RESEARCH PAPER

WRITING

BY:

Kern Rocke

Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension

Faculty of Food and Agriculture

The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus

Research Paper Writing Process

The purpose of this session is aimed at

identifying and examining the components

essential to planning and executing college-

level research writing assignments.

Research Paper Writing Process

At the end of this session, students should be able to:

1. Identify and conceptualize the essential steps in the research paper writing process;

2. Access valuable campus resources to help at various stages of the writing process;

3. Use time management strategies to plan for the successful and timely completion of a research paper project.

Many students share a common idea about the

task of writing a research paper:

Choose a topic

Do research on the topic

Write an essay based on your research

Yet the comments from the supervisor may be disappointing:

"No research question"

“Too general" or "Not sufficiently narrow”

"Improper use of sources“

"Much of this material appears to be

plagiarized”

"Inadequate references"

“No journal articles"

The Research Writing Process1) Choose a Topic

2) Find Information

3) Develop your Thesis Statement

4) Make a Tentative Outline

5) Organization of Information

6) Develop your First Draft

7) Revise Your Outline & Draft

8) Write the Final Paper

Research Paper Writing Process

1. Project Clarification

2. Time Management

3. Topic Selection

4. Topic Brainstorm

5. Library Visit

6. Locate/Select Sources

7. Survey Sources

8. Topic Focus

9. Read Articles

10.Preliminary Thesis

11.Outline

12.Draft Paper

13.Revise Paper

14.Sources of Help

Research Paper Writing Process

1. Prewriting

2. Writing

3. Post-writing

Time Management

1. Write down all due dates.

2. Break down the research process into steps.

3. Assign a due date for each step.

4. Make weekly and daily priority lists.

Topic Selection

1. Previous knowledge

2. Course content

3. Personal or professional experience/interests

Topic Selection

1. Ask questions: who, what, where, when, why

What is it similar to or different from; what are the causes; what are the consequences; what is the essential function; what are the definitions; what is the history; what is the present status; what case can be made for or against it; how did it happen; why did it happen; what is my personal reaction to it?

2. Identify subtopics

Brainstorming Strategies

1. List

2. Map

3. Freewrite

Library Visit1. Browse the Drake Memorial Library website.

2. Tour the library.

3. Meet with a reference librarian.

4. Learn the difference between scholarly journalsand other periodicals.

5. Locate sources.

Survey Sources

1. Read abstracts, headings and subheadings.

2. Make note of charts, statistics, graphs.

3. Read the reference lists.

4. Read introductory and summary paragraphs.

5. Skim body.

Topic Focus

Go back to your original subject and focus it further based upon the information you gleaned during the text survey activities.

Read

Read once-Read write!

Take notes as you read: Develop a system of underlining, marking, and/or paraphrasing in the margins that is meaningful to you.

Thesis Statement Examples“ Although companies often have legitimate concerns that lead them to monitor

employees’ Internet usage—from expensive security breaches to reduced productivity—the benefits of electronic surveillance are outweighed by its costs to employees’ privacy and autonomy” (Hacker, 2007, p. 12).

“Much maligned and the subject of unwarranted fears, most bats are harmless and highly beneficial” (Hacker, 2007, p.10).

“ Understanding the limitations of medical treatments for children highlights the complexity of the childhood obesity problem in the United States and underscores the need for physicians, advocacy groups, and policymakers to search for other solutions” (Hacker, 2007, p. 453).

“Raging in mines from Pennsylvania to China, coal fires threaten towns, poison air and water, and add to global warming” (Hacker, 2007, p. 10).

Source

Hacker, Diana. (2007). A writer’s reference 6th edition. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Draft1. Begin to write in chunks of text defined by the

parameters of each main point.

2. Continuously refer to the thesis in order to stay on track. Use key terms from the thesis to thread each section together.

3. Integrate information from sources as you draft, and include parenthetical citations.

4. Move from point to point rather than from author to author.

Integrating Sources

Research papers demand abundant reference to professional sources. That is, your research paper will be generously populated with the voices of the published experts. Your job is to manage those voices, to synthesize them, to use them to substantiate your claim.

Integrating Sources

Use a variety of lead-ins to introduce concepts or findings from researchers:

1. According to Smith (2001), the presence of a television set in the home even changed eating habits; frozen TV dinners, TV trays, and TV tables altered the physical and social contexts of family meals.

2. By the early 1960’s, “90 percent of all households had at least one television set” (Bishop & Marx, 2006, p. 2).

3. Television programs and commercials reinforced rigid gender roles and promised consumers material wealth if they could fit the roles. One social critic from the era remarked that “television certainly nurtured both consumerism and conformity” (Cole, 1966, p. 24).

PlagiarismPlagiarism is using another writer’s words or

unique ideas as if they were your own. The

professor believes those are your own words or

ideas, because you have not shown that they

came from someone else.

This means that plagiarism is fraud –

pretending that the words or ideas in your

research paper are yours, when they actually

came from someone else.

Pointers

Should you Use the Words of

Others or Your Own Words?

Some students get confused about what a

supervisor wants. You are to do research, but if

you simply copy information the books and

articles, you are committing plagiarism.

If you use only your own ideas, then you are not

doing research that uses other people’s writing.

PointersYour supervisor wants you to read the books

and articles of other people. The research

project makes use of that research to present

your own analysis and arguments.

But how can a student use the work of others

if he/she is not allowed to quote their work?

Pointers

The quotations should be short (usually 5 lines or

less). My suggestion is to have no more than one

short quotation per page of your project.

Quotations must have quotation marks (" ")

around them to make it clear that they are

quotations.

All quotations must also be in your reference list.

Pointers

Most of your work is to be in your own words. This means:

That you show you have understood what you are reading by interpreting it in your own words.

That you are not just paraphrasing. Paraphrasing involves rewriting each sentence of something you have read, changing the wording a little bit. This is not enough to make the material "your own words.“

That you show that you can interpret what the writer is saying without needing to use many of the writer’s words.

Pointers

To avoid plagiarism, do not try to rewrite an

author’s sentences in your own words. You will

almost always use too many of that author’s

words.

Instead, read the author’s words and interpret

what they mean. Then write down your

interpretation.

Pointers

Supervisors are mainly interested in seeing how

well YOU have understood the material. They do

not want you simply to repeat what you’ve read

but to interpret what you’ve read, expressing

your own understanding in your own words.

But what if other writers have already expressed

their thoughts in better ways than you could ever

use? Why not just copy their words?

Because that would be plagiarism.

Pointers

How would a supervisor find out that I

plagiarized material?

Supervisors and examiners usually first see that

some of the writing in a paper is in a different

style from the student’s other writing, which is

usually a sign that the student is using words

from another author.

Pointers

How would a supervisor find out that I

plagiarized material?

With the number of electronic searching tools

we have today, supervisors can quite easily

identify work taken from web sites, articles and

even some books by using Turnitin!

Pointers

What, then, is the best way to use research from

other authors?

Quote only when something an author has said

really explains well what you are trying to say.

Quotations should be short, and there should be

few of them.

Writing the Introduction

Introduction

The main purpose of the INTRODUCTION is

to give a description of the problem that will be

addressed. In this section the researcher might

discuss the nature of the research, the

purpose of the research, the significance of

the research problem, and the research

question(s) to be addressed.

Introduction

Every introduction contains three essential

components:

Rationale

Purpose

Research Question

IntroductionRationale: This focuses on informing the reader of

the rationale of your research study. It is a brief explanation of why your research topic is worthy of study and its significant impact of its contribution to existing body of research

Purpose: The statement of purpose is not simply a statement of why the research is being done. (That is what the rationale section is for.) Rather, "purpose" refers to the goal or objective of your research. The purpose statement should answer questions. . .

"What are the objectives of my research?" and

"What do I expect to discover or learn from this research?"

Introduction

RESEARCH QUESTION: The introduction

usually ends with a research question or

questions. This question should be. . .

Related to your research purpose

Focused

Clear

Structure of Introduction

1) Background

2) Rationale

3) Purpose

4) Problem Statement

5) Research Question

6) Aims and Objectives

7) Hypotheses

Writing the IntroductionIn the introduction you will need to do the

following things:

present relevant background or contextual

material

define terms or concepts when necessary

explain the focus of the paper and your

specific purpose

reveal your plan of organization

Writing the Introduction

Background

Like in any good Hollywood movie, the first task of the introduction is to set the scene, giving your paper a context and seeing how it fits in with previous research in the field.

Whilst not the only way, this section, comprising the first paragraphs of your introduction, can be based around a historical narrative, from the very first research in the field to the current day.

Stick to relevant information.

Writing the IntroductionImportance

This leads into the rationale behind the research,

revealing whether it is building upon previous

research, looking at something that everybody else

has overlooked, or improving upon a previous

research project that delivered unclear results.

This section can then flow into how you are going

to fill the gap. You are trying to predict what impact

your research will have if everything works as it

should.

Writing the Introduction- Tips

Begin your introduction by providing a concise

background accounting for the research problem

being studied.

Establish the significance of your project: Why

is there need to conduct your study?

Introduce the reader to the pertinent literature.

Do not give a full historical view point of your

topic. Only reference previous work which had

a direct impact on the research problem.

Writing the Introduction- Tips

Provide a concise discussion the results and

findings of other studies.

Move from general to specific: from the

problem in the real world to the literature to

your research study.

Identify gaps in the present body of literature

State the objective and hypotheses of your

study.

Write in the present tense and be concise.

Writing the Literature

Review

Purpose of a Literature Review

The literature review is a critical look at the

existing research that is significant to the work

that you are carrying out.

To provide background information

To establish importance

To demonstrate familiarity

To “carve out a space” for further research

Characteristics of

Effective Literature Reviews

Outlining important research trends

Assessing the strengths and weaknesses

of existing research

Identifying potential gaps in knowledge

Establishing a need for current and/or

future research projects

Finding your academic voice involves:

healthy skepticism … but not cynicism;

confidence … but not ‘cockiness’ or arrogance;

judgement which is critical … but not dismissive;

opinions … without being opinionated;

careful evaluation of published work … not serial shooting at

random targets;

being ‘fair’: assessing fairly the strengths and weaknesses of other

people’s ideas and writing … without prejudice;

making judgements on the basis of considerable thought and all the

available evidence … as opposed to assertions without reason.”

Wellington J., Bathmaker A., Hunt C., McCulloch G. and Sikes P.

(2005). Succeeding with your doctorate. London: Sage.

How to get started: ask yourself

these questions

What is the specific thesis, problem, or research

question that my literature review helps to define?

What type of literature review am I conducting?

Am I looking at issues of theory? methodology? policy?

quantitative research? qualitative research?

What is the scope of my literature review? What types

of publications am I using (e.g., journals, books,

government documents, popular media)?

What time period am I interested in? What geographical

area? What social setting? What materials?

Sources for literature review

Identify key primary sources (e.g. govt. documents, newspaper articles) and secondary sources (e.g. books, journal articles) relevant to your topic early on

Use relevant search terms on library databases (e.g. Lexis Nexis) to identify your sources (see Library tutorials for more on this)

Use resources that are not in the library e.g. Inter-library loans, BFI Archive, blogs.

Remember, there is no target for the number of references you include, but you need to show the marker you have covered the literature that is relevant to your project.

47

Finding relevant literature:

Check references of references. it can be a good idea to check

through their reference lists to see the range of sources that they

referred to.

Hand searching of journals will reveal ideas about focus,

research questions, methods, techniques, or interpretations that

had not occurred to you

If in doubt, consult your Librarian!

Writing up your literature review:

Write up your review part way through your reading in

order to identify gaps/weaknesses

Keep the focus on your study and not the literature

Make sure the structure leads the reader through the key

issues e.g. signposting

Make sure that the literature review is framed by your

research questions

Where possible, use original sources rather than other

people’s review of literature(s)

Steps for Writing a Lit Review

Planning

Reading and Research

Analyzing

Drafting

Revising

PlanningWhat Type of Literature Review

Am I Writing?

PlanningFocus

What is the specific thesis, problem, or research question that my literature review helps to define?

Identifying a focus that allows you to:

Sort and categorize information

Eliminate irrelevant information

Type

What type of literature review am I conducting?

Theory; Methodology; Policy; Quantitative; Qualitative

PlanningScope

What is the scope of my literature review?

What types of sources am I using?

Academic Discipline

What field(s) am I working in?

Reflection

Take a moment to answer each of the questions

in the “Planning” section of your packet about a

literature review you are currently working on

or plan to work on.

How many of the questions could you answer?

What questions did this short exercise raise for

you?

Reading and Researching

What Materials

Am I Going to Use?

Reading and Researching

Collect and read material.

Summarize sources. Who is the author?

What is the author's main purpose?

What is the author’s theoretical perspective? Research methodology?

Who is the intended audience?

What is the principal point, conclusion, thesis, contention, or question?

How is the author’s position supported?

How does this study relate to other studies of the problem or topic?

What does this study add to your project?

Select only relevant books and articles.

AnalyzingHow Do I Assess

Existing Research?

Analyzing Sources

A literature review is never just a list of studies-

it always offers an argument about a body of

research

Analysis occurs on two levels:

Individual sources

Body of research

Four Analysis Tasks of the

Literature Review

TASKS OF LITERATURE

REVIEW

SUMMARIZE SYNTHESIZE CRITIQUE COMPARE

Summary and Synthesis

In your own words, summarize and/or

synthesize the key findings relevant to your

study.

What do we know about the immediate area?

What are the key arguments, key characteristics,

key concepts or key figures?

What are the existing debates/theories?

What common methodologies are used?

Comparison and Critique

Evaluates the strength and weaknesses of the work:

How do the different studies relate? What is new, different, or controversial?

What views need further testing?

What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradicting, or too limited?

What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory?

Analyzing: Putting It All Together

Once you have summarized, synthesized, compared,

and critiqued your chosen material, you may

consider whether these studies

Demonstrate the topic’s chronological development.

Show different approaches to the problem.

Show an ongoing debate.

Center on a “seminal” study or studies.

Demonstrate a “paradigm shift.”

Analyzing: Putting It All Together

What do researchers KNOW about this field?

What do researchers NOT KNOW?

Why should we (further) study this topic?

What will my study contribute?

DraftingWhat Am I

Going to Write?

Drafting: An Overview

To help you approach your draft in a

manageable fashion, this section addresses

the following topics:

Exigency

Thesis Statement

Organization

Introduction and conclusion

Citations

Thesis Statements

The thesis statement offers an argument

about the literature. It may do any of or a

combination of the following:

Offer an argument and critical assessment of the

literature (i.e. topic + claim).

Provide an overview of current scholarly conversations.

Point out gaps or weaknesses in the literature.

Relate the literature to the larger aim of the study.

Chronological: Characteristics

Lists studies in terms of chronological

development

Useful when the field displays clear

development over a period of time

Linear progression

Paradigm shift

Introductions

Indicate scope of the literature review.

Provide some background to the topic.

Demonstrate the importance or need for

research.

Make a claim.

Offer an overview/map of the ensuing

discussion.

Conclusions

Summarize the main findings of your

review.

Provide closure.

Explain “so what?”

Implications for future research.

OR

Connections to the current study.

Citing Sources

If it’s not your own idea (and not common

knowledge)—DOCUMENT IT!

Paraphrase key ideas.

Use quotations sparingly.

Introduce quotations effectively.

Use proper in-text citation to document the source of ideas.

Maintain accurate bibliographic records.

Citing Sources: Things to Avoid

Plagiarism

Irrelevant quotations.

Un-introduced quotations.

Revising

How Can I

Fine-tune My Draft?

Some Tips on RevisingTitle: Is my title consistent with the content of my

paper?

Introduction: Do I appropriately introduce my review?

Thesis: Does my review have a clear claim?

Body: Is the organization clear? Have I provided

headings?

Topic sentences: Have I clearly indicated the major

idea(s) of each paragraph?

Transitions: Does my writing flow?

Conclusion: Do I provide sufficient closure? (see p. 10)

Spelling and Grammar: Are there any major spelling or

grammatical mistakes?

Referencing

Provide full details of all sources cited in the dissertation

Should include published books or articles, book chapters,

technical reports, web sources, etc.

List alphabetically by author name (name of first author in the

case of works with co-authors)

Make sure you understand the university regulations on

plagiarism

Consult your department guidelines for more on referencing

style

Structure of the Literature

Review:There is not one ‘ideal’ structure for your

literature review so talk to your supervisor

about this

Consider whether you wish to organise your

literature review chronologically, thematically,

by development of ideas (or a combination of

these)

Make sure that you always explain your

structure for your reader and have a clear

narrative

Writing a Literature Review:

In Summary

As you read, try to see the “big picture”—your literature

review should provide an overview of the state of research.

Include only those source materials that help you shape

your argument. Resist the temptation to include everything

you’ve read!

Balance summary and analysis as you write.

Keep in mind your purpose for writing:

How will this review benefit readers?

How does this review contribute to your study?

Be meticulous about citations.

Writing the Methods

Methods- Components

Research Design

Study Sample/ Participants

Research Instrument

Procedure

Statistical/Data Analysis

Methods- Tense?

Proposals= Future Tense

Final Project Report= Past Tense

Methods- Research Design

This is the actual structure or framework of

your study which indicates (a) the time frame(s)

in which data will be collected, (b) when the

intervention will be implemented (or not), and

how many groups will be involved.

Include study design type and sample size

calculation where appropriate.

Methods- Study Participants

Target population and the study sample that is

being used for your research study should be

described.

Include details of the demographic information

of the target population if available.

Methods- Research Instrument

This section should give a full description of the

instruments used to collect data on variables

which have been identified in your research

question. Include:

The source or developers of the instrument

Validity and reliability information (If

available)

Descriptions of the instrument (e.g.

questions/scales used in a questionnaire)

Methods- Procedures

Give descriptive and concise details on the

methods used to collect data.

How will data be collected?

The information presented should be in a

chronological order.

Should be stately clearly thereby allowing

another researcher to replicate the study by your

procedure section without asking any questions.

Methods-

Statistical/Data Analysis

This section details the methods of data analysis

which will be conducted to answer your study’s

research questions and objectives.

Should include a summary of descriptive and

inferential statistical tests for quantitative

studies.

Should include the procedures to be followed

for the analyses for qualitative studies.

Any statistical or data management programs

should be mentioned in this section.