Jus in Bello” . . .”Jus post Bellum”?: Rethinking the Conception of the Law of Armed Force,17EUR .J .INT’LL .pp .921–943(2006),reprint-ed in INTERNATIONALLAW:CLASSICCONTEMPORARYREADING(CharlotteKu&PaulF .Diehleds .,3ded .2009) .


si�eliabilitywhetherornotitsactionsrespectthejus in bello.Indeed,muchofthedamageforwhichEthiopiaclaimsjus ad bellum compensationin�ol�esconductthattheCommissionpre�iouslyfoundtobeconsistentwiththejus in bello.Imposingextensi�eliabilityforconductthatdoesnot�iolatethejus in bello riskserodingtheweightandauthorityofthatlawandtheincenti�etocomplywithit,totheinjuryofthoseitaimstoprotect .TheCommissionbelie�esthat,whileappropriatecompensationtoaclaimingStateisrequiredtoreflectthese�erityofdamagecausedtothatStatebythe�iolationofthejus ad bellum,itisnotthesameasthatrequiredfor�iolationsofthejus in bello.

317 . AsnotedthroughoutthisAward,determiningcompensationincasessuchastheseisoftennecessarilyanimpreciseanduncertainmanner .ThisisparticularlysoindeterminingcompensationforEritrea’sjus ad bel-lum �iolation .Guidedbytheprinciplesdescribedabo�e,theCommissionhasuseditsbestjudgmentindeterminingappropriatecompensationforEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum inparticularinstances,whichcompensationisadditionaltothatforthe�iolationsofthejus in bello dealtwithinSectionsVIIIthroughXabo�e .

d. fixed amount Compensation (ethiopia’s Categories 1–5)

1. Introduction

318 . Ethiopiaclaimedlargeamountsasfixed-sumcompensationforse�eralofthetypesofinjurylistedabo�e .Theseclaimsallin�ol�edinjuriessaidtoha�ebeensufferedbylargegroupsofpeopleastheresultofmilitaryoperations—bybothParties—thattheCommissionfounddidnot�iolatethejus in bello.Ethiopiabroughtsuchclaimsforinternallydisplacedpersons(cat-egory1),ci�iliandeathsandinjuriesonthewarfronts(categories2and3),ci�ilianpropertydamage(category4),deathsandinjuriesattributedtoland-mines(category5),deathsofEthiopianprisonersofwarinEritreancamps(category9)anddeparturesofEthiopians fromEritrea (category11) .Thissectionaddressesthefirstfi�eofthese;theothertwo(prisonersofwaranddeparturesfromEritrea)arediscussedseparatelybelow .

319 . TheCommissionagreesthatmostofthesetypesofinjuriesaretheproximateandforeseeableresultsofEritrea’sdelict,andwarrantcompensa-tiontoEthiopia .Thechallengeliesinidentifyingcompensabledamages,gi�enthelimitationsofthee�idenceandthemannerinwhichtheclaimswerepre-sented .ManyofEthiopia’swrittenpleadingstooktheformofmulti-pagerecit-alsofindi�idualwitnesses’allegations .Theunderlyingwitnesses’statements,howe�er,oftendidnotindicatewhene�entsoccurred,orwheretheyoccurredinrelationtoplacesidentifiableoneitherParty’smaps .

320 . The liability phase e�idence often pro�ided little informationregardingthefrequencyofparticulartypesof�iolations,andEthiopiadidnot


offeradditionale�idenceonthisatthedamagesphase .Moreo�er,theamountsclaimedasdamagesoftenappearedexcessi�eandunsupportedbythee�i-dence .Gi�entheselimitations,theCommissionhashadtomakeapproximatejudgmentsregardingthefrequencyofinjuryandthele�elofcompensation .

2. Internally Displaced Persons (Category 1)

321 . Militaryoperationsfrequentlyresult inci�iliansbeinginternallydisplaced,oftenwithgreathumanandeconomiccosts .Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionfoundthatinternaldisplacementwasnotitselfa�iolationofthejus in bello.Howe�er,large-scaleinternaldisplacementintheareasandtimesindi-catedabo�ewasthedirectandforeseeableresultofEritrea’sbreachofthejus ad bellum.Accordingly,EritreaisliableforinjurytoEthiopianswhowereinternallydisplacedfromthoseareasandduringthosetimesonaccountofthewar .

322 . ThedisplacementofmanythousandsofpersonsonaccountofEri-trea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum wasamostseriousconsequenceofthecon-flict .Manydisplacedpersonssufferedthelossofshelter,animalsandessentialhouseholdandfarmingimplements .Thoselossesproduceddestitutionanddependencyonthereliefpro�idedbytheirgo�ernmentandbyinternationalagencies .The foodandhealthconditions inmanyreliefcampswereofteninadequatetomeetthebasicneedsofmanyfamilies,particularlyyoungchil-dren .TheCommissionbelie�esitispeculiarlytheofficeofthejus ad bellum topro�ideabasisforcompensationinthecaseofIDPswhosedisplacementwasproximatelycausedbya�iolationofthejus ad bellum.

323 . Mostofthosedisplacedwerewomenandchildren .IDPsincludedbothpersonswhofledtheirhomestoescapeongoingmilitaryoperationsnear-by,andotherswholeftareasneartheborderasaprecaution .TherecordshowsthatTigrayofficialsencouragedextensi�ee�acuationsfromborderareasinlate1998,whenhostilitieswereatacomparati�elylowle�el,significantlyincreas-ingthenumberofIDPs .Therecorddidnotexplainthecircumstancesleadingtothesee�acuations,althoughEritrea’sOctober1998shellingofthetownofSheraroapparentlywasafactor .87TheCommission�iewsthee�acuationofci�iliansfromareaspotentiallyaffectedbyconflictattheurgingofgo�ern-mentauthoritiesasareasonableandforeseeableconsequenceofabreachofthejus ad bellum.Thus,therele�antpopulationincludedbothpersonswhofledtheirhomestoescapenearbyfighting,andotherswholeftattheurgingofgo�ernmentofficials .

324 . EthiopiaallegedthatEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolationcausedthedisplacementof349,837Ethiopians,andclaimedo�erUS$1 .5billionascom-pensation .TheclaimedamountincludedUS$209,913,910inmaterialdam-ages(approximatelyUS$600perindi�idual)ando�erUS$1 .3billioninmoraldamages .Ethiopiacalculateditsmaterialdamagesclaimbymultiplyingthe

87 See para .340infra.


a�erageannualincomeofpersonsinregionsaffectedbythewarbyanelabo-ratecalculationofthetotalnumberof“displacedpersonsyears .”Ethiopiaalsomadeseparateclaimsthatincluded(althoughtheywerenotlimitedto)IDPs’propertylossesfromlootinganddamagetotheirhousesandrealestate,aswellasclaimsforexpendituresinrecei�ingandcaringforIDPs .Theseaddi-tionalclaimsareaddressedbelow .

325 . EritreadidnotdirectlyjoinissuewiththeaccuracyofEthiopia’snumbersofdisplacedpersons .Rather,Eritreausedthosefigurestoarguethatthehighproportionsofpeopledisplacedfromwar-affectedregionsunder-minedthecredibilityofthefiguresEthiopiapro�idedforfixedamountdam-agesincurredbytheremainingpopulationonthebasisofjus in bello �iola-tions .Inadditiontodisputingitsjus ad bellum liabilityforinternallydisplacedpersons,EritreaarguedthatEthiopiasoughttoreco�erdamagesforharmscausedbyitsownactions,contendingthatitwasthepresenceoflandminesand Ethiopia’s military operations that pre�ented displaced persons fromreturningtotheirhomes .

326 . As noted pre�iously, the Commission has rejected Ethiopia’sclaimsforlargeadditionalincrementsofmoraldamages,andtheclaimforo�erUS$1 .3billioninadditionalmoraldamageswillnotbeconsideredfurtherhere .Howe�er,ithastakenintoaccountthee�idenceofthenatureofIDPs’injuriesandexperiencesinconsideringthele�elofcompensation .

327 . Thestartingpointforassessingthisclaimisthenumberofinter-nallydisplacedpersonsfallingwithinthescopeoftheCommission’sjus ad bellum liabilityfinding .Therecordincludednumerousdocuments,reportsandbriefingsemanatingfromtheEthiopiango�ernment,theauthoritiesinTigray,and�ariousUNandrelieforganizationsregardingthenumbersdis-placedonaccountofthewar .ThesefrequentlycitedatotalprofferedbytheGo�ernmentofEthiopiaof349,837displacedpersons,315,836ofwhomweredisplacedinTigrayand33,901inAfar .ThesefiguresappearedtobethebasisforEthiopia’scalculationofthisclaim .

328 . TherepetitionbymultiplesourcesofEthiopia’sestimatednumbersofdisplacedpersonsdidnotnecessarilymakethosenumbersmorereliable,andthee�idenceregardinginternallydisplacedpersonswasnotwhollycon-sistent .Somereportsbylocalofficialssuggestedthatthenumbersofinternallydisplacedpersonsintheirareasofresponsibilityweresignificantlysmallerthanestimatedbythenationalauthorities .Ethiopia’snumbersappearedtobeanaggregateofestimatedpeaknumbersofdisplacedpersonsrecordedatspe-cificpointsintime,althoughthenumbersofdisplacedpersonsandthelengthoftheirdisplacement�ariedo�ertheperiodoftheconflict,castingfurtheruncertaintyastotheaccuracyofthosenumbers .

329 . Documentsintherecordalsoindicatedthattheestimateofnearly350,000internallydisplacedpersonsincludedmanythousandsofEthiopianswhoreturnedtoEthiopiafromEritrea .Thesepeople,saidbyEthiopiaulti-matelytonumberabout120,000,wereaddressedinothersubstantialjus ad


bellum andjus in bello claimsbyEthiopia .88Includingthemforpurposesofthisclaimwouldresultindoublecounting .Consequently,theestimatednum-bersofIDPsmustbereducedsignificantlytotakeaccountofpersonslea�ingEritreaforwhomEthiopiaalsoclaimedelsewhere .

330 . AfurthercomplicationisthatsomeareasinTigraywereplaguedatrele�anttimesbothbywarandbydrought,andbothafflictionscauseddis-placement .Thee�idencedidnotdistinguishbetweenpersonswholefttheirhomesonaccountofthewar,andthosewholeftforotherreasons .Howe�er,itwasclearthatthewarwasbyfarthemostsignificantcauseofinternaldis-placement,andtheCommissionhasnottakendroughtintoaccountinseekingtoassessthenumbersofpersonsdisplacedonaccountofthejus ad bellum �iolation .

331 . TheCommissionconcludesthatthenumberofpersonswhosedis-placementwasproximatelycausedbyEritrea’sMay1998�iolationofthejus ad bellum issubstantiallylessthanthetotalclaimedbyEthiopia,perhapstwothirdsofthatnumber,perhapssomewhatless .Periodsofdisplacement�aried .SomepersonsdisplacedontheWesternFrontwereable toreturn to theirhomesfollowingthesuccessofOperationSunsetinearly1999,althoughsomereturnsthereweredelayedbytheneedtoremo�elandminesorotherimpedi-mentstoreturn .OtherIDPs,suchasthosefromtheZalambessaarea,weredisplacedformuchlongerperiods .ThesepeoplecouldreturntotheirhomesonlybeginninginJune2000,ore�enlaterinareasaffectedbylandminesorotherimpediments .

332 . Ethiopia’sclaimforinternallydisplacedpersonssoughtredressforthehumansufferingandincomelossassociatedwiththeirdisplacement .(Asnoted,IDPs’propertylossesfromlooting,damagetotheirhousesandrealestate,andEthiopia’sexpendituresinrecei�ingandcaringforIDPs,wereallsubjecttoseparateclaimsbyEthiopiaaddressedelsewhereinthisAward .)Takingaccountof,inter alia,thenumberofinternallydisplacedpersonsfall-ingwithinthescopeofEritrea’sjus ad bellum liability,the�aryingdurationsoftheirdisplacement,thepersonalandeconomicconsequencesofdisplacement,andEthiopia’sotherrele�antclaims,theCommissionawardsUS$45,000,000toEthiopiaonaccountofthisclaim .

3. Civilian Deaths and Injuries (Categories 2 and 3)

333 . Ethiopia’s Claim. EthiopiaclaimedUS$205,167,028asjus ad bellum materialdamageswithrespectto39,881ci�ilianswhosedeathsweresaidtoresultfromthewaronallthreefronts,butwhowerenotco�eredbyEthiopia’sotherclaims .EthiopiaallegedthesedeathsincludeddeathsfromintentionalandindiscriminateshootingsontheWesternFrontanddeathsthroughoutallthreefrontsfromshellingandaerialbombardments .Ethiopia’sclaimreflects

88 See SectionsX .Bsupra andXI .Kinfra.


fixedamountsofmorethanUS$5,000percapitaforthealleged�ictims .ItclaimedanadditionalUS$102,583,514onaccountofanequi�alentnumberofinjuries,withapercapitaamountforeachinjuryequaltohalftheamountclaimedfordeaths .

334 . Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionrejectedasunpro�enbothParties’claimsthattheotherengagedinshellingthatwasindiscriminateorotherwisecontrarytothejus in bello.TheCommissionfinds,howe�er,thatEritreaisliablefordeathsandinjuriescausedbyshellingandgunfireintheregionsforwhichthereisjus ad bellum liability .Deathandinjuryarepar-ticularlyse�ereconsequencesofarmedconflict;deathsandinjuriescausedbyweaponryarethedirectresultofsuchconflict .WhiletheCommissiontakesintoconsiderationtheseriousnessofsuchharminassessingcompensation,theextentofsuchinjurymustbedemonstratedbyEthiopiaonthebasisofcrediblee�idence .

335 . Thee�idencesupportingthislargeclaimforci�iliandeathsandinjuriesattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolationwasmodest .EthiopiacalculatedthenumberofadditionaldeathsentirelyonthebasisofanEthiopi-ango�ernmentestimatereflectedinaDecember2000WorldBankloandocu-ment .Thisestimateindicatedthat36,000primarybreadwinners,includingbothci�iliansandmilitia(butnotincludingregularmilitary),losttheirli�esduringthewar .Ethiopiaincreasedthisfigureby50%,contendingthatatleastthatmanyadditionalfamilymemberswerekilled .Theresultingtotal—anesti-mated54,000deaths—thenwasreducedtoreflectci�iliandeathsco�eredbyEthiopia’sotherclaims .Thisga�ethe39,881deathsforwhichEthiopiaclaimedjus ad bellum damages; thesamefigurewasusedfor itsclaimfor injuries .WhiletheWorldBankfiguresdidnotdistinguishthegeographiclocationofci�iliandeaths,Ethiopia“assigned”deathstotheregionsofTigrayandAfarbasedontherelati�epopulationsofthoseregions .Basedonanestimatedpop-ulationof567,696peopleinthewar-affectedweredasofTigrayand106,526peopleinDalulandElidarWeredasinAfar,Ethiopiaconcludedthat33,500deathsoccurredinTigrayand6,381occurredinAfar .

336 . Although Ethiopia’s Damages Group One Memorial regularlyreferredtothe36,000figureas“theBank’s,”thetextofthecitedparagraphmakesclearthatthefigurewasanestimategi�entotheWorldBankbyEthio-pia .Althoughtheestimatewascharacterizedasin�ol�ingci�iliansandmili-tia,areportinEthiopia’se�idenceattributedtheestimateof36,000deathstotheMinistryofDefense,creatingambiguityastowhetherthenumbermayinsomewayreflectmilitarycasualties .

337 . TheCommissionhasnomeanstoassesstheestimateof36,000deathsunderlyingthisclaim .Therewasnoe�idenceshowinghoworbywhomitwasprepared,orwhetheritwasborneoutbylaterin�estigation .Therewasnoindicationwhethertheestimateincludeddeathsduetodiseaseorothernaturalcausesnotdirectlylinkedtothewar .Therewasnobasisintherecordfortheassumptionthattheestimateshouldbeincreasedby50%toreflect


additionalfamilymembers .Therealsowasnobasisfortheassumptionthatthenumberofinjurieswasequaltothenumberofdeaths .

338 . Ethiopia’sinclusionofthedeathsandinjuriesofanunspecifiednumberofmilitiamembersraisedadditionalquestions .Ethiopia’se�idenceshowedthatitsmilitiaforceswerenumerous,andfrequentlyengagedincom-batwithEritreanforces .Therewerefrequentreferencestothedeathsofmili-tiamenincombat .PursuanttotheexclusioncontainedinthelastsentenceofArticle5(1)oftheDecember2000Agreement,theCommissionhasnojuris-dictiono�erclaimsforthecombatdeathsorinjuriesofmilitiamen .

339 . Gi�entheselimitations,theCommissionhasre�iewedEthiopia’se�idencefromtheearlierproceedings,inanefforttoassesstheextentofci�il-iandeathsandinjuriespotentiallyattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iola-tion .TheCommissionpaidparticularattentiontodeathsfromartilleryfire,whichEthiopiadescribedasamajorcauseofci�iliandeaths,andwhichindeedhascausedthegreatestproportionofcasualtiesinmoderninternationalarmedconflictsbetweenorganizedarmies .Thee�idencea�ailabletotheCommissionindicatedthatEritreanartillerydidcausemanyci�iliandeathsandinjuries,butthatthesewerefarlessnumerousthanEthiopiacontended .

340 . Forexample,therewerefrequentreferencesintheseproceedingstoartillerystrikesinandaroundthetownofRama,locatedafewmilessouthoftheMerebRi�erononeofthefewnorth-southroadsconnectingEthiopiaandEritrea .ThedeclarationofRama’stownadministratorspokeofconsiderablepropertydamagefromfi�eshellingattacksonthetown(twoinFebruary1999andthreeinMay-June2000),buthementionedonlytwopersonskilledandsixinjured .AMarch2001U .S .AIDreportcitedanotherlocalofficialreferringtofourkilledandeightwoundedbyshellingatRama .Whiche�erofficialwascorrect,thesecasualtieswerenotextensi�e .Similarly,therewerenumerousreferencestoEritrea’sartilleryattackonSheraroonOctober21,1998 .(ThisattackapparentlyledTigrayofficialstoencourageci�ilianstoe�acuatefromareaswithinartilleryrangeofthefrontasaprecaution .)Howe�er,aDecem-ber1998reportbytheReliefSocietyofTigrayreferredtoele�endeathsandtwenty-fourinjuriesintheSheraroattack .Thesecasualtiesweretragic,buttheydidnotsupportEthiopia’sclaimoftensofthousandsofci�iliandeathsfromEritreanguns .

341 . AccountsbyweredaofficialsinTigrayalsosuggestedamuchlowerle�elofci�iliancasualties .AnofficialintheGulomakhedaWeredaadminis-trationreportedthatinallofthewereda,ninety-fi�epeoplewerekilledandninety-twowereinjuredbyshellingorlandmines .TheadministratorofMarebLekheWeredapro�idedatablelistinglossesanddamageinhiswereda .Thetableidentifiedjustfourdeaths,threeinjuriesand505damagedhouses(170describedas“light,”147as“medium,”and188as“se�ere”) .

342 . Accounts by Ethiopian and international non-go�ernmentalorganizationswerealongsimilarlines .TheGulomakhedaWeredaFarmer’sAssociationpro�ideda listof thirtypeoplekilled inGulomakhedadue to


unlawfulactsofEritrea .TheNorwegianCouncilforRefugeesreportedthat,asofAugust2000,somefi�ehundredci�iliandeathswerereportedinTigray .

343 . Ethiopia’se�idencealsocontainedmultipleaccountsbylocaloffi-cialsdescribingcasualtiesintheirkebelesortabias .Se�eraldidnotmentionanycasualties,ormentionedalimitednumberofpersonskilledorinjured,incommunitiesofhundredsorthousandsofpeople .AtabiachairmaninGulo-makhedaWeredadescribedatotalofsixdeathsinhistabiafrommultipleshellingattacksduringthewar .Anotherdescribedfi�edeathsfromartilleryinhistabiaoffour�illages .AthirdtabiachairmanfromGulomakhedaWeredadescribedfi�edeaths .Thechairmanofakebeleofatleastfourthousandpeo-pleinMarebLekheWeredadescribedtwofarmersbeingshotbysoldiersononeoccasion,andotherswoundedbyartilleryonanother .AkebelechairmanfromAhferomWeredadescribedtwel�epeoplefromhiskebeleofatleastsixthousandpeoplebeingkilledbyartilleryfire .Otherreportsbykebeleandtabiaofficialsweretosimilareffect .

344 . Afewaccountsbylocalofficialsdescribedci�iliancasualtiesfromsmallarmsfire .AtabiaadministratorinMarebLekheWeredareferredtothir-teenci�iliansshotandkilledbyEritreansoldiers .Howe�er,thisaccountalsodescribedacti�eresistancetoEritreanforcesbylocalmilitia,raisingquestionsastowhethersomeofthesecasualtiesmayha�ein�ol�edmilitia .

345 . Afewaccountsintherecordreportedmoreextensi�edeathsandinjuriesinparticularlocations .TheadministratorofatabiainAhferomWere-daclaimedthatatwo-dayartilleryattackinMay1998killedthirteenci�iliansandwoundedtwenty-oneina�illageinhistabia,andthattwenty-fourotherpersonswerekilled,123injuredand330housesdestroyedordamagedduringtheconflict .TheadministratorofakebeleinGulomakhedareportednineteendeathsandthreeinjuriesfromartillery .Thesereportedcasualtieswere�eryhighincomparisonwithmostaccountsintherecord .

346 . OntheEasternFront,e�idenceofci�iliancasualtieswase�enlessclear .Ci�ilianwitnesstestimonyofferedattheliabilityphaseindicatedthatintenseshellingcausednumerousdeathsandinjuriesinElidarWereda,par-ticularlyinBureandsurroundingareas .Thee�idenceofferedbyEthiopiadidnotpro�idetheCommissionareliablebasistodetermineaprecisefigureforthosedeaths,howe�er .InDalulWereda,Ethiopianwitnessestestifiedtosig-nificantthoughlessextensi�eshellingthanoccurredinBure,particularlyatthecommencementofhostilitiespriortotheperiodofEritreanoccupation .ThewitnessesEthiopiaofferedforthatregiondidnottestifyspecificallyastoshellingdeaths,thoughtheCommissionacceptsthatitislikelythatsomeoccurred .

347 . AlthoughitappearedthatsubstantialdeathandinjuryresultedfromshellinginBure,thee�idencesubmitteddidnotfullysupportEthiopia’sclaimfortheAfarregion .


348 . Takentogether,though,thecumulati�eweightofthereportsintherecordindicatedle�elsofadditionalci�iliandeathsfarbelowthe54,000claimedonallthreefronts .

349 . Ethiopia’s e�idence did not permit a well-informed judgmentregardingthenumberofci�iliandeathsorinjuriesattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .Thereweresuchcasualties,butthea�ailablee�idenceidentifieddeathsandinjuriesnumberingatmostinthehundreds,notinthetensofthousandsclaimedherebyEthiopia .Inaddition,deathsandinjuriesresultingfromsomecauses,suchaslandmines,unlawfulconductbyEritreansoldiers,andtheJune1998Mekelebombing,wereco�eredbyEthiopia’sotherclaims .Takingaccountofthea�ailablee�idence,thecasualtiesco�eredbyEthiopia’sotherclaims,andtheseriousnessoftheharmcaused,theCommis-sionawardsUS$8,500,000inrespectofci�iliandeathsandinjuriesrelatedtoEritrea’sbreachofthejus ad bellum.

e. damage to Civilian Property, Primarily from shelling (Category 4)

1. Housing

350 . TheCommissionpre�iouslyaddressedEthiopia’sclaimsfordam-agetohousingandrealpropertybasedontheCommission’sjus in bello liabil-ityfindings .89EthiopiaclaimedanadditionalUS$77millionasjus ad bellum damagesforsuchinjury .Itcontendedthat,inadditiontothehousesallegedlydamagedordestroyedduetoEritrea’sjus in bello �iolations,thousandsmoreweredamagedordestroyedbyEritreanshelling,andthatEritreaisliableforthisdamageonjus ad bellum grounds .Thisclaimwaspresentedinslightlylessthanfi�epagesofEthiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorial .

351 . Initsjus in bello housingclaim,Ethiopiaallegedthat35%oftheaggregate�alueofallhousesinlargeareasinsixweredaswaslostduetoactionsbyEritreanforces .Thisclaimappearedtoallegethatanadditional40%ofthe�alueofallhousesinlargeareasofthesesixweredashitbyshellingatanytimeduringthewar,andincorrespondingareasinthreeotherweredas,wasalsolost .Thus,Ethiopiaappearedtocontendthatinlargeareasinsixweredasatleast75%oftheaggregate�alueofallhouseswaslostonaccountofEritrea’s�iolationofeitherthejus in bello orthejus ad bellum.Inthreeotherweredas,itclaimedforatleast40%ofthe�alueofallhousesinlargeareasbecauseofthejus ad bellum breach .(Ethiopiadidnotmakefixed-sumjus ad bellum claimsforpropertylossesfromlootingorothersimilarcauses .)

352 . Ethiopiacalculatedtheamountofitsjus ad bellum housingclaimutilizingthesamenumbersofhousesandpercapitaamountsforallegedprop-ertydamageinTigrayandAfaraswereusedinthecorrespondingjus in bello

89 SectionVIII .Csupra.


claim .ThesepercapitaamountsweremultipliedbythepopulationsofthekebelesandtownsthatEthiopiastatedinitsMemorialsduringtheliabilityphaseweresubjectedtoshelling .Thus,thejus ad bellum claimstartedwithauni�erseofabout77,000houses .Theimplicationwasthateither40%ofthesehousesweredestroyedbyEritreanshelling,orthatalargernumbersuffereddamageinamountscumulati�elyequaling40%ofthe77,000houses’ total�alue .

353 . InitsearlierdiscussionofEthiopia’sjus in bello housingclaim,theCommissionnotedthesubstantialamountofearliere�idenceintherecordshowingwartimedamagetohousesfarlessextensi�ethanEthiopiaclaimed .Thise�idenceincludedbothreportsfromofficialEthiopiansources,anddam-ageassessmentsbyinternationalreliefagencies .90Se�eralpost-wardocumentsreferredtoaWorldBankassessmentidentifyingabout16,400housesinTigrayasha�ingbeendamagedordestroyedbyallcauses;otherlaterassessmentssuggestedthatsuchinitialestimatesmayha�esignificantlyo�erstatedthele�elofdamage .

354 . Theearliere�idencealsoindicatedthatthecostofrepairingorreplacingdamagedhousingwassignificantlylessthanclaimed .TheWorldBankallocatedUS$18 .6millionforrepairtodamagedhousing .ThisroughlycorrespondedtoanEthiopianagency’swartimeestimatethatrepairinghomeswouldcostabout120millionbirr .ApilotWorldBankprojecttorepairfourhundreddamagedhousesinMartaTabiain�ol�edanoutlayof1 .19millionbirrformaterials,about3,000birrperhouse .TheBank’shousingreconstruc-tion/rehabilitationpackageinTigrayranged“frombirr3,000forhomesthatsustainedminordamage,birr7,000forhomesthatwerehea�ilydamagedandbirr15,000forhomesthatrequirereconstructionbecausetheywerecompletelydestroyed .”Allofthise�idencewenttothecostsofrestoringhousingdamagedbyallcauses,includinglootingbysoldiersofbotharmiesandbyci�iliansandnaturaldecay .Itwasnotlimitedtodamagecausedbyartilleryfire .

355 . TheWorldBankdidnot identifysimilarhousingrehabilitationcostsinAfar,findingthat“[t]hehousingneedsinAfardonotrequirerecon-structionacti�ities .Asthebeneficiariesarelargelypastoralist,theywillbepro�idedwithtraditionalmobilehouseswhichareestimatedtocostBirr500perunit .”TheCommissionnotesinthisregardthatthebordertownofBureexperiencedhea�yshellingandprobablyexperiencedsubstantialdamagetohousingandotherstructures .Howe�er,therewasnoe�idenceintherecordregardingdamagetoBurecomparabletothatsubmittedbyEthiopiaforZal-ambessa,andtheCommissionhasnobasisforassessingtheextentor�alueofdamagetoBure .

356 . Takingaccountoftheuncertaintiesandambiguitiesinthee�i-denceregardingtheextentofdamagetohousingattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation,theCommissionawardsUS$6,000,000forthisclaim .

90 See para .132supra.


2. Public Buildings and Infrastructure

357 . Introduction . TheCommissionhasaddressed,inSectionIX .D .1ofthisAward,Ethiopia’sclaimsfordamagetopublicbuildingsandinfrastructurebasedontheCommission’sjus in bello findings .EthiopiapleadedthatitwasentitledtocompensationundereithertheCommission’sjus in bello oritsjus ad bellum liabilityfindingsand,accordingly,didnotspecifytheliabilitybasisofitsclaimsforspecificproperty .TheCommissionhasthereforeattemptedto“deconstruct”Ethiopia’so�erlappingclaimsinordertoassesstheproperbasisforanawardofcompensation .

358 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$13,963,982indamagesforthedestructionandlootingofgo�ernmentbuildingsandinfrastructureonallthreefronts .OntheCentralandWesternFrontsinTigray,EthiopiaclaimedUS$11,397,980for“atleast”331administrationbuildings,schools,clinics,�eterinaryclinics,watersupplysystemsandagriculturaltrainingcenters,includingUS$536,765formo�eablepropertyallegedlylootedfromthoselocations .91InAfarontheEasternFront,EthiopiasoughtUS$2,566,002for“atleast”thirty-fi�eschools,clinics,�eterinaryclinicsandwatersupplysystems,includingUS$93,891formo�eablepropertyallegedlylootedfromthoselocations .AsexplainedinSec-tionIX .D .1ofthisAward,e�identiaryproblemsandalackofclarityinassess-ingthecauseofdamagesledtothefailureofmostofEthiopia’sjus in bello claimsforthisproperty .

359 . Thejus ad bellum liabilityfortheseclaimsmayinsomecasesdupli-cateandinsomecasesbebroaderthanthetypesofdamagecompensableunderthejus in bello.Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionrejectedasunpro�enbothParties’claimsthattheotherengagedinshellingthatwasindiscriminateorotherwisecontrarytothejus in bello.Consequently,anycompensationforshellingdamagerestssolelyonEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum.

360 . Ethiopia’sClaimandSupportingE�idence . Foritsclaimofdam-agestothe331buildingsontheCentralandWesternFront,EthiopiaproducedinAnnex66toitsDamagesGroupOneMemorialanitemizedlistofalltheclaimedgo�ernmentbuildingsandinfrastructure .Thisidentifiedtheloca-tionbyweredaandlisted�aluesofallegeddamageandlosstostructuresandmo�eableproperty .Eachentryonthelistreferredtoaseparateannex .Theseannexescontained�aryingamountsofsupportinge�idence,suchaspurchaseorders,in�oicesandconstructioncontracts .FortheEasternFront,EthiopiaproducedasimilarlistinAnnex242ofitsDamagesGroupOneMemorial,itemizingallegedlossesrelatingtothirty-fi�ebuildings .Ethiopiaalsosubmit-tede�idenceattheliabilityphaserelatingtotheclaimeddamage .

361 . Insupportofitsdamagesphaseannexes,EthiopiaintroducedthedeclarationoftheRegionalManageroftheEthiopianSocialRehabilitationand

91 EthiopiaclaimedUS$5,938,314ofthisamountforthedestructionandlootingof162buildingsorpiecesofinfrastructureontheCentralFrontandUS$5,459,666for169buildingsorpiecesofinfrastructureontheWesternFront .


De�elopmentFund(“ESRDF”)forTigray,attestingthatthedocumentationinthoseannexesrelatedtostructuresdamagedordestroyedduringthewarforwhichtheESRDFhandledreconstructionfinancing .Ethiopia’srebuttale�i-denceincludedadeclarationoftheESRDF’sDeputyGeneralManager,whodeclaredthatthepurchasese�idencedbythesematerialsweremadethroughanEmergencyReco�eryProgram(“ERP”)financedbyaWorldBankcredit .Hestatedthataportionofthatcreditwasearmarked(bywhomisnotindi-cated)tofinance523infrastructureprojects“intheweredasmostaffected”bytheconflict,andthatonlyinfrastructure“damagedordestroyedasaresultofthewar”couldrecei�etheseearmarkedfunds .Howe�er,healsoindicatedthat“[m]anyoftheprojectsin�ol�edtheconstructionofentirelynewstructures,sincetheseinfrastructuresweretotallydestroyed .”

362 . TheERPCreditAgreementbetweenEthiopiaandtheWorldBankdefinedthe“emergency”toincludeboththeconflictbetweenEthiopiaandEritreaand“thedrought .”Ethiopiacontended,howe�er,thatforstructuresnotrelatedtowatersupplyforwhichfinancingwasappro�ed,droughtwouldnotha�ebeenthecauseofdamage,andthate�erystructureforwhichitclaimedwasdamagedordestroyedduringthewar .

363 . Ethiopia did not indicate whether such damage was caused byartilleryfireorotheracts .Itinsteadarguedthatifabuildingwaslocatedinanareawheretherewasjus in bello liability,therewouldbeapresumptionthatitwasdamagedinthatway,andthatotherwiseEritreacouldbeliableundertheCommission’sjus ad bellum finding .

364 . Eritrea’sReply . InadditiontodenyingthebreadthofEthiopia’sjus ad bellum claimsgenerally,EritreamadethreeprincipalassertionsinresponsetoEthiopia’sclaim .First,Eritreacontendedthatthenewconstructioncon-tractsandin�oicesofferedase�idencedidnotpro�ideareliablebasisonwhichtodeterminethatsuchdamageinfactoccurredorfromwhichtoderi�eacred-ible�alueforthatdamage .Second,EritreacitedtointernalESRDFdocumentssubmittedbyEthiopiaattheliabilityphaseindicatingthatmuchofthedam-ageforwhichEthiopiaclaimedwasforpre-warconstructionprojectsthatdidnotexistorhadnotbeendamagedduringthewar .Third,EritreacontendedthattheERPin�ol�edfundingforprojects,inparticularthosethatrelatedtothedrought,thatdidnotin�ol�ewardamage .

365 .TheCommission’sConclusions . Ethiopia’sdamagesphasee�idenceforthisclaimwasproblematic inse�eralregards .Itdidnotpro�ideareli-ablebasistodeterminewhethertheclaimedreconstructioncostsrelatedtowardamageforwhichEritreawasliable .WheretheCommissioncouldascer-tainthatdamagewaswar-related,Ethiopiaofferednoe�idencetodistinguishthecauseofthatdamage .Theliabilityphasee�idencethattheCommissionre�iewedforcorroborationofEthiopia’sclaim,howe�er,indicatedthatshell-ingwaswidespreadduringthewar .

366 . Whilepropertydestructionduringthewarmightha�ein�ol�edactsotherthanshellingforwhichEritreawasliableunderthejus in bello,itcan


onlybecompensableonmoregeneraljus ad bellum groundsintheabsenceofproofofthecauseofdamage .Lackingabasistodistinguishthecauseofdam-age,theCommissionhasre�iewedmostofthisclaiminthecontextofitsjus ad bellum finding .Moreo�er,totheextentthatEthiopiareco�eredforlootingofpublicpropertyandinfrastructureunderthejus in bello,theCommissionwillnotawarddoublereco�eryhere .

367 . Ethiopia’sdamagesphasee�idenceleftunclearwhethermanyofthebuildingsandpiecesofinfrastructureforwhichEthiopiaclaimedin�ol�edwartimedamageorwerede�elopmentprojectsunrelatedtothewar .Ethiopiaassertedthatallthenewcontracts,purchaseordersandin�oicesfornewprop-ertyinitsannexeswerepartoftheERPprogramandthusin�ol�eddamagefromthewar .TheWorldBankDe�elopmentCreditAgreementthatfundedtheERP,howe�er,wasdraftedinbroadterms .Asnotedabo�e,theagreementtargetedbothareasaffectedbythewarandbydrought;itwasnotlimitedtobuildingsactuallydamagedinthewar .92NotwithstandingtheESRDFofficials’testimony,ESRDFinternaldocumentsintherecordindicatedthatEthiopiautilizedthisfundingtodomorethanjustrepairpropertiesdestroyedorlostduringthewar .

368 . In this regard, Ethiopia’s liability phase e�idence included aNo�ember2001internalimpactassessmentdiscussingtheeffectofthewaronEthiopia’spre-warde�elopmentprojects .ThisreportstatedthattheESRDFhadconstructedanumberofbasicinfrastructureprojectsintheTigrayregion,ofwhichsixhadbeendamagedanddestroyedduetothewar .Anothereightprojectsweresimplydescribedasbeinginwar-affectedweredas .Another106projectsweredescribedasha�ingbeenplannedpriortothewarbutnotimple-mentedbecauseofthewar .IntheAfarregion,thereportnotedthatthreeschoolsandtwoclinicsbeingconstructedwithESRDFfundsweredestroyedduetotheconflict,thattwenty-threeprojectsthatwouldha�ebeenconstruct-edweresuspendedduetothewar,andthatthirty-threeprojectswereplannedpriortothewarbutnotimplementedasaresultofthewar .Thereportindicat-edthatESRDFwasalsoconsideringrequestsforfinancingfromcommunitiesinwar-affectedareasfordisbursement,estimatingthetotalamountof“dam-age”basedonthesefigurestobeapproximately56,200,00birr[sic] .ForeachoftheTigrayandAfarregions,thereportattacheda“ListofProjectsDamaged,SuspendedandPlannedButNotImplementedDuetotheWar”pro�idinganitemizationforeachde�elopmentprojectinthoseregions .

92 Intheagreement,theWorldBankundertooktopro�idefinancingforaprogramofactionsrelatingtothe“Emergency”thatbeganinMay1998,whichincludedboththeconflictbetweenEritreaandEthiopiaandthedrought .Inordertorecei�esuchfinancing,Ethiopiaaffirmedthatamountsborrowedwouldbecommittedtotheobjecti�esofthepro-gram,whichincluded(i)“toassistthepeopleaffectedbytheEmergencyrebuildtheirli�edandresumeeconomicacti�ities,”(ii)“rehabilitateandreconstructsocialinfrastructure,”and(iii)“supportmacroeconomicstability .”


369 . AlthoughtheESRDFprojectsdiscussed in theNo�ember2001reportcouldha�ein�ol�edsomeacti�itiesthatwerenotpartoftheERP,doz-ensoftheprojectsitlistedas“plannedbutnotimplemented”or“suspended”becauseofthewarwerealsoincludedinAnnexes66and242ofEthiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorial,listingprojectsforwhichEthiopiaclaimeddamages .EthiopiaarguedattheApril2007hearingthatsomebuildingsslatedforconstructionunderthepre-warde�elopmentplanswereexistingbuild-ingsthatwereindeeddestroyedduringthewar,butitdidnotpro�ideabasisfortheCommissiontoidentifyanysuchbuildings .WhiletheCommissionunderstandsthatthewarhaltedimplementationofmanyplannedde�elop-mentprojects,itcannotholdtheStateofEritrearesponsibleforthecostsofthoseprojectsaftertheywereresumed .

370 . ConsideringthattheERPwascreatedinparttoaddressadrought,thee�idencerelatingtowellsandreser�oirsraisedparticulardifficulties .Thewarclearlydamagedsuchfacilities .InaJune1999DamageAssessmentReport,submittedbyEthiopiaattheliabilityphase,theTigrayRegionalBureauofPlanningandEconomicDe�elopmentestimatedthatfifty-twohandpumps,twel�emanuallydugwaterwells,threemotorizedpumps,onegeneratorandone100-cubicmeterreser�oir,withatotal�alueof5,650,000birr,wereputcompletelyoutofuseasaresultofthewar .Thisseemsaplausibleassessment,bothinthenumberoffacilitiesandtheestimatedamountofdamage .How-e�er,mostofthewaterpointsforwhichEthiopiaclaimedinAnnex66didnotha�ethissortofcorroborati�esupport,andEthiopiadidnotpre�iouslycitemostofthemaswardamage .Moreo�er,manyofthewaterpointsclaimedbyEthiopiawerecitedas“plannedbutnotimplemented”bytheESRDFin2001 .

371 . Thedamageclaimedtopublicbuildingsandotherpublicinfra-structurewasalsomuchgreaterthanEthiopia’searliere�idenceindicated .Asdiscussedabo�e,theESRDF’sNo�ember2001reportstatedthatithadunder-takenreconstructionofjustsixstructuresdestroyedinthewarinTigrayandthreeschoolsinAfar .Se�eralreportsofregionalgo�ernmentalentitiesofferedbyEthiopiaattheliabilityphase,aswellasthedeclarationsofse�eralwitness-escataloguingdestructiontoschools,healthclinicsandwatersupplysources,alsoindicatedle�elsofdamagesubstantiallylessthanEthiopiaclaimedatthedamagesphase .

372 . The new construction contracts offered by Ethiopia to show theamountofdamagealsoga�erisetouncertainty .Itwasnotapparentonthefaceofmanywhethertheprojectin�ol�edrepairorreplacementofwartimedamage,orawhollynewstructure .Manycontractsdidnotincludesiteclear-anceorrubbleremo�al,whichwouldbeanecessarystepinreconstructingawar-damagedbuilding .Thecontractsthatdidappeartoin�ol�ewartimedam-agedidnotindicateitscause .Moreo�er,whilecontractpricesmightaccuratelyreflectthe�aluelostinadestroyedstructure,Ethiopiaisnotentitledtothecostofacompletelynewstructuretoreplaceonethatwaspartiallydamaged,orthatwaslargerormoreelaboratethanitspredecessor .


373 . Gi�en these uncertainties in the damages phase e�idence, theCommissionbelie�esdamageandimpactassessmentreportsoflocalofficialsattheliabilityphasepro�ideamorereliablebasistoassesstheextentofdam-agetothedisputedbuildings .TheseincludetheDamageAssessmentReportoftheTigrayRegionalBureauofPlanningandEconomicDe�elopment(June3,1999),theTigrayRegionalBureauofEducationPlanningandProgrammingReportofDamagestoEducationalEstablishments(September22,2000),aReportoftheEasternZoneEducationDepartment—Adigrat(September15,2001),theESRDFListofProjectsDamaged,SuspendedandPlannedButNotImplementedDuetotheWarintheAfarRegion(No�ember2001),andotherreportsandeyewitnessaccountsrelatingtoparticularstructures .

374 . Mostofthesematerialswerenotpreparedforthepurposesofliti-gation,andappearedtopro�ideareasonableindicationofthe�aluelostindamagedordestroyedgo�ernmentalstructures,generallylessthanEthiopiaclaimed .Whilerelyingprincipallyontheliabilityphasee�idencemaylimitthecompensationthatcanbeawarded,theCommissioncannotrelysolelyonthedamagesphasee�idence,gi�entheflawsandinconsistenciesdiscussedabo�e .

375 . TheCommissionhasre�iewedboththedamagesandliabilityphasee�idenceinsearchofsufficientproofofdamagesforeachpropertyclaimed .ItreliedprincipallyonthemunicipalandESRDFdamageassessmentssubmit-tedattheliabilityphaseanddiscussedabo�e,butalsoconsideredthedamagesphaseannexeswheretheycontainedinformationclarifyinguncertaintiesintheearliere�idence .Wheretheamountclaimedatthedamagesphaseindi-catedanactualcostlowerthantheliabilityphaseestimate,theCommissionutilizedtheloweramount .Applyingthesecriteria,theCommissionreachesthefollowingconclusionsonthecompensation .

376 . For theCentralFront,onthebasisofalla�ailablee�idence forpropertydestructioncaused topublicbuildingsand infrastructureby thewar,theCommissionfindsproofofsubstantialdamage,mostlyfromartilleryfire .

377 . FortheWesternFront,onthebasisofalla�ailablee�idenceforpropertydestructioncausedtopublicbuildingsandinfrastructurebythewar,theCommissionfindsproofoflessdamagethanontheCentralFront,butstillsignificantdamage,mostlyfromartilleryfire .

378 . FortheEasternFront,Ethiopianwitnessdeclarationsindicatedthatextensi�eshellingoccurredinthe�icinityofBureandmorelimitedshell-ingoccurredinDalulWereda .Thate�idencegenerallyportrayedextensi�epropertydamageintheregion,includingdamagetonumerouswatercon-tainers,schoolsandclinics inBureandsurroundingareas .TheNo�ember2001ESRDFinternalassessmentreportalsocitedthedestructionofaclinicandtwoschoolsinBureandManda,althoughthatreportdidnotaddressthebreadthofdamagethatoccurredintheregion .EthiopiawaslimitedbythefactthattheliabilityphasetestimonygenerallyshowingdamagetoBurewasnot


specificenoughtocorroborateclaimsforbuildingslistedfornewconstructionatthedamagesphase .TheCommissionthereforefindsproofofsubstantialdamagetopublicbuildingsandinfrastructurefromshellingontheEasternFront,particularlyinBure,althoughtheCommissionisrestrainedbythee�i-denceEthiopiaofferedatthedamagesphaseand,asaresult,thecompensationawardedlikelydoesnotreflectthefullextentofthejus ad bellum damagethatactuallyoccurredtopublicbuildingsandinfrastructureinthatregion .

379 . ConsideringthattheamountofdamagescausedbyEritrea’s�iola-tionsofthejus ad bellum issubjecttosomeuncertaintyandthatthecausesofsuchdamagearenotthemsel�es�iolationsofthejus in bello,thetotalcom-pensationforEritrea’s�iolationofthe jus adbellum withrespecttopublicbuildingsandinfrastructureisUS$3,500,000 .

3. Religious Institutions

380 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$9,238,669incompensationformaterialdam-ageresultingfromEritrea’slooting,destructionanddamageto“atleast164”churches,monasteries,mosques,andparochialschoolsintheregionsofTig-rayandAfar .EthiopiapleadedthatitisentitledtocompensationundereithertheCommission’sjus in bello oritsjus ad bellum findings,butdidnotspecifytheliabilitybasisforitsclaimsinspecificinstances .

381 . TheCommissionawardsUS$4,500,000incompensationforloot-inganddamagetoreligiousinstitutionsonallthreefrontsforthejus in bello componentofthisclaimaddressedinSectionIX .D .2ofthisAward .Thissec-tionoftheAwardexcludesthoseinjuriesforwhichtheCommissionawardscompensationforbreachofthejus in bello.TheCommissionreiteratestheconcernsaboutdamagetoreligiousinstitutionsarticulatedinitsjus in bello finding .Damagetoreligiousinstitutionsisaparticularlyse�ereconsequenceof armed conflict that tears at the fabric of the affected communities anddepri�esthemofsafeplacesofworship .

382 . OntheCentralFront,EthiopiaclaimedUS$5,229,389incompen-sationforlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutions .Incon-sideringthejus in bello componentofthisclaim,theCommissionacceptedascrediblethee�idenceofferedtoshowtheextentofdamagetoreligiousinsti-tutionsthere .Someofthate�idence,howe�er,eitherindicatedthatthecauseofparticulardamagewasshellingorwasunclearastothecause .TheCom-missionacceptsthatthedamageoccurredandwaswarrelated,buttheproofwasnotadequatetoawardcompensationforajus in bello �iolation .Insuchinstances,howe�er,Ethiopia’sclaimofcompensationforwardamagesur�i�esunderthejus ad bellum.

383 . OntheWesternFront,EthiopiaclaimedUS$3,956,528incompen-sationforlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutionsinTahtayAdiaboandKaftaHumeraWeredas .InKaftaHumera,EthiopiasubmittedacrediblereportswornbylocalofficialsoftheSetitHumeraOfficeofIslamic


Affairsclaimingjus ad bellum damagetotheHumeraMosque .EthiopiaalsoofferedareportoftheHumeraDioceseitemizinglossesassociatedwiththelootinganddamageof�ariouschurchesthroughouttheregion .Thispropertydamagewasnotcompensableunderthejus in bello ontheWesternFrontandisthereforeincorporatedasacomponentofthejus ad bellum compensationforthatregion .

384 . InTahtayAdiabo,EthiopiasubmittedaletteroftheManageroftheNorthwesternZoneofTigrayDiocesetotheDioceseBishopOfficeoftheEthiopianOrthodoxChurch,listingdestroyedanddamagedchurchpropertiesintheShireEndaSelassieDiocese .Thislistdidnotcontainswornaccountsofthelocalcongregationstocorroboratethedamageorits�alue,assomeoftheotherdamagesphasereportsdid .Someofthedamageclaimedfortheseinsti-tutionswas,howe�er,corroboratedbythedeclarantswhosubmittedtestimonyattheliabilityphase .TheCommissionhasthereforeincorporatedconsidera-tionofdamagetothosepropertiesforwhichliabilityphasecorroborationwaspro�idedintoitsawardofjus ad bellum compensationforthisclaim .

385 . OntheEasternFront,EthiopiaclaimedUS$52,752incompensa-tionfor looting,destructionanddamagetoreligiousinstitutionsinElidarWereda .Ethiopia’se�idenceconsistedofareportoftheAfarDioceseSecretar-iatthatsummarizeditsin�estigationintowardamageandpro�ideddetailedreportsofdamagetoandlootingofchurchesintheregion .Ethiopianwitnessdeclarationsofferedattheliabilityphaseindicatedthatse�eralmosquesinBureandtheDalulregionweredestroyed,thoughEthiopiadidnotpro�idedamagesfiguresforthosestructuresatthedamagesphase .

386 . Ha�ingre�iewedallofthee�idenceofjus ad bellum damagetoreligiousinstitutionsonallthreefrontsandtakingintoaccounttheserious-nessoftheharmcaused,theCommissionawardscompensationadditionaltowhatisawardedforjus in bello �iolationsforthisclaimofUS$2,500,000 .

4. Destruction in Zalambessa

387 . In Section IX .A of this Award, the Commission awardsUS$16,812,094incompensationforphysicaldestructioncausedinZalambessaonthebasisthatEritreaisliableunderthejus in bello forcausing75%ofsuchdestruction .TheCommissionfindsthatEthiopiaisliablefortheremaining25%ofsuchdestructionunderitsliabilityforthejus ad bellum.Assuch,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$5,605,000injus ad bellum compensationforthese�ereandwell-documentedphysicaldamageinZalambessa .

f. deaths and injuries Caused by landmines (Category 5)388 . TheCommissionpre�iously rejectedasunpro�enbothParties’

claimsthattheotherusedlandminesindiscriminatelyorotherwisecontrarytointernationallaw .Ethiopiamaintained,howe�er,thatEritreawasrespon-


siblefordeathsandinjuriestoEthiopianscausedbylandmineslaidbybothPartiesbecauseofitsjus ad bellum �iolation .Itbasedthisclaimuponstatisticsde�elopedbytheTigrayRegionalOfficeoftheRehabilitationandDe�elop-mentOrganizationreportingdeathsandinjuriesfromlandminesandunex-plodedordnancestemmingfromtheconflict .Theserecorded124deaths(106inTigrayandeighteeninAfar),and340physicalinjuries(264inTigrayandse�enty-sixinAfar) .

389 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$1,635,622inrespectofthesedeathsandinju-ries,calculatedinthesamemannerasitsotherfixedamountclaimsfordeathsandinjuries .Thecalculationsbeganwithundiscountedestimatesof�ictims’projectedlifetimeearningsinTigrayorAfar .Ethiopiaclaimed100%oftheseprojectedearningsinthecaseofdeaths,and75%inthecaseofinjuries .Ethio-piaclaimedeitherUS$598,966orUS$559,594ascompensationforthedeaths,reflectingeitherUS$4,859orUS$4,495(bothfigureswerecited)foreachof104deathsinTigray,andUS$4,623fortheeighteendeathsinAfar .Forthe340injuriesfrommines,EthiopiaclaimedUS$1,094,028 .

390 . TheCommissionwillnotrepeatitsearlierreser�ationsregardingtheuseofundiscountedestimatedlifetimeearningsindeterminingcompen-sation,whichapplywithequalforcetotheirusehere .

391 . Ci�iliandeathsandinjuriesfromlandminesareadirectandread-ily foreseeableconsequenceof theuseof theseweapons .TheCommissionholdsthatdeathsandinjuriescausedbylandminesjustifycompensation,iftheyresultedfromminesthatwerelaidintheareasandduringtheperiodsforwhichEritreabearsjus ad bellum liability .Thisincludesdeathsandinjuriesresultingfromdetonationsoccurringaftertheliabilityperiods,andtocasual-tiesresultingfrommineslaidbyeitherParty .93Ci�ilianinjuriesfromtheseweaponsoftenoccurlongaftertheyaredeployed .Inthisregard,thee�idencesuggestedthatlandminecasualtiesweremuchmorefrequentinlaterperiodsofthewarandinitsimmediateaftermath,particularlyasdisplacedpersonssoughttoreturntotheirhomesafterEthiopianmilitarysuccessesinFebruary1999andMayandJune2000 .

392 . TheTigrayRegionalOfficeoftheRehabilitationandDe�elopmentOrganizationstatisticscitedbyEthiopiaindicatedle�elsofci�iliancasual-tiessomewhathigherthanthoseindicatedinEthiopia’searlierpleadingsande�idence .Forexample,anearlierdeclarationofaseniorofficialoftheReha-bilitationandDe�elopmentOrganizationresponsibleformineclearanceandeducationaccompanyingEthiopia’sCentralFrontMemorialindicatedatotalof365deathsandinjuriesthroughmid-2002 .Howe�er,thee�idenceintherecordwasbroadlyconsistentregardingtheaggregatele�elofsuchcasual-ties,andtheCommissionhasgi�ensignificantweighttothestatisticscitedbyEthiopiainassessingthefrequencyoflandminecasualties .

93 See EisenbachBrothers&Company,supra note75 .


393 . Basedonitsappraisalof thee�idence, theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$1,500,000fordeathsandinjuriescausedbylandmines .

G. business losses and other actual amount damages (Category 6)

394 . Ethiopiaclaimedsubstantialdamagesinrespectofinjuriessaidtoha�ebeensufferedbymanybusinesses,go�ernmentagenciesandorganiza-tions .Theseclaims,andtheirsupportingdocumentation,oftenappearedtoha�ebeenpreparedbytheaffectedentity,andthey�ariedinclarityanddetail .Theclaims’legalbasisoftenwasnotstated,butmostappearedtoin�ol�eanassertionofjus ad bellum liability .

395 . Someoftheseclaimsincludedelementsthatwerehighlyspeculati�eoroutsidetheCommission’stemporaljurisdiction;thesearedismissed .Ethio-piaalsoassertedsomeclaimsfordamagesin�ol�ingproductiondelays,inter-ruptionsofforeignconsultants’ser�ices,andothertypesofdamagesresultingfromthegeneraldisruptionoftheci�ilianeconomyinwartime .Ingeneral,theCommissionfindsthesenotcompensable .BothPartiesagreedthatclaimsforgeneralizedsocialoreconomicdislocationinwartimeshouldnotbecom-pensable,andcitedwithappro�aldecisionsoftheU .S .-GermanMixedClaimsCommissiontothiseffect .Nosystemoflegalliabilitycanaddressalloftheeconomicconsequencesofwar .Costsanddelayshappen;businessisinjured;plansandexpectationsaredisrupted .Internationallawdoesnotimposeliabil-ityforsuchgeneralizedeconomicandsocialconsequencesofwar .

396 . Adigrat Pharmaceutical Factory Claim . Ethiopia claimed32,104,655 .25birr(whichitcon�ertedtoUS$4,665,086)fordamageallegedlysufferedbyAddisPharmaceuticalsFactoryShareCompany,whichownedandoperatedapharmaceuticalplantinAdigrat,thirtykilometerssouthofZal-ambessa .Ethiopiaallegedthatonaccountof“repeatedartilleryattacksonAdigrat,”theplantsuspendedoperationsforsixmonths,incurring11,851,344birrinlostprofits,whilecontinuingtopayitsidleemployeesanadditional1 .5millionbirr .Ethiopiaclaimedanother5,355,000birrfor“�alueofprofitthatwouldha�ebeenacquiredwithintwoyears,”butthatallegedlywaslostduetothefailureofaplantorecruitforeignprofessionalstohelpstartanewproductline .Smalleramountswereclaimedfordamagetoawindowandawallalleg-edlycausedbyanEritreanairaid;fortheexpensesofsettingupaci�ildefensesystem;andforanemployeekilledinanartilleryattack,whoselifeinsurancewouldnotpayadeathbenefitbecausethedeathresultedfromwar .

397 . Theonlye�idencecitedinEthiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemo-rialtosupportthisclaimwasthecompany’sFebruary2001claimsform .Thisformdescribedtheamountsclaimedinasummarymanner,andpro�idednosupportingdocumentation .Itpro�idednoe�idenceofthe“hea�yartil-leryfiredrepeatedlytowardthefactory”fromEritreanlinesmanykilometersaway,and thisallegationdidnotconform toothere�idence in the record


regardingthefrequencyandextentofartilleryimpactsinandaroundAdi-grat .BeginningwithitsJuly2003PartialAwardinEthiopia’sPrisonersofWarClaims,theCommissionhasmadeclearitsreser�ationsabouttheadequacyofunsubstantiatedclaimsformsastheprincipalsupportfordamagesclaims .94Thisclaimsformwasnotsufficiente�idencetosupportaclaimformorethanUS$4 .5million,andtheclaimisdismissedforfailureofproof .Accordingly,theCommissionneednotconsiderwhethertheseclaims,oranyofthem,fallwithinthescopeofEritrea’sjus ad bellum liability .

398 . AlmedaTextileFactory .EthiopiaclaimedUS$30,263,432forlossessustainedbytheAlmedaTextileFactoryinAdwaduetothewar .Thesup-portinge�idenceconsistedofthefactory’sFebruary2001claimsformandaNo�ember2006declarationofthefirm’sgeneralmanager .Theclaimsformlistedlossesof29,235,435 .19birr,ofwhichabout28 .6millionbirrwerecharac-terizedas“contractlosses .”Thesewereprimarilyforexportsalesallegedlylostonaccountofthewar;theclaimwasapparentlyforthe�alueoflostsales,notlostprofits .Otherlossesclaimedontheformincludedthecostsofpaintingthefactory“withmuddycoloredpaint,”apparentlytoreduceits�isibilitytoEri-treanaircraft;waterdamagetoT-shirtsstoredina“desertedarea”toprotectthem;andsalariesandtra�elexpensesoftextileexpertsfromthePhilippines,whodidnotremaininEthiopiaonaccountofthewar .

399 . The2006declarationofthefirm’sgeneralmanagersignificantlyexpandedtheclaim .Theoriginalclaimfor29,000,000birrinlostsaleswasincreasedto104,547,532birrfor“lostincomefromsales .”These�erylargelosseswerenotfurtherdocumentedorexplained .Thedeclarationalsoaddedo�ertenmillionbirrfordelaysintheconstructionofthefirm’stextilefactory,tenmillionbirrforpaymentsto“unusedlabor,”andfifteenmillionbirrinpropertyallegedlytakenattheportofMassawa(andthereforealsoco�eredbyEthiopia’sseparateclaimforpropertyallegedlylostinEritreanports) .

400 . Thee�idenceforthisclaimwasinconsistentandinsufficienttosustainaclaimformorethan145millionbirr .Theclaimisrejectedforfailureofproof .

401 . DedebitSa�ingandCreditInstitutionShareCompany . Ethiopiaclaimed36,634,212 .38birr (which it con�erted toequalUS$5,323,270) forlossesallegedlyincurredbytheDedebitSa�ingandCreditInstitutionShareCompany,whichpro�idedunsecuredshort-termloansat12 .5%interesttolow-incomefarmersandothersinTigray .Abouthalfoftheamountclaimedwasforloansandaccruedinterestallegedlyrendereduncollectiblewhenthedebtorsweredisplaced(aboutele�enmillionbirr)or joined theEthiopianArmy(abouteightmillionbirr) .Mostoftherestwasforallegedlylostinterestincomefromloansthatwerenotmadeonaccountofthewar .Ethiopiaalsoclaimed100,077birrforofficepropertyallegedlylootedfromfi�esub-officesinZalambessa,Badmeandotherlocations .Thee�idencefortheclaimconsist-

94 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sPOWClaims,paras .40&41 .


edoftheNo�ember2006declarationofthefirm’sgeneralmanageranda2001claimsform;thedescriptionsoftheclaiminbothwerelargelyconsistent .

402 . TheCommissionfindsthatthelostprofitsportionofthisclaim(whichassumedgrowthofpastloan�olumesandafa�orableinterestrate)wasspeculati�eandinsufficientlysupportedbye�idence .Thee�idenceregardingtheallegedlossesonloansclaimedtobeuncollectiblewasalsoquitelimited .Inanycase,thatportionin�ol�edbusinesslossesstemmingfromgeneralizedconditionsofeconomicdisruptioninwartime .TheCommissionregardssuchlossesastooremotefromEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation,andasnotcompen-sable .TheportionoftheclaimalleginglootingofpropertyfromZalambessaandotherlocationsduplicatesEthiopia’sotherclaimsforlootingdamage,forwhichtheCommissionelsewhereawardscompensation .Theclaimaccord-inglyisdismissed .

403 . MesseboBuildingMaterialsProductionShareCompany .Thiswasaclaimforo�er116,635,279 .35birrandUS$2,405,832 .35(con�ertedbyEthio-piatoequalUS$18,033,631)attributabletose�eralmonthsofdelaysandaddi-tionalcostsintheconstructionofalargecementfactoryinMekele,allegedlyonaccountofthewar .Theclaimwasextensi�elydescribedinthedeclarationofaprojectengineerwhoworkedontheprojectandwhopreparedanearlierclaimsformin2001 .Ethiopiaalsosubmittedcontracts,in�oices,timesheetsandotherdetailedandextensi�esupportingdocumentation .

404 . The claim included multiple components . The largest—o�er80%oftheclaim—wasfor102,869,332 .66birrinadditionalloancostssaidto result from delays in the project, including 22,300,000 million birr forlost interestonthefundstheowners in�estedintheproject .EthiopiaalsosoughtUS$139,500 .45and523,973 .50birrforaboutfi�eweeks’interruptionof construction following the June 1998 air bombings in Mekele . Most ofthisamountwasfore�acuationandidlelaborcostsforTurkishworkers .ItclaimedUS$115,319and530,277 .90birrforsimilarcostsincurredwhenworkwasdelayedaroundthetimeofEthiopia’sOperationSunset inearly1999 .Thesedelaysgeneratedadditional insurance, site runningandother simi-larcostssaidtototalUS$416,824 .41and2,020,943 .47birr .EthiopiaclaimedUS$356,699and210,250birrforadditionalconsultants’feesandexpensesonaccountofbothdelays .Otherclaimsco�eredadditionaltransportationcostsstemmingfromuseoftheportofDjiboutiandpropertyallegedlylostatEri-treanports(apparentlyduplicatingEthiopia’sportsclaim) .

405 . Ethiopiapresentedanelaborateaccountof thecostsassociatedwiththedelayofthisproject,butdidnotdemonstratethatthosecostsshouldberegardedasproximatelycausedbyEritrea’s jus ad bellum �iolation .Theclaimfore�acuationexpensesandexpensesrelatingtodelaysappearedtoariseoutofsomeexpatriateemployers’concernforthesafetyoftheiremployeesandconsultantsatthesite .(FollowingtheattacksonMekelebythreeEritreanair-craftinJune1998,theDanish,TurkishandIndiancontractorsin�ol�edintheprojecte�acuatedtheirownnationalsfromthesite .)Theclaimedcostsofe�ac-


uation,idleworkers,expensesrelatingtoresumptionofwork,andexpensesassociatedwiththedelayofthecontractingperiodappearedtoha�estemmedfromgeneralizedwartimeeconomicconditions,includingthedesireoffor-eigncontractors toremo�e theiremployees fromanen�ironment thoughtpotentiallytoexposethemtorisk .Moreo�er,despitedelaysintheproject,thee�idenceindicatedthatitwascompletedinOctober2000 .Theclaimfordam-ageallegedlyincurredbyEthiopiainrespectofthesecostsisdismissed .

406 . EzanaMining . EthiopiaclaimedUS$803,742forlossesallegedlysustainedbyEzana,apri�atecompanybasedinMekelethatexploredforgoldandothermetals,apparentlyinareasclosetothewarfronts .Almost62%oftheclaim,US$495,806,wasforexpensesallegedlyincurredfollowingtheendofthewar,afteraforeignpartner(whichearlieragreedtopaytheseexpenses)withdrewinDecember2000,allegedlyduetodelaysresultingfromwartimeconditions .OtherclaimeditemsincludedUS$19,297forcostsoftheprematuredepartureofaforeignexpert;US$96,000inupgradestoananalysislaboratorythatcouldnotbeusedandwere“renderedobsoleteasaresultofdelayscausedbythewar;”191,500birrforincomelostduetonon-useofthelaboratory;US$105,857insalarypaymentstounproducti�eworkers;andUS$68,876inassistanceallegedlypro�idedtodisplacedpersons,apparentlythroughchari-tabledonations .(Theonlye�idenceforthislastitemwasa�ouchershowinga50,000birrcontributiontotheEthiopianChamberofCommerce“tosupport�ictimsofwaronTigray .”)

407 . TheCommissionconcludesthatthisclaimmustfail .MorethanhalfoftheclaimedinjuriesfollowedfromthedepartureofEzana’sforeignpartnerafterthewarended .Theseinjurieswerecausallyfarremo�edfromEritrea’sdelictandwereincurredaftertheCommission’sjurisdictionalperiod .Theotherelementsoftheclaimwereeitherspeculati�e(i .e .,theclaimforlostprofitsfromnon-useofthemineralslaboratory)orin�ol�eddecisionsorcon-sequencesthatagainwerecausallyfarremo�edfromEritrea’sdelict .Theclaimforpro�idingassistance(apparentlyonacharitablebasis)stemmedfromadecisionbythecompany,andisnotcompensable .

408 . RamaChildBirthandMaternalHealthClinic .Ethiopiaclaimed2,215,102birr(con�ertedtoUS$321,874)fordamageallegedlysustainedbyanew,pri�atelyownedclinicinRama .Mostoftheclaimwasfor600,000birrinallegedlylostcapitaland1,530,150birrforlostprofits .Anadditional33,000birrwasfordamagetothebuilding,39,000birr forbuildingmaterial thatwas“wasted,”and12,000birrforlostmedicine(includingmedicinewithanestimated�alueof10,000birr) .

409 . Theclinicwasstillunderconstructionandjustbeginningtooper-atewhenitsfoundersleftRamatoseeksafetyelsewhere,sotherewasnorecordofpastprofitability .Thehandwrittenstatementofprojectedmonthlyre�enuessubmittedtosupporttheclaimforlostfutureprofitsappearedsignificantlytounderstateexpenses(forexample,makingnoallowancesforthecostsofmedi-cine,paymentsofprincipalandinterestonloans,buildingmaintenance,taxes


andfees,etc .),andprojectedthatalmost75%ofestimatedfuturere�enueswouldgotoprofit .Gi�entheselimitations,Ethiopia’sclaimfor1 .5millionbirrforlostfutureprofitsisdismissedasspeculati�eandunpro�en .Theclaimfor600,000birrinallegedlylostcapitalisalsodismissed,astherecordshowedthatthedaughteroftheclinic’sfoundersisinpossessionoftheclinicbuildingandisseekingtobringtheclinicintooperation .Theremainingportionoftheclaim,formuchsmalleramountsforallegedshellingdamage,wasthinlydocumentedandappearedtoduplicateEthiopia’sseparatejus ad bellum claimfordamagetostructuresfromshelling .Theclaimisdismissed .

410 . OtherGo�ernmentLossesontheCentralFront . Ethiopiaclaimedanamountitcon�ertedtoUS$2,142,527forse�eralcategoriesofjus ad bellum go�ernmentlossesontheCentralFrontnototherwiseco�eredbyitsclaims .Almost75%oftheclaimedamount(anamountcon�ertedtoUS$1,542,013)wasforthreewarehouses,anoffice,45,000quintalsofgrainandotherfood-stuffs,ahea�ytruckandrelatedpropertyownedbytheTigrayRegionalDis-asterPre�entionandPreparednessBureau(“DPPB”)thatwasdestroyedbytheEritreanairraidonAdigratonJune11,1998 .TheCommissionreferredtothisattackinitsPartialAwardinEthiopia’sCentralFrontclaims;95itoccurredwhentherewasintensefightingnearbyintheareaofZalambessa .(AdigratisaboutthirtykilometersfromZalambessa,andliesontheprincipalroadlead-ingthere .)TheCommissionconcludesthatthedestructionofthewarehousesandrelatedpropertyintheJune1998aerialattackwassufficientlyconnectedintimeandcausalsequencewithEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation,andthatdestructionofthisnaturewasaforeseeableresultofthat�iolation .

411 . Ethiopiapro�idedpersuasi�ee�idenceofthedestruction,includ-inga�ideooftheaftermathoftheJune11attackclearlyshowingalargeburn-ingwarehouse,burningsacksofgrain,andaburninghea�ytruckinsidethewarehouse .Howe�er,theamountclaimedisneitherclearlyexplainednorsup-ported .Ethiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorialclaimedatotalof10,611,979birr,whichwasalmosttwicethetotalamountofthelossesdescribedintheMemorial(5,711,114birr),andappearedtoreflecterroneousdouble-counting .TheCommissionalsonotesthatthe850,000birrclaimedforthelosthea�ytruckgreatlyexceedstheamountsEritreaclaimedforsimilartrucksseizedbyEthiopianauthorities .

412 . Basedonitsassessmentofthee�idence,theCommissionawardsEthiopiacompensationofUS$250,000forthedestructionoftheDPPBfacili-tiesinAdigrat .

413 . InitsotherCentralFrontgo�ernmentclaims,Ethiopiaclaimed:(a)2,392,586birrforpropertylootedfromfacilitiesbelongingtotheTigrayRegionalAgricultureBureauinBadmeandZalambessa;(b)57,830birrfortransportation,storageandofficecostsincurredbytheEthiopianCustomsAuthoritytoe�acuatefromZalambessa,SheraroandBuretosaferlocations;

95 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCentralFrontClaims,para .32 .


(c)120,162birrforthedestructionofaDPPBwarehouseunderconstructioninDewhaninIrobWereda;(e)362,100birrforgrainandemptygrainbagslootedfromtheDPPBwarehouseinBadme;(f)1 .2millionbirrforDPPBloanstofarmersinGulomakhedaWereda,whichbecameuncollectablewhenthefarmersweredisplacedafterEritrea’sin�asioninJune1998;(g)61,900birrfordamagestotheIrobWeredaPoliceStationanditscontents;and(h)389,616birrfordestructionoftheMarebLekheWeredaPoliceStationinRama .

414 . Thelargestclaim,namelythatrelatedtothelootingofpropertyfrom the Tigray Regional Agriculture Bureau facilities, was supported bydetailedin�entoriesofitemslootedfromtheBadmeandZalambessafacilities(fromwhichEthiopiasegregatedjus in bello claimamounts)�aluedatthetimeofthewar .Similarly,theclaimsrelatedtothedestructionoftheDPPBDewhanwarehouseanddamagestothePoliceStationinIrobWeredawerereasonablysupportedbyin�entoriesandcontractdocuments .

415 . Incomparison,theCommissionfindslittleornoe�identiarysup-portforthe�alidityoforquantumforEthiopia’sclaimsforgrainandgrainbagslootedfromtheDPPBwarehouseinBadme,fortheDPPBfarmers’loans,orfordamagetotheMarebLekheWeredaPoliceStation .TheCommissionalsohasconcernsaboutthecausati�elinkastocertainclaims,forexample,theexpensesofloading,mo�ingandunloading928barrelsofasphaltand�ariouscontrabandgoodsbetweencustomsoffices .

416 . Basedonitsassessmentofthee�idence,theCommissionawardsEthiopia compensation of US$162,500 for the Central Front go�ernmentclaimsotherthantheDPPBwarehousesandpropertyinAdigrat .

417 . OtherGo�ernmentLossesontheWesternFront . EthiopiasoughtanamountsaidtoequalUS$388,212forthreecategoriesofgo�ernmentlossontheWesternFrontnotco�eredbyitsotherclaims .Thefirstclaimwasfor200,000birrincashallegedlylootedfromtheBadmeKebeleAdministrationOfficefollowingin�asionofthetown .Insupportofthisclaim,Ethiopiapre-sentedthedeclarationofthethenheadoftheEconomicDe�elopmentSec-tionoftheTahtayAdiaboWeredaAdministration .Histestimonywasthatthelootedcashhadbeencollectedastaxre�enueo�erthetwomonthsbeforethein�asion,andthattypicalmonthlytaxre�enuewasbetween100,000and200,000birr .Thesecondclaimwasfor1,481,631birrforthelootingoffourpolice�ehicles(1,400,000birr)andotherproperty(51,631birr)fromtheTig-rayRegionalPoliceCommissioninBadme,aswellasdamagetothepolicestationitself(30,000birr) .Astopolice�ehicles,thecumulati�ee�idencesup-portedthelootingofatmostthree�ehiclesandtheamountsclaimed(a�erag-ing350,000birrforeachoffour�ehicles)appearedexcessi�e .Thethirdandfinalgo�ernmentclaimwasfor990,000birrindamagesallegedlysufferedbytheTigrayRegionalJusticeBureau:240,000birrtorebuildtheMarebLekheWeredaJusticeOfficeinRama,whichwasdestroyedbyanartilleryattackonFebruary1,1999;and750,000birrforthe�alueofalootedNissanpatrolcarandaFiattruck .Thethreedocumentaryattachmentsweremissingfromthe


soledeclarationsupportingtheJusticeBureauclaim,whichleftthenumbersunsupported .Onbalance,theCommissionawardsEthiopiaUS$75,000foritsWesternFrontjus ad bellum go�ernmentclaims .

418 . OtherCi�icandNon-Go�ernmentalLosses .Ethiopiaalsosoughtcompensationunderthejus ad bellum fortwocategoriesoflossessustainedbynon-go�ernmentalandci�icorganizations,specificallytheReliefSocietyofTigrayandtheTigrayYouthAssociation,ontheCentralFront .First,EthiopiaallegedthatEritreanforceslootedabulldozer,amotorcycleandotherequip-ment,�aluedatatotalof2,345,459birr,fromReliefSocietyofTigrayprojectsitesnearGerhusernayinAfheromWeredaandAlitenainIrobWereda .Sec-ond,Ethiopiasought748,327birrforloansmadebytheTigrayYouthAsso-ciationtotraineeswhocouldnotrepaybecausetheywenttothewarfrontorotherwise,forthecostsoftrainingnewleadership,andforlostcontribu-tions .TheCommissionconsidersthesecondclaim,relatedtotheTigrayYouthAssociation,tooattenuatedtoallowforcompensation .Howe�er,basedonthedocumentarye�idencesubmitted,theCommissionawardsEthiopiacompen-sationofUS$125,000fortheclaimrelatedtotheReliefSocietyofTigray .

419 . Damage to Other Towns on the Western Front . Ethiopia alsosoughtcompensationforjus ad bellum damagestothetownsofAdiGoshuinKaftaHumeraWeredaandSheraroinTahtayAdiaboWereda,nototherwiseco�eredinitsclaims .AstoAdiGoshu,EthiopiaclaimedanamountsaidtoequalUS$336,953forlossesallegedlyincurredduringaneight-hourraidonDecember20,1998 .Thee�idencereflectedthatEritreanforcesdestroyedandlootedthese�en-roomkebeleadministrationbuilding, tookcashfromtheadministratorandsometwentyothers,andlootedordestroyedlargequanti-tiesofgrainandli�estock .Basedonthedeclarationoftherepresentati�eoftheheadoftheKaftaHumeraWeredaandothersupportingdocumentationintheliabilityanddamagesphases,theCommissionawardsEthiopiacompensationofUS$150,000fordamagetoAdiGoshu .

420 . AstoSheraro,whichwasthetargetofEritreanartilleryattacksinOctober1998,EthiopiaclaimedanamountsaidtoequalUS$1,451,880forshellingdamage .Theclaimencompassedthedestructionofse�eralgo�ern-mentbuildings,includingtheMunicipalityBuildinganditstwogenerators,threeschools,alow-costhousingproject,themunicipalmarket,thekebeleadministrationoffice,andthepublicrecreationcenter;destructionofninety-fourresidencesandfi�ebusinesses;anddamagetothepolicestation .Tosup-portitscompensationclaim,EthiopiasubmittedthedeclarationoftheheadoftheSheraroMunicipalityAdministration,whoattachedtheconstructioncontractfortherebuildingoftheMunicipalityBuilding,showingtotalcostsof444,240birr;specifications(otherthanprice)forthetwogenerators;andalistofthemunicipalityengineer’sestimated�aluesfortheotherpublicbuild-ingsdestroyed(totalof7,039,710birr)andthehomesandbusinessesdestroyed(totalof2,493,941birr,indi�iduallybetween4,927and104,025birr) .Re�iew-ingthise�idenceinthecontextofestimated�aluatione�idenceforsimilar


structures,theCommissionawardsEthiopiacompensationofUS$625,000forshellingdamagetoSheraro .

H. Harm to natural resources and the environment (Category 7)

421 . EthiopiaclaimedanamountsaidtoequalmorethanonebillionU .S .dollars(US$1,028,862,444)foren�ironmentaldamageinTigray .Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionfoundthatthee�idencedidnotsustainEthio-pia’sclaimthatEritreacaused thisdamage in�iolationof the jus in bello.Howe�er,EthiopiaclaimedEritreaisresponsiblefortheselossesunderthejus ad bellum.

422 . Approximately90%oftheclaim,about6 .4billionbirr,wasforallegedlossofgumArabicandresinplants .Othersmallerclaimswereforlossoftreesandseedlings,anddamagetoterraces .Ethiopiaalsoinitiallyclaimedabout300millionbirrforlossofwildanimals,butthatclaimwaswithdrawnpriortotheMay2008hearingonEthiopia’sGroupNumberTwoclaims .

423 . ThishugeclaimwassummarilypresentedinlessthantwopagesofEthiopia’sDamagesGroupOneMemorial .Thesupportinge�idenceconsistedofaclaimsformpreparedbytheTigrayRegionalAgriculturalandNaturalResourcesDe�elopmentBureau .Thisformdidnotidentifythelocationofthelostplants,orthecircumstancesoftheirdestruction .TheDamagesMemo-rialdidnotaddressthepossibilitythatEthiopianforcesorci�iliansmayha�eplayedsomeroleinen�ironmentaldegradationduringthewar .

424 . EritreamaintainedthatthegumArabictreesatissuewerelocat-edwestofBadme,andsowereinEritreaandnotEthiopia;Ethiopiadidnotrespondtothiscontention,andtheissuewasnotresol�ed .Eritreastressedthe�erylimitedandconclusorye�idenceofferedtosupportaclaimformorethanabillionU .S .dollars .Italsopointedout,inconsiderabledetail,thatthecalculationoftheamountsclaimedforlossofgumArabicandresinplantsin�ol�edrecurrentdouble-countingandothersubstantialerrors,includingthatthesumsclaimedbyEthiopiaforlostprofitsfromfutureproductiontooknoaccountofproductioncosts,pro�idednoe�idenceorassessmentoffuturemarketsandprices,assumedunjustifiablylongproducti�eli�es,anddidnotdiscountclaimedfutureincometopresent�alue .

425 . TheCommissionnotedabo�eits�iewsregardingtheinsufficiencyofclaimsformsas theprincipalsupport forclaims .Takingaccountof thehugeamountclaimed,thelackofsupportinge�idence,theunansweredques-tionsregardingthetrees’location,andthemanifolderrorsincalculatingtheclaimeddamages,Eritrea’sjus ad bellum claimforen�ironmentaldamageisdismissed .


i. The mekele bombings (Category 8)426 . OnJune5,1998,thedaythatEritreanmilitaryaircraftdropped

cluster bombs near the Ayder School in Mekele, another Eritrean aircraftattackedtheMekeleairport .Thisattackcausedci�ilianandmilitarycasual-tiesandsomedamagetoaci�ilianairlinerbelongingtoEthiopianAirlines .TheCommissionpre�iouslyconcludedthattheairportwasalawfultarget,andthattheinjuryanddamagetheredidnot�iolatethejus in bello.EthiopiaclaimedanamountsaidtoequalUS$102,467,contendingthatthecasualtiesanddamagetotheaircraftwereproximateresultsofEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .

427 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$19,998foreighteenci�iliansinjuredintheattack,basedon50%oftheprojectedlifetimeearningsofpersonsoftheageofthewounded .ItalsoclaimedUS$2,555forthecostofmedicaltreatmentfortheeighteenwoundedpersons,andUS$79,914forthecostofrepairingpunctures, cracks and other damage to a Fokker-50 ci�ilian aircraft . TheCommissionagreesthatthisattackwassufficientlylinkedtoEritrea’sinitialjus ad bellum �iolationtowarrantcompensation .Anattacksuchasthisisaforeseeableconsequenceofthat�iolation .Howe�er,theCommissiondoesnotacceptEthiopia’scalculationoftheclaim .Aspre�iouslyexplained,itdoesnotaccepttheuseofundiscountedprojectedfutureearningsasablanketmethodforcalculatingcompensationforinjuries .Basedonitsownre�iewofthee�i-dence,theCommissionawardsUS$65,000forEritrea’sattackontheMekeleairport .

J. Prisoners of War (Categories 9 & 10)428 . Ethiopiafiledacomplexsetofclaimsforinjuriesin�ol�ingprison-

ersofwar,combiningclaimsforfixedamountsandforactualamountdam-agesfor�iolationsofthejus in bello andthejus ad bellum,aswellassubstan-tialclaimsformoraldamages .Thejus in bello andmoraldamageselementsoftheseclaimsha�ebeenaddressedabo�e .

429 . Inthejus ad bellum componentoftheseclaims,Ethiopiasoughtfixed-sumdamagesbasedonprojectionsoflostlifetimeearningsforfifty-oneprisonersofwarsaidtoha�ediedwhileinEritreanPOWcamps .96EthiopiamaintainedthatthecaptureofPOWs,theirdetentionunderharshconditions,andtheensuingdeathsofsomeprisonerswerethenaturalandforeseeableresultofEritrea’sactionsinitiatingtheconflict .Ethiopiadidnotcitee�idenceshowingthatthedeathsofanyofthesefifty-oneprisonersresultedfromspe-cificactsofnegligenceormisconductbyEritreanpersonnel .Instead,itpoint-

96 Ethiopiaalsoclaimeddamagesunderthejus in bello foranother712Ethiopiasoldiersitestimatedwerekilledatcapture,basedonitsundocumentedhypothesisthattwo-thirdsasmanysurrenderingsoldierswerekilledasweretakenprisoner .Ethiopia’sjus in bello claimsin�ol�ingPOWswereconsideredinSectionX .Aabo�e .


edingeneraltermstotheCommission’searlierliabilityfindingsonEthiopia’sPOWClaims,whichidentifiedharshandabusi�econditionsinEritrea’sPOWcamps .(EthiopiaalsoinitiallyclaimedforexpensesincurredinoperatingitsPOWcamps,butthisclaimwaswithdrawnpriortotheMay2008hearingandwillnotbeconsideredfurther .)

430 . Eritreacontendedthattheconnectionbetweenthesedeathsandthejus ad bellum �iolationforwhichitwasfoundliablewastooattenuatedandindirecttoleadto compensation .EritreaalsodisputedthenumberofPOWdeathsalleged,maintainingthatthirty-eightprisonersdiedwhiledetained .InEritrea’sopinion,someofthesedeathsresultedfromwoundssufferedbeforecapture,so that theCommission lacked jurisdictiono�erclaims in�ol�ingthem .

431 . TheCommissionneednotresol�ethedisputedquestionsofhowmanyPOWsdiedwhileinEritreancampsandtheextenttowhichthesedeathsmayha�eresultedfromwoundspriortocapture .ItconcludesthatthereisnotasufficientlyclearanddirectcausalconnectionbetweenthedeathsofsomePOWswhileinEritreancustodyandthee�entsofMay1998forwhichEritreahasbeenfoundliableunderthejus ad bellum.Itistruethat“butfor”thewarthatbeganatBadme,Eritreawouldnotha�etakenPOWs,butaclearerandmoresubstantialdegreeofcausalconnectionisrequiredtoestablishliabilityforthedeathsofadisputednumberofdisparateindi�idualsbasedonEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .TheCommissionrecalls,howe�er,thattotheextenttheEthiopianPOWssufferedtheformsofabuseormistreatmentidentifiedintheCommission’searlierPartialAwardattheliabilityphase,Ethiopiaisawardedcompensationforjus in bello �iolationsinSectionX .AofthisAward .

K. departures from eritrea (Category 11)432 . Ethiopiaclaimedo�erUS$799millioninrespectofthousandsof

EthiopianswhoitsaidleftEritreabetweenMay1998andDecember2000onaccountofEritrea’sbreachofthejus ad bellum.(Asdiscussedabo�e,EthiopiaalsoclaimedsubstantialamountsforinjuriestoEthiopiansinEritreain�ol�-ingEritrea’sjus in bello �iolations .)Ethiopiacontendedthat80,000EthiopiansdepartedEritreabetweenMay1998andDecember2000“becauseoftheharshconditionscausedbythewar .”Ethiopiaclaimedcompensationwithrespecttoeachofthese80,000persons,contendingthat(a)eachonelostallincomeforfouryearsfollowingdeparturefromEritrea,and(b)theirsubsequentlife-timeearningsweremuchlowerbecausetheyearnedthelowpercapitaratepre�ailinginEthiopia(US$167),notthemuchhighera�erageratesallegedlyearnedbyEthiopiansinEritrea(US$1,684) .Theseprojectedlossesoflifetimeearningswerenotdiscountedtopresent�alueorotherwiseadjusted .Howe�er,theamountcalculatedinthismanner(aboutUS$2billion)wasreducedbyamountsEthiopiaclaimedforlostincomeonaccountofEritrea’sjus in bello �iolations,lea�ingabalanceofUS$499,870,390 .Ethiopiathenaddedanaddi-


tionalUS$3,740foreachofthe80,000personsformoralinjuryonaccountof“brutality,se�erehardship,painandemotionalshock,”gi�ingamoraldam-agesclaimofUS$299,200,000 .

433 . Eritreaobjected to thisclaimonmultiplegrounds,contendingthatthe1998jus ad bellum �iolationwasnottheproximatecauseofEthio-pians’subsequentdeparturesfromEritrea .Italsoarguedthattheamountsclaimedwereexcessi�eandbaseduponconjectureandin�alidpremises .Inthisregard,EritreapresentedEritreango�ernmentrecords indicating thattheactual incomesofmanypersons in thesampleEthiopiausedtodeter-minea�erageearningsinEritreawerefarlowerthanthesesamepersonslaterclaimed . Ethiopia responded with twenty-two rebuttal declarations, mostaimedatexplainingtheapparentdiscrepancies .Se�eraloftheseexplainedwhythedeclarantshadpre�iously liedtoEritreanofficialsregardingtheirincomes;forthisandforotherreasons,theCommissionfoundthesedeclara-tionslargelyunpersuasi�e .

434 . TheCommissiondoubtstheassumptionsunderlyingEthiopia’scomputationofdamages .Noe�idencewasofferedtosupportthecontentionthatpersonswhoreturnedtoEthiopiaremainedtotallyunemployedforfouryears;hadsuche�idenceexisted, it shouldha�ebeena�ailable toEthiopiaandinturntotheCommission .TheCommissionalsodoubtsthecontentionthatEthiopiansinEritreahadearningstentimesthosepre�ailinginEthiopia .Thisisnotconsistentwithothere�idenceindicatingthatmanyEthiopiansinEritreaheldlow-payingjobsorworkedintermittentlyasdaylaborers .

435 . Inanycase,EthiopiadidnotestablishthattheinjuriesclaimedwereproximatelycausedbyEritrea’sMay1998breachofthejus ad bellum.WhilethecircumstancesofEthiopiansinEritreaduringthewar�ariedbylocationandtime,thegreatmajorityofthosewholeftEritreadidsointheunsettledanddifficultperiodfollowingEthiopia’ssuccessfulMay2000in�a-sionofEritreaandtheendofhostilities,twoyearsaftertheattackonBadme .97TheprincipalfactorinshapingthissituationwasthedefeatofEritreanforcesbyEthiopia’sarmy .ItstrainsthechainofcausalitytoomuchtocontendthatEritreashouldha�eforeseeninMay1998thatitwouldsufferthisse�eremili-tarydefeat,theoccupationoflargeportionsofitsterritory,andtheensuingsocialandeconomicturmoil .Further,theseclaimsfellwelloutsideoftheareasforwhichtheCommissionhasdeterminedEritreatobeliableonaccountofthejus ad bellum �iolation .Theclaimisdismissed .

l. Ports Claim (Category 12)436 . Ethiopia next claimed an amount said to equal approximately

US$117millionforpropertylostatEritreanports(principallyAssab)byEthio-piango�ernmentagencies,businesses,non-go�ernmentalorganizationsand

97 PartialAwardinEthiopia’sCi�iliansClaims,paras .6&7 .


indi�idualsfollowingtheoutbreakofthewar .Theprimarye�idencefortheamountclaimedwasalistpreparedbytheMaritimeTransitSer�icesEnter-prise(“MTSE”),theEthiopianentityresponsibleforclearingandforwardingcargoandothercargoser�ices .

437 . TheCommissiondismissedEthiopia’sjus in bello claimforprop-ertylostinEritrea’sports,findingthatEthiopiafailedtopro�eacompensabletakingofpropertyduringtherele�antperiod .98TheCommissionnotedtheParties’conflictingdescriptionsofthecircumstancesunderwhichEthiopiancargostoppedmo�ingthroughAssabafterfightingbeganatBadme,butcon-cludedthattheportofAssabremainedopenandcontinuedtohandlebothEthiopianexportandimportcargoforatleasttwoweeksthereafter .TheCom-missionalsonotedEritrea’sexpressionsofwillingnesstoenterintoaprocesstotransfertoEthiopiapropertystill instorageinEritreaandtheproceedsderi�edfrompropertysoldorcon�ertedtoEritreango�ernmentuse,subjecttoadjustmentsregardingcostsincurredbyEritrea .

438 . Eritrea contended that the Commission’s liability Award effec-ti�elydismissedEthiopia’sportclaimsintheirentirety,includinganyclaimofjus ad bellum liability .TheCommissiondoesnotsharethisinterpretation .Itsordersanddirecti�estothePartiesthroughouttheseproceedingsmadeclearthatEthiopia’sjus ad bellum claimswereallreser�edtothefinalpor-tionofthedamagesphase .AsstatedinitsDecisionNumber7,theCommis-sion’searlierPartialandFinalAwards“resol�edthemeritsofalloftheParties’claims,except for Ethiopia’s claims relating to Eritrea’s violation of the jusadbellum .”99

439 . In the damages phase, both Parties renewed many argumentsfromtheliabilityphase .Eritreaintroducedcopiesofnumerouswaybillssaidtoshowthatcargocontinuedtobe loadedontotrucksboundforEthiopiafromAssabwellintoMay1998,until,asEritreacontended,Ethiopiaclosedtheborder .EthiopiarespondedwiththewitnessdeclarationofanEthiopiancustomsofficialcontendingthatthesedocumentsatmostpro�edEthiopiangoodswereloadedontotrucksattheEritreanport;proofofdeli�eryrequiredadditionaldocumentationfromEthiopianCustomsorconsigneesinEthio-pia .(TheCommissionnotesthattheseformsofe�idencewouldbelocatedinEthiopiaandwouldnotlikelybea�ailabletoEritrea .)

440 . Ethiopiaalsomaintainedthatthewaybillsdidnotpro�edeli�eryofallofthepropertyatissue .Itcitedasanillustrationashipmentofse�enty-sixcoilsofrolledsteel;Eritrea’sdocumentsshowedthatonlyafewofthesecoilswereloadedontotrucksattheport .Eritrearesponded,inter alia,thatitswaybille�idencewasnotintendedtobecomplete,butthatitdidpro�ethat

98 FinalAward,Ports,Ethiopia’sClaim6BetweentheFederalDemocraticRepub-licofEthiopiaandtheStateofEritrea(December19,2005)[hereinafterFinalAwardinEthiopia’sPortsClaim],para .19 .

99 DecisionNo .7,supra note10,para .2(emphasisadded) .


Ethiopiancargo,includingsomenowclaimedaslost,continuedtomo�etoEthiopiauntillateMay1998,whenEthiopiaclosedtheborder .

441 . ThePartiesalsore�isitedthenationalityoftheownersofsomecargo .Attheliabilityphase,theCommissionnotedthatsomeclaimedcargobelongedtoforeigndonors,nottoEthiopiaortoEthiopiannationals,sotheCommissionlackedjurisdiction .100Ethiopiareturnedtothisissueatthedam-agesphase,citingarticlesofitsCi�ilandMaritimeCodeitinterpretedtoshowthattitletoalloceancargopassedtoEthiopianpartiespriortoarri�alattheport .AttheMay2008hearing,howe�er,itwasdeterminedthattheseestab-lishedadefaultposition,fromwhichpartiescould,andoftendid,de�iatebycontract .TheMTSElistofstrandedpropertydidnotindicatethenationalityofownersorconsignees,but,atthehearing,Ethiopiaemphasizedsubstantialclaimstopropertyownedbyse�eralEthiopiango�ernmentagencies .

442 . Ethiopiaalsoin�itedtheCommissiontodecidequestionsitsawasnotsettledattheliabilityphase,notablyitsclaimfor46,000tonsoffuelallegedlydueundercontracttotheEthiopianPetroleumEnterprise,andotherfuelsaidtobelongtoEthiopiansubsidiariesofinternationaloilcompanies .Eritreapre�iouslyarguedthattheEthiopianPetroleumEnterprise�iolateditscontractualobligationsbydi�ertingfuelshipmentsfromEritrea,andthattherewasnorealeconomiclossoftheinternationaloilcompanies’fuel,sinceitremainedwithintherele�antcorporatefamily .Thee�idenceinsupportofthislargeclaimwaslimited,but,forthereasonsindicatedbelow,theCommissionneednotre�isitit .

443 . EthiopiacontendedthatEritreawasliableforpropertylostatErit-rea’sportsbecauseitunlawfullyinitiatedaconflict“thatpro�edimpossibletokeepfromspreadingalongtheborder .”Inits�iew,Eritreashouldha�efore-seenthatitsactionsatBadmewouldendtradethroughtheports,andcompelEthiopiatocurbcommercethroughthemtoprotectitsowninterests .Thus,in Ethiopia’s �iew, property loss—including property loss stemming fromactionsanddecisionsbyEthiopia—in�ol�edforeseeableinjuryforwhichEri-treashouldbearfullresponsibility .

444 . TheCommissionconcludesthatEthiopia’sportsclaimforjus ad bellum damagesfails,onse�eralgrounds .Tobegin,theCommissionpre�i-ouslyfoundthatEthiopiafailedtopro�eatakingofpropertyin�iolationofcustomaryinternationallawduringtherele�antperiod .Ethiopiaalsofailedatthedamagesphasetopro�esuchataking .Eritreamadenoclaimtoownmuchofthepropertyatissue,andindicatedwillingnesstotransfertoEthiopiapropertyitstillholdsandtheproceedsofperishablecommoditiesorotherpropertysoldorput toEritreango�ernmentuse,subject tocertainclaimsforstorageanden�ironmentalcosts .TheCommissionrecei�ednoindicationthatEthiopiae�errespondedtothisoffer .Ethiopia’spleadingssuggestedthat

100 FinalAwardinEthiopia’sPortsClaim,paras .5&6 .


itrejectedit .Inthesecircumstances,theCommissionagainconcludesthatEthiopiahasnotpro�edacompensablelossofproperty .

445 . Further,asnoted,someundeterminedamountofdisputedproper-tydidnotbelongtoEthiopiaoritsnationals,andliesoutsidetheCommission’sjurisdiction .Otherclaimsad�ancedweredecidedpre�iouslyandarebarredbyres judicata.Finally,therecorddidnotestablishthatEritrea’sactionsatBadmeweretheproximatecauseofanyinjuryin�ol�ingstrandedproperty .TheCom-missionfoundthatmuchEthiopiancargocontinuedtomo�ethroughAssabtoandfromEthiopiaafterhostilitiesbegan .101WhiletheCommissiondidnotexpresslyfindthatEthiopia’sactions,includingtherequisitioningofEritrean-ownedhea�ytrucksandthedi�ersionoftruckstocarrycargotoandfromDjibouti,wereasignificantcauseofpropertybecomingstranded,therecordwouldha�esupportedsuchafinding .

m. ethiopian airlines (Category 14)446 . Ethiopia initially claimed an amount it con�erted to equal

US$45,700,000forlossesallegedlyincurredbyEthiopianAirlines(“EAL”)onaccountofEritrea’s�iolationofthejusad bellum.Thisclaimwassignificantlyreduced,toanamountcon�ertedtoequalUS$14,464,729,priortotheMay2008hearing .There�isedclaimwithdrewasduplicati�eapproximatelyUS$23millionfor“flightdetouringandfuelpurchase,”andtookaccountofreducedoperatingcostsandothersa�ingsassociatedwithwartimemodificationsintheairline’soperations .

447 . Most of the claim—con�erted to equal US$10,951,465, almost76%—wasforlostprofits(describedas“estimatednetlosses”)for“oneyearfollowingtheconclusionofser�icetoandfromAsmara .”Thisamountwascalculatedbasedonoperatingre�enueandexpensesontheAsmaraser�iceduringJuly1997toMarch1998 .EthiopiaalsoclaimedUS$1,311,421foraddi-tional“estimatednetlosses,”apparentlycalculatedinthesameway,reflectingtemporarysuspensionsofflightstodestinationsinnorthandnorthwesternEthiopiaduring thewar .Ethiopiaalsoclaimed: (a)US$1,703,020 forbankaccountsattheBankofEritrea;(b)US$315,914forcostsassociatedwiththeairline’sdecisiontorelocatetheoperationalbaseforitsinternationalfleettoNairobi,KenyafromFebruary6to28,1999,atthetimeofEthiopia’sOpera-tionSunset;and(c)US$182,909forunpaidairticketspro�idedtosixEritreango�ernmentagenciesforofficialtra�elandfortransportingtheEritreanFor-eignMinistry’sdiplomaticpouchespriortothewar .

448 . Eritrea’sCounter-Memorialcontended,inter alia,thatmanyofthelossesinitiallyclaimedresultedfromoperationaldecisionstakenbyEALitself,andthatEritreacouldnotberesponsiblefortheconsequences .Eritreaalsoobjectedtotheamountsclaimed,notingthatclaimsforlostflightre�enues

101 Id.,paras .19–20 .


tooknoaccountoftheairline’sreducedoperatingcostsduetothesuspensionofflights,nordidtheclaimforrelocationtoNairobitakeaccountofsa�ingsassociatedwiththemo�e .ManyofEritrea’sobjectionsappearedtoha�ebeentakenintoaccountintheclaimasreformulatedandsignificantlyreducedpriortothehearing .

449 . LostProfits .TheCommissiongenerallyhasnotlookedwithfa�oronclaimsforbusinesses’lostprofitssaidtobeattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .Howe�er,theclaimforEAL’slostprofitsonaccountoftheterminationofitsAddisAbaba–Asmarainternationalser�icein�ol�edunusualconsiderations .Airlineser�icebetweenthetwocapitalswasnotatypicalcom-mercialendea�or,butwascloselylinkedtotheParties’o�erallpoliticalandeconomicrelationship .EthiopianAirlinesisEthiopia’sState-ownednationalcarrier,andisformanyasymboloftheStateofEthiopia .Itsaircraftwere�alu-ableproperty,�ulnerablebothtotherisksofseizurebyEritreaandtodamageinthecourseofhostilities .Itsinsurerswouldbesensiti�etotheserisks,andmightsuspendco�erageorraisepremiumstounsustainablele�els .Moreo�er,EAL’soperationsdependeduponasteadyflowofpassengersandcargo,both�ulnerabletointerruptionduringhostilitiesonaccountofgo�ernmentactionsorindi�idualdecisionsbypassengersorshippersconcernedaboutsafety .

450 . Gi�enthesespecialcircumstances,theCommissionconcludesthatdocumentedlostprofitsfromterminationoftheAddisAbaba–Asmaraser�iceweretheproximateresultofEritrea’sjus ad bellum breach .Clearlyitwas,orshouldha�ebeen,foreseeabletoEritrea’sleadersthatalikelyresultofEritrea’sactionatBadmewouldbetheinterruptionofcommercialairser�icebetweenthetwocapitals,withattendanteconomicinjurytoEAL .

451 . Initsre�isedclaim,Ethiopiasought75,366,844birraslostprofitsforoneyearontheAddisAbaba–Asmaraser�ice .(Ethiopia’sliabilityphasee�idencesuggestedahigherfigure,buttheunderlyingcalculationsdidnotappeartoreflectsignificantreductionsincostsassociatedwithsuspensionoftheser�ice .)Ethiopia’schoiceofoneyearasthemeasuringperiodwasnotexplained,butappearsreasonableinthecircumstances .(Thechoiceofoneyearmayha�ereflectedthefactthattheParties’airser�icesagreement,whichauthorizedbilateralairser�ice,wasterminableonayear’snotice .)Theprinci-palsupportinge�idencefortheamountcurrentlyclaimedwasthedeclarationofEAL’sActingGeneralCounsel,whodescribedhowtheamountoftheclaimwascomputedbyEAL’sfinancedepartment .TheActingGeneralCounsel’sdeclarationwasaccompaniedbyashortdocumentpreparedbyEAL’sfinancedepartmentrecitingsomeoftheclaimedlosses,buttherewasnoothere�i-denceexplainingorsubstantiatingthespecificamountsclaimed .Basedonitsre�iewoftherecord,andtakingaccountofthelimitede�idenceadduced,theCommissionawardsUS$4,000,000withrespecttothisclaim .

452 . TherewaslittlesupportintherecordforEthiopia’ssmallerclaimforEAL’slostprofitsfromtemporarysuspensionsofsomeofitsdomesticser�-icesduringthewar .EAL’sActingGeneralCounseldidnotexplainthispor-


tionofEthiopia’sclaimortheser�icesin�ol�ed .Theliabilityphasee�idencecontainedadocumentsuggestingtheclaimedlosses,buttheamountswerenotexplainedordocumented .Thise�idencealsosuggestedthattheseinter-ruptionsmayha�ein�ol�edser�icestoregionalairportsatAxum,Mekeleandafewotherlocations,primarilyatthetimeofEthiopia’ssuccessfulattacksagainstEritreanforcesinOperationSunsetin1999 .

453 . Ethiopia’sclaimforlostprofitsoninterruptionsofEAL’sinternalser�icesisrejectedforfailureofproof .Inaddition,whileitmayha�ebeenreasonableforEthiopia’sstateairlinetodecidenottooperatetotheselocationsduringtheperiodofEthiopia’sattacks,withensuingre�enuelosses,EAL’sdecisiontotakethatactionistoocausallyremotefromEritrea’sactionsatBadmetobecompensable .

454 . Bank Accounts .EthiopianextclaimedUS$1,703,020forEthiopianAirlines’bankaccountsattheBankofEritrea .Theprincipalsupportinge�i-dencewasbankstatementsshowingamountsondepositbeforethewar .ThedeclarationofEAL’sActingGeneralCounselstatedthatEALhasbeenunabletoclosetheseaccountsandrepatriatethefundstoaccountsabroad,imply-ing(althoughnotexplicitlystating)thatEALmadepost-warattemptstogainaccesstothefunds .Duringthehostilities,itwaslawfulunderthejus in bello forEritreatoholdorblockthosefundstopre�enttheirtransfertotheotherbelligerent .

455 . EritreadidnotrebutEthiopia’se�idenceindicatingthatEALwasunabletosecuretherepatriationofitsfundsduringorafterthewar .AstotheEALbankaccounts,Eritreahadadutyunderthejus in bello toreturntheseaccountsafterthewar .While,asindicatedintheCommission’sPartialAwardinEritrea’sCi�iliansClaims,102Statesin�ol�edinarmedconflictha�etherighttofreezeenemyassetswithintheirjurisdictionandpre�enttheirtransfertoanenemy,itremainstheirobligation,asindicatedinthatPartialAward,103topro-tectsuchassetsfortheirreturntotheirownersorotheragreeddisposition .104Theappropriateremedyforthelossofthoseassetsunderthesecircumstancesiscompensationintheamountoffundslostinthoseaccounts .TheCommis-sionthereforeawardsEthiopiaUS$1,703,020forEAL’sbankaccountsattheBankofEritrea .

456 . ExpensesofTransfer .TheCommissionconcludesthatEritreaisnotresponsibleforEthiopianAirlines’expensesofUS$315,914relatedtothetemporarytransferofitsinternationaloperationstoNairobiforthreeweeksatthetimeofEthiopia’sOperationSunsetin1999 .Theairlinereportedlymade

102 PartialAwardinEritrea’sCi�iliansClaims,para .146 .103 Id.,paras .151&152 .104 See also Article46ofGene�aCon�entionRelati�etotheProtectionofCi�ilian

PersonsinTimeofWar,Aug .12,1949,6U .S .T .p .3516,75U .N .T .S .p .287,requiringthatrestricti�emeasuresaffectingprotectedpersons’property“shallbecancelled,inaccordancewiththelawoftheDetainingPower,assoonaspossibleafterthecloseofhostilities .”


thismo�eonoraboutFebruary6,1999 .ThiswasthedaythatEthiopiainiti-atedOperationSunsetandresumeditsoffensi�eairoperations,endingtheairmoratoriumestablishedinJune1998 .ThetemporaryrelocationtoNairobiwasapparentlyaprecautionarymeasuretoa�oidpossibleEritreanairattacksontheAddisAbabaairportfollowingtheresumptionofwide-scalefighting,includingairattacksbyEthiopia .Thisactionreflectedtoomanyinter�eningstepsanddecisionstoberegardedastheproximateconsequenceofEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .

457 . UnpaidPassengerTicketsandFreightCharges .Finally,EthiopiaclaimedUS$182,909forunpaidEthiopianAirlines’passengerticketsandforfreightchargesfortransportingdiplomaticpouchesonbehalfofEritrea’sMin-istryofForeignAffairsandothergo�ernmentagencies .Thisportionoftheclaimin�ol�edacommercialdisputein�ol�ingprewarrelationships,andisoutsidetheCommission’sjurisdiction .

n. loss of Tourism, international development assistance, and foreign and domestic investment (Categories 15, 16 & 17)

1. Loss of Tourism

458 . Ethiopia claimed slightly o�er US$104 million for lost re�enuefromtourism,whichitallegedwasthedirectandforeseeableconsequenceofEritrea’sactionininitiatingthewar .Ethiopia’sDamagesGroupTwoMemo-rialcalculatedtheamountofthisclaimbasedonestimatesthat:(a)butforthewar,125,941additionaltouristswouldha�e�isitedduringthewaryears;105(b)anadditional82,167wouldha�e�isitedduringtheyears2001–2004;and(c)touristsspentana�erageofUS$500percapita .Theseestimatesofthenumbersoftouristsappearedtoha�ebeencalculatedontheassumptionthatthepre-warannualgrowthrateinthenumberoftourists(6 .7%perannumduringtheyears1992–1997)wouldha�econtinueduninterrupted .

459 . Theprincipale�idencesubmittedinsupportoftheclaimwasareportpreparedforpurposesoftheCommission’sproceedingsbytheEthiopi-anTourismCouncil .Thisreportobser�edthatitwas“�erydifficulttoquantifythe�ariousinjuriesandtoestablishtheiraccuracywithconcretee�idence,”andthat“e�identiarysubstantiationofthewar’sad�ersefutureeffectsontour-ismhasbeenproblematic .”Whilethereportspeculatedthatthewarresultedinfewerpost-wartourists,itacknowledgedthat“concretee�idenceishardtocomeby .”TheTourismCouncil’scautiousassessmentsappearcorrecttotheCommission .Ethiopia’se�idencedidnotpro�ideanybasisforconcludingthatitwasreasonabletoexpectacontinueda�erageincreaseintouristarri�alsof6 .7% .Indeed,theCommissionnotesthatEthiopiacomputedthisa�erage

105 Ethiopia’sliabilityphasee�idenceestimatedthewartimelossesoftouriststobe�ariously100,753and125,941 .ThedifferencebetweenthetwoestimateswasnotexplainednorwasitapparenttotheCommission .


basedonafi�e-yearperiodthatincludedoneyearof�erystronggrowthintourismsoonafterthedefeatoftheDergue,followedbyse�eralyearsoflessthan6 .7%growth .

460 . Moreo�er,theCouncil’sestimatesoftourismlossesduringthewarandafterwerebeliedbyothere�idencesubmittedbyEthiopiaattheliabil-ityphase .ThisincludedstatisticscollectedbytheWorldTra�elandTourismCouncil,aninternationalorganizationoftra�el industryexecuti�es .Theseshowedcontinuousincreasesinthe�alueofEthiopia’stourismfromthe1997le�el(asmeasuredinbothU .S .dollarsandbirr)duringthewaryearsof1998and1999,withfurthersignificantincreasesestimatedfor2000andsubsequentyears .TherecordincludedafaxfromtheCounciltoEthiopia’soutsidecounselregardingthisdiscrepancy .Thefaxnotedsomepossiblereasonsforthedis-crepancy,butdidnotcon�incinglyrehabilitatetheCouncil’sestimates .

461 . Thee�idencesupportingtheclaimedamountessentiallyrestedonassumptionsandhypothesesthatwereuncorroboratedand,indeed,werecon-tradictedbyEthiopia’sothere�idence .TherecordwasnotsufficienttosustainaclaimforUS$104million .Theclaimisdismissedforinsufficiente�idence .TheCommission,accordingly,doesnotaddresswhether,orunderwhatcon-ditions,abreachofthejus ad bellum mightbetheproximatecauseofalossoftourism .

2. Declines in International Development Assistance

462 . EthiopiaclaimedUS$1 .694billionforforeignassistanceallegedlyfrozen,suspendedorterminatedbymultilateralandbilateralaiddonorsonaccountofEritrea’sattackonBadmeandthesubsequentwar .ThisincludedUS$1,165,450,000ingrantsandloanstoEthiopiaallegedlydeniedbymulti-lateralandbilateraldonors;anamountidentifiedaseitherUS$208,560,000orUS$108,560,000 inde�elopmentassistance frombilateraldonors;andareductioninUS$320,000,000inforeignassistancewithheldbytheEuropeanUnion .

463 . Theclaimwaspresented inbroad-brushterms .Ethiopia’s2004Claim 7 Memorial and its Damages Group Two Memorial pro�ided littleinformationregardingspecificloans,grantsorprogramsallegedlyaffected,orregardingpost-warde�elopments .Ethiopiareferredtosomeaidtransac-tionsasha�ingbeen“delayed”or“suspended,”andtherewase�idenceintherecordindicatingthatmanytransactionswereresumedorrestoredafterthewar .Howe�er,itwasnotclearhoworwhethertheseresumedrelationshipsweretakenintoaccountinthelargeamountclaimed .

464 . EritreaobjectedthattheclaimedreductioninforeignassistancelackedsufficientcausalconnectionwiththeCommission’sliabilityfinding .Itstressedthatanyreductionresultedfromdecisionsbythirdpartydonors,andthatitcouldnotbeheldresponsiblefordecisionsmadebyoutsidepartiesfortheirownreasons .Eritreaalsocontendedthatthereweremajorshortcomings


inthee�idence,andthatEthiopiaactuallyfailedtopro�eanylosses .Eritreacontendedinthisregardthatsomefigurescitedtosupporttheclaimeitherdidnotshowpre-war le�elsofassistanceor le�elsduringthewar,makingcomparisonsimpossible .Indeed,EritreaurgedthatEthiopia’se�idenceactu-allyshowednoreductioninassistanceduringthewar,butratheranincreaseingrantaid .

465 . Gi�entheenormoussizeofthisclaim—almostUS$1 .7billion—thesupportinge�idencewasextremelymodest .Therecordwasnotsufficienttoestablisheithertheamountoftheallegedloss,orasufficientcausalconnectionbetweenthatlossandEritrea’s�iolationofthejus ad bellum.Inthisconnec-tion,anyreductionofde�elopmentassistancetoEthiopiaresultedfromdeci-sionstakenbyinternationalfinancialinstitutionsandforeigngo�ernmentsfortheirownreasons .Particularlywheretheimmediatecauseoftheallegedinjurywasdecisionsmadebythirdparties,muchmorecompellinge�idencewouldberequiredtoshowthatthelosswasattributabletoEritrea’sjus ad bel-lum �iolation .Theclaimisdismissed .

3. Lost Foreign and Domestic Investment

466 . EthiopiaclaimedmorethanUS$2billionforforeignanddomesticin�estmentintheEthiopianeconomythatallegedlywasnotmadeduringthewaryearsbecauseofEritrea’sjusad bellum �iolation .Thishugeclaimwaspre-sentedinlessthanonepageofEthiopia’sDamagesGroupTwoMemorial,andtwopagesofitsearlierClaim7Memorial .Ethiopiaappearedtoha�eestimat-edthisamountbycomparingthele�elsofforeignanddomesticin�estmentprojectsappro�edbytheEthiopianIn�estmentAuthorityin1997–1998,withthelowerle�elsappro�edduringthewaryears .(Therecorddidnotindicatepatternsofin�estmentinEthiopiaafterthewarended .)

467 . Eritrea�igorouslydisputedthisclaim,contendingthatEthiopiafailedtoshowasufficientcausalconnectionbetweentheclaimedlossesandtheattackonBadme . It alsodenied thatEthiopiahadpro�edany loss . InEritrea’s�iew,Ethiopia’se�idencedidnotpro�easteadytrendofincreasingin�estmentthatwouldha�econtinuedin1998–2000 .Therewasabriefpre-warincreaseinforeignin�estmentresultingfromtheEthiopiango�ernment’s1995–1996pri�atizationprogram,butEritreabelie�edthistrendwouldnotha�econtinued .Italsocontendedthatanyfluctuationsinin�estmentle�elsbydomesticandforeignin�estorsin�ol�eddecisionsbythirdpartiesshapedby�ariouspolitical,economicandsocialfactors,manyunrelatedtothewar .

468 . Atthe2008damageshearing,theCommissionsoughttoclarifythetheoryunderlyingthisclaim .Itaskedhowtheclaimedreductioninin�est-ment,whichwouldnotha�egonedirectlytotheGo�ernmentofEthiopia,andwhichmightormightnotha�eproducedbenefitsforEthiopia’sdomesticeconomy,translatedintoanequi�alentamountofdamagetotheState .Coun-selconfirmedthattheclaimwasnotforanydirectlossofpropertyorfunds


bytheState .Instead,Ethiopiain�itedtheCommissiontoconductitsowneco-nomicanalysis,toidentifytheextentofinjurytothetotalEthiopianeconomyresultingfromtheclaimedreductioninin�estment .

469 . Particularlygi�enthehugeamountclaimed—o�erUS$2billion—therewasinsufficiente�idencetoshowtheamountofanycompensableinjurytotheStateofEthiopia .Ofgreaterimport,thee�idencedidnotestablishasufficientcausalconnectionbetweenEritrea’s jus ad bellum delictandanyinjurytoEthiopiastemmingfromreductionsinforeignanddomesticin�est-mentduringthewaryears .Aswiththedecisionsbyforeignassistanceagenciesaddressedabo�e,decisionswhetherornottoin�estweremadebyamyriadofpri�atein�estorsinsideandoutsideofEthiopia .Eachdecisionreflectedpar-ticularfactsandconsiderationsuniquetothein�estor .Thee�idencesimplydidnotshowthattheirbeha�ior,indi�iduallyorintheaggregate,primarilyresultedfromEritrea’sactionsinMay1998 .Theclaimisdismissed .

o. reconstruction and assistance (Categories 18, 19 & 20)470 . Ethiopiaclaimedatotalamountitcon�ertedtoequalUS$99,957,819

forexpensesrelatedtotheDisasterPre�entionandPreparednessCommission(“DPPC”)(totalingUS$32,563,967)andtheReliefSocietyofTigray(“REST”)(totalingUS$67,393,852)forassistingpersonsdisplacedonaccountofthewarandreturneesfromEthiopia .Thepresentationoftheseclaimswasextremelybrief,bothinEthiopia’sClaim7Memorial(justo�ertwopages)andinitsDamagesGroupTwoMemorial (halfapage) .Thesupportinge�idence fortheseclaimswasalsoquitelimited,andthemanneroftheircalculationandothersignificantdetailswasoftenunclear .

471 . TheCommissionholdsabo�ethatEritreabearsjus ad bellum lia-bilityfordamagesonaccountoftheinternaldisplacementofmanythousandsofEthiopiansduringthewar .CaringforinternallydisplacedpersonsisanimportantresponsibilityofaState .Displacedpeoplemustha�esustenanceandsupport .Itisreadilyforeseeablethatincircumstancescausinglarge-scaleinternal displacement, relief agencies will incur expenses to pro�ide suchhelp .TheCommissionconcludesthatEthiopiaisentitledtodamagesreflect-ingdemonstratedexpensesreasonablyincurredbyEthiopia,orbyEthiopianpublicorpri�ateentities,toassistandsupportIDPsdisplacedonaccountofEritrea’sjus ad bellum �iolation .

472 . TheCommissionholdsabo�ethatEritreaisnotsimilarlyliablefordamagesonaccountofthemanyEthiopianswhodepartedfromEritrea,eitherduringthewarorinthefollowingmonths .AsEritreaisnotlegallyresponsibleforthereturnoftheseEthiopianstoEthiopiaonaccountofitsjus ad bellum �iolation,itlikewiseisnotresponsibleforamountsexpendedbyEthiopiafortheirsupportandresettlement .

473 . The DPPC Claim. Thee�idencefortheDPPCportionoftheclaimwasanOctober2001reportpreparedbytheDPPC,whichlistedanamountof


404,033,230birras“costsincurredtoundertakereliefandrehabilitationacti�-itiesforwaraffectedpeople .”Fromthis,Ethiopiasubtractedapproximately92,000,000birrexpendedtosupportEthiopianmilitaryforcesandrehabilitatedemobilized�eterans,becauseclaimsforsupporttoEthiopianmilitaryforcesareoutsidetheCommission’sjurisdiction .Italsosubtractedapproximately67,000,000birr,thecostofa“HouseholdRehabilitationProgramme,”asEthi-opiamadeseparatejus ad bellum claimsfordamagetohousesandhouseholds .Ethiopiaclaimedfor224,101,964birr,con�ertingthistoUS$32,563,967 .

474 . Thetwenty-eightpageOctober2001DPPCreportwasnotswornorcorroborated .Norwasitdetailed,withalmosthalfitspageslistingemployeesin�ariousregions“engagedinthereliefoperationforIDPs”andtheirsalaries .Howe�er,theCommissionispreparedtogi�eweighttothereportbecauseitwasnotpreparedforlitigationand,takeninthecontextofthecircumstancesandtheentirerecord,theamountsdonotappearunreasonable .Certainreduc-tionsarenecessary,becausethereportdidnotdistinguishbetweenassistancetoIDPs,whichiscompensable,andassistancetoreturneesfromEritrea,whichisnot .Moreo�er,someitemscitedfelloutsidethescopeofEritrea’sliabilityordidnotin�ol�ecompensabledamagetoEthiopia,includingatleastthe�alueofsheltermaterialspro�idedbyforeignNGOs(about21 .3millionbirr),andtransportationof“expelled�ictims”fromEritrea(aboutonemillionbirr) .

475 . Aftermakingthenecessaryreductions,theCommissionawardsUS$6,000,000fortheDPPCclaim .

476 . TheRESTClaim .Ethiopia’sClaim7,whichinitiallypresentedEthi-opia’sclaimsforassistancetoIDPs,didnotrefertoanyoutlaysin�ol�ingREST .Theprincipale�idenceinsupportofthecurrentclaimforUS$67,393,852wasaone-pagedeclarationbytheSociety’sheadandanaccompanyingone-pagetable,whichshowedtheamountsof�ariousfoodstuffs,beddingandshelteritems,householditems,andothersuppliesdistributed,andtheirbottom-line�alues . .AswiththeDPPCportionoftheclaim,theamountsappeartoberea-sonableinthecontextofthecircumstancesandentirerecord,butreductionsarenecessary .First,therewasnodistinctionbetweentheamountsattributabletoassistanceforIDPsandreturnees .Second,alargepercentageofthereliefappearedtoha�ebeendonated .Thedeclarationdoesnotassertthatthefoodcommoditiesdistributed(�aluedat407,106,000birr,almost90%ofthetotalclaim)werepurchasedbyEthiopia .Instead,thedeclarationstatedthatthe�alueattributedtothesecommoditieswasthatindicatedinagreementsamongREST,donors andtransporters,creatingtheclearimplicationthatthesegoodsweredonated .Thiswasreinforcedbythe“perunit�alues”allocatedtobulkfoodstuffs(cereals,pulses,�egetableoil,etc),whichdidnotappeartobemar-ketprices,butratherroundnumbersusedforestimation(i .e .,asfour,sixoreightthousandbirrpermetricton) .Inaddition,theDPPCreportdescribedabo�eclearlystatedthatfoodcommoditiesforassistanceweredonatedratherthanpurchased .Othergoods,suchasplasticsheetswortho�ertwentymillionbirr,werealsolikelydonated .


477 . TheCommissiondoesnotregardthe�alueofcommoditiesdonat-edbyforeignaiddonors,withoutanyindicationthatrepaymentwasrequiredorexpected,asconstitutinganelementofdamagetoEthiopia .Absentanye�idenceindicatingthatanyofthefoodcommoditiesin�ol�edintheRESTclaimin�ol�edsomecosttoEthiopia(andwithcon�incinge�idenceintheDPPCreportthattheydidnot),theapproximatelyfourhundredmillionbirrportionoftheRESTclaimrelatingtofoodcommoditiesandthe�alueofotherdonatedgoodsisdisallowed .

478 . Aftermakingtheseandothernecessaryreductions,theCommis-sionawardsUS$1,500,000fortheRESTclaim .

479 . Accordingly,theCommissionawardsatotalofUS$7,500,000forEthiopia’sjus ad bellum claimforreconstructionandassistance .

Xii. awardA . TheCommissionawardsEthiopiathefollowingcompensationfor

Eritrea’s�iolationsofthejus in bello: 1 . US$11,000,000fordeath,physicalinjury,disappearance,forced

laborandconscriptionofEthiopianci�ilians; 2 . US$2,000,000forfailingtopre�entrapeofknownandun-

known�ictimsinIrob,DalulandElidarWeredas; 3 . US$13,900,000forlooting,anddestructionofanddamageto

houses; 4 . US$20,195,000fordamage,destructionandlootingin

Zalambessa; 5 . US$2,500,000fordeath,injuryandpropertydamageinMe-

kele; 6 . US$315,000forlootingofanddamagetogo�ernmentbuild-

ingsandinfrastructure; 7 . US$4,500,000forlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligious

institutions; 8 . US$3,216,000forseizureandlootingoftheSabaDimensional

StonesShareCompany; 9 . US$7,500,000formistreatmentofEthiopianprisonersofwar; 10 . US$2,000,000forfailuretoprotectEthiopianci�iliansinEr-

itreafromthreatsand�iolence; 11 . US$1,500,000forfailuretoensureEthiopianci�iliansinEr-

itreaaccesstoemployment; 12 . US$50,000forfailuretoensurethatEthiopianci�iliansin

Eritreawereabletorecei�emedicalcaretothesameextentasEritreannationals;

13 . US$2,000,000forwrongfuldetentionandabusi�etreatmentof


Ethiopianci�iliansinEritreancustody; 14 . US$1,500,000forharshtreatmentofEthiopianci�iliansatthe

Hawshaitedetentioncamp; 15 . US$10,000,000fordetainingsignificantnumbersofEthiopian

ci�iliansunderharshconditionsduringandafterMay2000; 16 . US$500,000fordeathsandinjuriessufferedbydetaineesat

Wi’aCamp; 17 . US$2,000,000forfailuretoprotectthepropertyofEthiopian

detaineesexpelledfromEritrea; 18 . US$1,000,000forfailuretoprotectthepropertyofotherde-

partingEthiopians;and 19 . US$1,100,000forfailingtoensurethesafeandhumanerepa-

triationofdepartingEthiopiansintransportsthatwerenotconductedorsuper�isedbytheICRC .

B . TheCommissionawardsEthiopiathefollowingcompensationforEritrea’s�iolationsofthejus ad bellum: 1 . US$45,000,000forhumansufferingandlostincomeassociated

withinternaldisplacementofpersons; 2 . US$8,500,000forEthiopianci�iliandeathsandinjuries; 3 . US$6,000,000fordamagetoci�ilianproperty,primarilyfrom

shelling; 4 . US$3,500,000fordamagetopublicbuildingsandinfrastruc-

ture; 5 . US$2,500,000forlooting,destructionanddamagetoreligious

institutions; 6 . US$5,605,000fordestructioninZalambessa; 7 . US$1,500,000fordeathsandinjuriescausedbylandmines; 8 . US$250,000fordestructionofDisasterPre�entionandPre-

parednessBureaufacilitiesinAdigrat; 9 . US$162,500fordamagetoothergo�ernmentfacilitiesonthe

CentralFront; 10 . US$75,000forothergo�ernmentlossesontheCentralFront; 11 . US$125,000forlootingofpropertyfromtheReliefSocietyof

Tigray; 12 . US$150,000fordamageinAdiGoshu; 13 . US$625,000forshellingdamageinSheraro; 14 . US$65,000fordamagecausedbytheattackontheMekele

airport; 15 . US$4,000,000forprofitslostbyEthiopianAirlines; 16 . US$1,703,020forfailingtopro�ideEthiopianAirlinesaccessto

itsbankaccountsattheBankofEritrea;and


17 . US$7,500,000forreconstructionandassistancetointernallydisplacedpersons .

C . Asdeterminedattheliabilityphase,theCommissionconsidersitsfindingthatEritrea�iolatedtheViennaCon�entiononDiplomaticRelationsbyarrestinganddetainingtheEthiopianChargéd’Affairesandby�iolatingofficialEthiopiandiplomaticcorrespondenceandinterferingwiththefunc-tioningoftheEthiopiandiplomaticmissiontobeappropriatereparation .

D . AllofEthiopia’sotherclaimsaredismissed .E . Inaddition to theawardof satisfaction toEthiopia forallof the

Commission’sliabilityfindings,thetotalmonetarycompensationawardedtoEthiopiainrespectofitsclaimsisUS$174,036,520 .AttheconclusionoftheselengthyproceedingsandtheissuanceofthisFinalAward,andtheparallelFinalAwardinEritrea’sclaimsagainstEthiopia,theCommissionreiteratesitsconfidencethatthePartieswillensurethatthecompensationawardedwillbepaidpromptly,andthatfundsrecei�edinrespectoftheirclaimswillbeusedtopro�iderelieftotheirci�ilianpopulationsinjuredinthewar .

DoneatTheHague,this17thdayofAugust2009,

[Signed]PresidentHansvanHoutte

[Signed]GeorgeH .Aldrich

[Signed]JohnR .Crook

[Signed]JamesC .N .Paul

[Signed]LucyReed