Research Research DesignDesign

Main Tasks of Research DesignMain Tasks of Research Design

• Specifying what you want to find out: Specifying what you want to find out: this involves explaining the concepts you this involves explaining the concepts you are interested in and how they will be are interested in and how they will be measured (explication and meaning measured (explication and meaning analysis).analysis).

• Determining the best way to do it: this Determining the best way to do it: this involves determining whom or what you involves determining whom or what you will explore, describe, or explain (unit of will explore, describe, or explain (unit of analysis); what time dimension is analysis); what time dimension is appropriate for your observations; and appropriate for your observations; and how you are going to do it (method). how you are going to do it (method).

Design Depends on GoalsDesign Depends on Goals

What is the purpose of the research?What is the purpose of the research?

What shall we observe, among whom, What shall we observe, among whom, for what purpose, and in what time for what purpose, and in what time frame?frame? ExplorationExploration

Often where inquiry beginsOften where inquiry begins Informal methods, feasibility testingInformal methods, feasibility testing

DescriptionDescription Detail the features of elements under reviewDetail the features of elements under review E.g., U.S. CensusE.g., U.S. Census

ExplanationExplanation Usually the aim of social scientistsUsually the aim of social scientists Relating variables to account for processRelating variables to account for process

Unit of Observation & AnalysisUnit of Observation & Analysis

Unit of observationUnit of observation What we look at to make observationWhat we look at to make observation E.g., People in a survey, articles in content E.g., People in a survey, articles in content

analysisanalysis

Unit of analysis Unit of analysis What we are interested in studyingWhat we are interested in studying Usually same as unit of analysis; sometimes Usually same as unit of analysis; sometimes

different:different:

E.g., Are “traditional” marriages more E.g., Are “traditional” marriages more successful?successful?

Unit of observation: husbands, wivesUnit of observation: husbands, wives Unit of analysis: marriage type (couple)Unit of analysis: marriage type (couple)

Types of Units of AnalysisTypes of Units of Analysis IndividualsIndividuals

GroupsGroups

OrganizationsOrganizations

Social Social InteractionsInteractions

Social ArtifactsSocial Artifacts

- However, bear in mind this is only one typology.

- E.g., Lofland’s: practices, episodes, encounters, roles, relationships, groups, organizations, settlements, social worlds, lifestyles, and subcultures.

- What is important is the logic of units of analysis.

Types of Units of AnalysisTypes of Units of Analysis

IndividualsIndividuals

GroupsGroups

OrganizationsOrganizations

Social InteractionsSocial Interactions

Social ArtifactsSocial Artifacts

- However, bear in mind this is only one typology. E.g., Lofland’s: practices, episodes, encounters, roles, relationships, groups, organizations, settlements, social worlds, lifestyles, and subcultures.

- What is important is the logic of units of analysis.

Units of Analysis: IndividualsUnits of Analysis: Individuals

Most common unit of analysis in social Most common unit of analysis in social science/mass communication researchscience/mass communication research

Seek to explain differences between Seek to explain differences between individuals and relationships among individuals and relationships among individual differencesindividual differences

Variables and Relationships:Variables and Relationships: E.g., Income, Age, Gender, EducationE.g., Income, Age, Gender, Education E.g., Associated with differences in toleranceE.g., Associated with differences in tolerance

Units of Analysis: Social Units of Analysis: Social GroupsGroups

Examples:Examples: Households, families, neighborhoods, gangsHouseholds, families, neighborhoods, gangs

Seek to explain differences between Seek to explain differences between groups and relationships among those groups and relationships among those differencesdifferences

Variables:Variables: Households: income, media use (Nielsen)Households: income, media use (Nielsen) Marriages: types, communication patternsMarriages: types, communication patterns Neighborhoods: crime rates, income Neighborhoods: crime rates, income

stratificationstratification

Units of Analysis: Units of Analysis: OrganizationsOrganizations

Examples:Examples: Corporations, Universities, GovernmentsCorporations, Universities, Governments

Groups with formal organizational structuresGroups with formal organizational structures

Seek to explain differences between formal Seek to explain differences between formal social organizations and the relationships social organizations and the relationships among organizational differences among organizational differences

Variables:Variables: E.g., Corporations: employees, benefits, productivityE.g., Corporations: employees, benefits, productivity

Units of Analysis: Social Units of Analysis: Social InteractionsInteractions

Examples:Examples: Kisses, Arguments, Email exchanges, discussion Kisses, Arguments, Email exchanges, discussion

stylesstyles

Social interaction are usually the product Social interaction are usually the product of interplay between individuals.of interplay between individuals.

Studies seek to explain different types of Studies seek to explain different types of social interactions (ex. discussion as unit social interactions (ex. discussion as unit of analysis), the types of people engaging of analysis), the types of people engaging in certain interactions (ex. Individual as in certain interactions (ex. Individual as the unit of analysis)the unit of analysis)

Variables:Variables: Number of arguments, argumentative Number of arguments, argumentative

peoplepeople

Units of Analysis: Social Units of Analysis: Social ArtifactsArtifacts

Examples:Examples: TV programs, newspaper articles, documentsTV programs, newspaper articles, documents

Social artifacts are any product of social Social artifacts are any product of social beings or their behaviors.beings or their behaviors.

Studies seek to explain differences Studies seek to explain differences between social artifacts, the artifacts between social artifacts, the artifacts produced by different source, and the produced by different source, and the relationships among these factorsrelationships among these factors

Variables:Variables: Level of violence, number of sources usedLevel of violence, number of sources used

Faulty Reasoning & Units of Faulty Reasoning & Units of AnalysisAnalysis

Problems of drawing conclusions Problems of drawing conclusions across units of analysis:across units of analysis:

Ecological fallacyEcological fallacy ReductionismReductionism

Ecological FallacyEcological Fallacy

Observed characteristic of group leads to:Observed characteristic of group leads to: Inference about individual membersInference about individual members

Similar to PrejudiceSimilar to Prejudice Individual judgments based on beliefs about Individual judgments based on beliefs about

groupgroup E.g., Precinct voting records are unit of E.g., Precinct voting records are unit of

observation concerning support for democratic observation concerning support for democratic candidatescandidates Majority Black precincts vote democraticMajority Black precincts vote democratic You can not assume that Blacks uniformly vote You can not assume that Blacks uniformly vote

democraticdemocratic Whites within precincts may be responsible for patternWhites within precincts may be responsible for pattern

ReductionismReductionism

Reducing complex phenomenon in a way Reducing complex phenomenon in a way that privileges particular units of analysis that privileges particular units of analysis over othersover others E.g., Crime is a function of individual E.g., Crime is a function of individual

characteristicscharacteristics What about social structures?What about social structures?

Economists: Economic reductionismEconomists: Economic reductionism

Psychologists: Psychological Psychologists: Psychological reductionismreductionism

Sociologists: Sociological reductionismSociologists: Sociological reductionism Dominant paradigms often limit viewsDominant paradigms often limit views

Time Dimension & Research Time Dimension & Research DesignDesign

Time and issues of causationTime and issues of causationStatic designs:Static designs:

Cross-sectional studyCross-sectional studyLongitudinal designs:Longitudinal designs:

Trend studiesTrend studiesCohort studiesCohort studiesPanel studiesPanel studies

Cross-sectional StudiesCross-sectional Studies

Static snapshotStatic snapshot

Slice of population at one point in timeSlice of population at one point in time E.g., An opinion pollE.g., An opinion poll

Inherent limitations:Inherent limitations: Inability to capture change over timeInability to capture change over time Making causal inferences is dangerousMaking causal inferences is dangerous

Cross-sectional studies

Top Global Concerns for 2003% who list item among top 3 personal concerns

Source: Roper Reports Worldwide 2003 Study of 30,000 consumers age 13 to 65 in 30 countries

Cross-sectional studies

Longitudinal DesignsLongitudinal Designs

Multiple observations across timeMultiple observations across time

Tracking changes across timeTracking changes across time Maybe in response to stimulus that occurs Maybe in response to stimulus that occurs

between observationsbetween observations Testing for changes resulting from some Testing for changes resulting from some

intervening factor or eventintervening factor or event Pretest-Posttest design in experimentationPretest-Posttest design in experimentation

Measures change in population over timeMeasures change in population over time

Sequential cross-sections of the populationSequential cross-sections of the population E.g., Changes over time in:E.g., Changes over time in:

Public knowledge levels Public knowledge levels Voter turnout ratesVoter turnout rates Presidential approval ratingsPresidential approval ratings

Inherent limitations:Inherent limitations: Starting pointStarting point Inability to capture individual change over Inability to capture individual change over

timetime

Longitudinal Designs: Trends

Longitudinal Designs: Trends

Tracking changes in a group as they ageTracking changes in a group as they age E.g., People born in 1940 sampled every 10 yearsE.g., People born in 1940 sampled every 10 years

Measure change across the aging processMeasure change across the aging process E.g., Do people become more conservative?E.g., Do people become more conservative? Cannot answer this question with a cross-Cannot answer this question with a cross-

sectional design because differences in age may sectional design because differences in age may be due to cohort or lifecycle differences.be due to cohort or lifecycle differences.

Longitudinal Designs: Cohort Studies

Longitudinal Designs: Cohort Studies

Goes a step further:Goes a step further: Interviewing the same people more than Interviewing the same people more than

onceonce

Captures change in individuals over Captures change in individuals over timetime E.g., NES (cross-sectional and panel)E.g., NES (cross-sectional and panel)

How do people react over time?How do people react over time? E.g, Public health/info campaignsE.g, Public health/info campaigns

The respondent mortality problemThe respondent mortality problem Are those who drop out different?Are those who drop out different?

Longitudinal designs: panel studies

Wave 1Feb. 1999N= 3,348

Wave 2June 2000N= 1,886

Wave 3Nov. 2000N= 1,282

Wave 4July 2001N= 964

Statement: “Most people are honest”

On a six point scale ranging from definitely disagree to definitely agree.

Source: Life Style Study – conducted by Market Facts on behalf of DDB-Chicago and

Dhavan V. Shah

Longitudinal designs: panel studies

Longitudinal designs: comparisons

Cross-sectional study2000

21-3031-4041-5051-6061-70

1990

21-3031-4041-5051-6061-70

2000

21-3031-4041-5051-6061-70

Cohort study

Trend study

1990

21-3031-4041-5051-6061-70

2000

31-4041-5051-6061-7071-80

2010

41-5051-6061-7071-8081-90

Panel study

1990

21-3031-4041-5051-6061-70

2000

31-4041-5051-6061-7071-80

2010

41-50*51-60*61-70*71-80*81-90*