RESEARCH PROCESS

Prof. Dr. Wajiha Shah

Step 1

• Idea to research

Step 2

• Figure out research problem

Step 3

• Making on outline & reviewing literature

Step 6

• Selecting the appropriate research design

Step 7

• Sampling selection

Step 8

• Data recollection

Step 9

• Data Analysis

Step 10

• Presenting results

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1. The idea: A research project is born

Ideas

criteria

Solve problems

Elaborate theories

New thoughts

Initially vague

Sources

Bibliography, audiovisuals, theories, discoveries, beliefs, internet

Idea

An idea represents the closest approach to reality that will be researched

There are lots of different resources that generate ideas

In the beginning ideas are vague. They require careful analysis in order to transform into structured and precise research statements

2. Choosing a research topic Choosing a research topic

Criteria

Clarity

Data recollection

Needed elements

Viability

Justification

Research questions

Objectives

Research topic Once the researcher got acquainted

and familiar with the topic then it is possible to setup the research topic.

There is certain criteria that is needed in order to narrow down the general topic into the “just-right” (research) topic. Has to be straight forward, usually as a

question Should be viable and verifiable by

empirical proof For example, “how sublime is a person’s

soul?” is not a good research topic since sublime is not something that is measurable, neither is a person’s soul.

Research topic There are also some elements that

should be taken into consideration in order to choose a research topic. Objectives: guidelines for the research

What is the main purpose for the research? Solve problem Prove a theory Introduce new knowledge

Research topic Questions: together with the

objectives, creating questions will present the topic in a direct manner, minimizing the distortion. The question or questions might not deal

with the topic in its entirety, but they will also help guide the research.

Questions should be concrete, since general questions will not help. Questions like: why are some people happier

than others? Why do some marriages last more than others? How does media relate to people’s voting?

This questions are too general and actually end up generating more questions

Research topic Justification: this is the explanation for your

research, and it’s importance. Some of the reasons why a specific research

might be important: Convenience: Why is its importance? Social relevance: What benefits would come out of

it? Practical implications: Is it practical? Does it solve an

actual problem? Theoretical value

Viability: this has to do with the possibility of performing research with the resources that are available. Do you have enough money/time/people to help

you carry on the research

3.Creating an outlineOutline

Functions Hypothesis; plan out the process;

prevent mistakes

StagesDeveloping a perspective

Revising literatureExtraction and recompilation; consult; obtain; detect

TheoryCriteria

Simplicity; innovation; perspective; logically consistent; description, explanation and prediction

Function Predict; relate; systematize; explain

Creating an outline After the previous steps have been

completed it is important for the researcher to analyze and expose the theories, theoretical approaches that help with the foundation of the topic.

Usually observed as an index with titles and subtitles

It is important to know that looking over at the existent literature helps out with figuring out the best way, and more importantly, the manner in which we want to deal with our research and the topic.

Creating an outline Functions:

Helps prevent mistakes that might have been committed in previous studies or research

Leads the way into figuring out how the research should be performed.

Broadens the horizon and helps the researcher understanding the need to carry research in more depth

Helps with the establishment of a hypothesis or affirmations that need to be tested

Inspires new lines or areas of research It gives the researcher a starting point

Stages: there are two stages Literature revision (revising sources):

Making sure that the sources are trustworthy Remember back to PP presentation: Sources and

Organization Adoption of a specific theory or theoretical

perspective: When revising the literature we might find out that: There is a theory accompanied by empirical

evidence to back it up that applies to out research There are several theories that apply to our

research There are “bits and pieces” of theory with some

empirical evidence, that suggest important information for the research

There are important discoveries without a theory to back them up

There are unstudied guidelines that are vaguely related to the research.

Theory: actual knowledge that helps understand, events, situations and contextsDescribes, explains, predicts, and finally

orients the research process Criteria, to evaluate:

Able to explain, describe and predict Logical consistency Perspective: That it explains the topic

(almost) totally Innovation: Capability to generate new

discoveries Simplicity: Not required but desired in

order to easily understand it

4. Types of research

Final Purpose

Basic

Applied

Depth of objective

Exploratory

Descriptive

Explicative

Experimental

Correlational

Source

Documentary

Laboratory

Field

Time Period

Historical

Descriptive

Experimental

Nature of variables

Qualitative

Dichotomic

Politomic

Quantitative

Discrete

Continuous

http://www.mailxmail.com/curso-tesis-investigacion/tipos-investigacion-1-2

5. Establishing HypothesisHypothesis

Types

Alternative

Null

Research

Characteristics

Proving technique

Referent to reality

Relation between variables

Real situation

Precise terms

Objectives

Try and suggest theories

Lead research

Hypothesis

Guide the research Tentative explanation to researched

phenomena formulated as propositions or questions

All though most types of research require a hypothesis, in exploratory research no hypothesis is required since there is not that much information available.

They are NOT ALWAYS correct, they could be incorrect or even null.

Types of hypothesis Research:

The expected income for workers in Paraguay is between $800 and $1000 dlls.

The more physical attraction there is, the less trust

Null (work to negate a statement): The expected income for workers in Paraguay

is not between $800 and $1000 dlls. The is no relationship between physical

attraction and trust Alternative (to research or null):

Young men give more importance to physical attraction than young women

6. Research designResearch design

Non-experimentalNo variable manipulation

DesignsCausal

Descriptive

Exploratory

ExperimentalVariable manipulation

Quasi-experimentalIntact groups

Designs/experimentsIntentional manipulation

Measure effect, Control and validity

Proof/post-proof

What is research design? The plan or strategy that we will

follow in order to obtain the information that we want, or require.

Usually this is selected when you choose your specific topic, decided on a theoretical view, and formulated the hypothesis.

Choosing and appropriate research design Experimental (require a specific design, and are

used mostly in natural sciences):In these designs the researcher decides on what variables

to study and how to modify them Experiment: random choice of participants, and their

assignment to their study groups Quasi-experiment: not entirely random

Non-experimental (used mostly in social sciences):

In these designs the researcher does not manipulate the variables, but only “observes” phenomena as it happens in its natural environment Causal: relate two variables Exploratory: initial exploration of a community Descriptive: research the repetitiveness of a certain

variable in a population

7. Sample selectionPopulation

Characteristics

Size

Choose sample

Probabilistic

Randomly selected

Stratified

Non-probabilistic

Quota

Purposive

Convenience

7. Sample selection Sample:

Set of elements that come from a bigger set (population).

We study this set in order to know the characteristics of the bigger set.

Why use a sample instead of the population? Because the population requires a

detailed study, and all though the sample only allows an approximate result it is less costly in money and time.

Population

sample

Study of Population Study of Sample• Exact Knowledge• Requires much time

• High Cost

• Approximate Knowledge• Quick• Cheaper

Sampling is important because…

It is cheaper, faster and still representative

In order to start sampling we need to specify the selection method and the type of sample

Probability sampling

Random Sample: Each individual has an equal likelihood of selection

Stratified Sample: Mini-reproduction of the population Split into characteristics of importance

Examples: Gender, social class, religion, etc. i.e. if 38% of the population is college educated, then

38% of the sample needs to be better educated It is better than the random sample, but it is more

difficult to construct

Non-Probability sampling Quota Sample:

the researcher deliberately sets the proportions of levels or strata within the sample. This is generally done to insure the inclusion of a particular segment of the population. The proportions may or may not differ dramatically from the actual proportion in the population.

Example: A researcher is interested in the attitudes of members of different religions towards the death penalty. In Iowa a random sample might miss Muslims (because there are not many in that state). To be sure of their inclusion, a researcher could set a quota of 3% Muslim for the sample. However, the sample will no longer be representative of the actual proportions in the population. This may limit generalizing to the state population. But the quota will guarantee that the views of Muslims are represented in the survey.

Non-Probability sampling Purposive Sample:

non-representative subset of some larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. A researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high level business executives. It may not be possible to specify the population -- they would not all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing whomever is available.

Example: Snowball sample. One person tells another about the survey, and this person another, and this one another, etc.

Non-Probability sampling

Convenience Sample: taking what you can get. It is an accidental

sample. Although selection may be unguided, it probably is not random, using the correct definition of everyone in the population having an equal chance of being selected. Volunteers would constitute a convenience sample.

Now……that we have selected the sample

What does it mean to select a specific number for the sample?

Which proportion of the population are we selecting?

And when we want to have conclusions about the population, how many of the elements of the population does each one of the sample elements represent?

Size of sample

sample

Small (<25)

Big (>25)

8. Collecting dataData recollection

Trustworthy and valid

Process1. Choose instrument 2. Apply 3.

Coding 4. Prepare analysis

Instruments Focus groups, interviews, observation, surveys and

questionnaires, scale of values

Collecting data: Instruments Scale of values:

Collecting data: Instruments Questionnaires:

Two types: open and closed questions Examples:

Are you currently studying in any type of program?

( ) yes ( ) no In your own point of view, how do you

define physical fitness?

Characteristics of a good question Clear and easily comprehensible Do not make the person

uncomfortable Do not induce answer Appropriate language

No set length Suggestion: Nothing that takes

longer than 35 min. to answer

Best size for the questionnaire