resource file -st croix river

8/7/2019 Resource File -St Croix River

1/254

048 67

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2004 2007 2008

E.coli(CFU/100

ml)

Year

ND

TNTC

4 0 0

2 0 0

Gateway Cathedral


2/254

1,370

885 870

366

1,933

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

E.coli(C

FU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

2 0 0

4 0 0

The Cove Dover Hill


3/254

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2004 2007 2008

E.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

4 0 0

2 0 0

The Cove Buchanan St.


4/254

1000

0

200

400

600

8001,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2004 2008

E.coli(CFU/100

ml)

Year

TNTC

ND

4 0 0

2 0 0

Aliant bldg.


5/254

786 33

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

E.co

li(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

4 0 0

2 0 0

Clark Bldg.


6/254

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2004 2006 2007 2008

E.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

4 0 0

2 0 0

Chocolate Park


7/254

500

262

33

0

200

400

600800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2004 2007 2008

E.coli(

CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

4 0 0

2 0 0

Boat Ramp East


8/254

52 49

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2004 2006 2007 2008

E.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

4 0 0

2 0 0

Pizza Delight


9/254

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2003 2004 2006 2007 2008

E.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

4 0 0

2 0 0

Picnic Kiosk


10/254

0 0 0

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2003 2004 2008

E

.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

ND

TNTC

ND ND

4 0 0

2 0 0

Lower Sewage Lagoon


11/254

310 296

0

0

200

400600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2004 2006 2008

E.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

ND

4 0 0

2 0 0

Seniors Apt 2


12/254

1100

87 49 0

0

200

400

600

8001,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2003 2004 2005 2006 2008

E.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

ND

TNTC

ND

4 0 0

2 0 0

Dennis Stream


13/254

1087 91 88

0

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2003 2005 2006 2007 2008

E.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

ND

TNTC

4 0 0

2 0 0

Donalds Cove


14/254


15/254


16/254


17/254

110 1200 20

100

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2003 2004 2006 2007 2008

E.

coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

ND

4 0 0

2 0 0

Oakbay Causeway


18/254


19/254

31 0

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2007 2008

E

.coli(CFU/100mL)

Year

TNTC

ND

4 0 0

2 0 0

Bayside Port


20/254

10 22

246

20

233

0

200

400600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

E.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

4 0 0

2 0 0

Island view

campground


21/254

37 33

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2007 2008

E

.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

4 0 0

2 0 0

Johnsons Cove

Brook


22/254

0 10 1 0 8 0

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

E.

coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

NDNDND

4 0 0

2 0 0

Biological Station


23/254


24/254

99

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2004 2008

E

.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

4 0 0

2 0 0

St. Andrews Wharf


25/254

310

53 30105

0

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

E.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

ND

4 0 0

2 0 0

Indian Point


26/254

110

246

0

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2004 2007 2008

E

.coli(CFU/100ml)

Year

TNTC

ND

4 0 0

2 0 0

Community Park/Old Dump


27/254

LOCATIONLocation Code

(1000's permL)

TOTALCOLIFORMS/100ML

E. coli(1000's per mL)

SEWAGE 2 S2 4.78 478.00 NDNDEMPTY LOT EL 0.87 87.00 NDNDRAMP EAST RE 7.82 782.00 0.50CLARKE CB >20000 >2 000 000 1650.00

PICNIC KIOSK PK 831.00 83 100 99.00DENNIS STREAM DS 7.82 782.00 NDNDRAMP EAST RAMP 3.24 324.00 NDNDPLANNED HOUSINGPW 0.31 31.00 NDNDOPEN DRAIN OD 4.78 478.00 NDNDOLD FERTILIZER OF 238.00 23 800 NDNDNBTEL NBT 2.07 207.00 NDNDSEWAGE 1 S1 1.50 150.00 NDNDCHOC PARK CP 560.00 56 000 53.00OLD WHARF OW 150.00 15 000 NDNDGATEWAY GW 4.06 406.00 NDNDCOVE 2 C2 >20000 >2 000 000 885.00RETIREMENT APT RI 42.00 4 200 0.31

COVE 1 C1 14.50 1450.00 1.37PIZZA DELIGHT PD 42.00 4 200 42.00NEW LAGOON NL 200.00 20 000 NDND

ND = none detected; lower limit of detection 100 per mLCB, C2 second dilution set, upper limit of detection 2 x 10 exp 7 per

100/100ML OF TOTAL COLIFORMS IS


28/254

E. COLI/100ML CHLORINENDND

50.00

165 000

9 900NDNDNDNDNDNDND

5 300NDND

88 50031

137.004 200ND


29/254

nScale 1:750Scale 1:750

Parking (8) Cars

Trail Linkage to Downtown

Canoe / Kayak Launch Landing

Demonstration Fish Hatchery

Seating Area

Boardwalk

Trail 1.5m width

Salt Marsh / Constructed Wetland

Armor Stone

Existing Gazebo

Existing Trail

Parking / Bus Drop off

Dover Park

100m50m 10m

Scale : 1:1500

Legend - Key

Salt Marsh

Existing For

New Plantin

PpertyLro

ine

Ferry PointBridge

St Croix River

Dov er H i l l Mar s h Res t o r at io n Pr o j Con c ep t Pl an Project: 2051Date: January 20, 2005

lr

Pe im

na yr

i

o di sss i n

F r cu o

America


30/254


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39/254

Air Air

Chemical FlakeBoard

Woodchem

Sawmill Pulp Mill Total Av/Day

etaldehyde* 3,328 70,000 73,328 200.90

mmonia* 220 0 160,500 160,720 440.33

nzo(G,H,I)Perylene* - 7.70 7.70 0.021

echol* - 0 0 0

orine* - 3,305 3,305 9.05

orine Diozide* - 6,014 6,014 16.48

oxin & dioxinl-like* 0.12 1.10 1.22 0.003

maldehyde* 136,664/265 18,885 18,200 174,014 476.75

mic Acid* - 0 0 0

drochloric Acid* 4.00 60,000 60,004 164.39

nganese Compounds* 900 2,100 3,000 8.22

thanol* 750 95,543 226,100 322,393 883.27

rate Compounds* - 0 0 0

ric Acid* - ? ? ?

enol* 8,527 800 9327 25.55

ycyclic Aromatic Compounds* 0.93 146.3 147.23 0.40

furic Acid* - 43,000 43,000 117.81

c compounds* - 1,400 1,400 3.84

TAL INPUT 856,661 lbs 2347 lbs


40/254

10.2 Chemical Wood Pulping

10.2.1 General

Chemical wood pulping involves the extraction of cellulose from wood by dissolving the

lignin that binds the cellulose fibers together. The 4 processes principally used in chemical pulping

are kraft, sulfite, neutral sulfite semichemical (NSSC), and soda. The first 3 display the greatest

potential for causing air pollution. The kraft process alone accounts for over 80 percent of the

chemical pulp produced in the United States. The choice of pulping process is determined by the

desired product, by the wood species available, and by economic considerations.

10.2.2 Kraft Pulping

10.2.2.1 Process Description1 -

The kraft pulping process (see Figure 10.2-1) involves the digesting of wood chips at elevated

temperature and pressure in "white liquor", which is a water solution of sodium sulfide and sodiumhydroxide. The white liquor chemically dissolves the lignin that binds the cellulose fibers together.

There are 2 types of digester systems, batch and continuous. Most kraft pulping is done in

batch digesters, although the more recent installations are of continuous digesters. In a batch digester,

when cooking is complete, the contents of the digester are transferred to an atmospheric tank usually

referred to as a blow tank. The entire contents of the blow tank are sent to pulp washers, where the

spent cooking liquor is separated from the pulp. The pulp then proceeds through various stages of

washing, and possibly bleaching, after which it is pressed and dried into the finished product. The

"blow" of the digester does not apply to continuous digester systems.

The balance of the kraft process is designed to recover the cooking chemicals and heat. Spent

cooking liquor and the pulp wash water are combined to form a weak black liquor which is

concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator system to about 55 percent solids. The black liquor is

then further concentrated to 65 percent solids in a direct-contact evaporator, by bringing the liquor into

contact with the flue gases from the recovery furnace, or in an indirect-contact concentrator. The

strong black liquor is then fired in a recovery furnace. Combustion of the organics dissolved in the

black liquor provides heat for generating process steam and for converting sodium sulfate to sodium

sulfide. Inorganic chemicals present in the black liquor collect as a molten smelt at the bottom of the

furnace.

The smelt is dissolved in water to form green liquor, which is transferred to a causticizing tank

where quicklime (calcium oxide) is added to convert the solution back to white liquor for return to the

digester system. A lime mud precipitates from the causticizing tank, after which it is calcined in a

lime kiln to regenerate quicklime.

For process heating, for driving equipment, for providing electric power, etc., many mills need

more steam than can be provided by the recovery furnace alone. Thus, conventional industrial boilers

that burn coal, oil, natural gas, or bark and wood are commonly used.

9/90 (Reformatted 1/95) Wood Products Industry 10.2-1


41/254

10.2-2

EMISSIO

NFACTORS

(Reformatted1/95)9/90 Figure 10.2-1. Typical kraft sulfate pulping and recovery process.


42/254

10.2.2.2 Emissions And Controls1-7 -

Particulate emissions from the kraft process occur largely from the recovery furnace, the lime

kiln and the smelt dissolving tank. These emissions are mainly sodium salts, with some calcium salts

from the lime kiln. They are caused mostly by carryover of solids and sublimation and condensation

of the inorganic chemicals.

Particulate control is provided on recovery furnaces in a variety of ways. In mills with either

cyclonic scrubber or cascade evaporator as the direct-contact evaporator, further control is necessary,

as these devices are generally only 20 to 50 percent efficient for particulates. Most often in these

cases, an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is employed after the direct-contact evaporator, for an overall

particulate control efficiency of from 85 to more than 99 percent. Auxiliary scrubbers may be added

at existing mills after a precipitator or a venturi scrubber to supplement older and less efficient primary

particulate control devices.

Particulate control on lime kilns is generally accomplished by scrubbers. Electrostatic

precipitators have been used in a few mills. Smelt dissolving tanks usually are controlled by mesh

pads, but scrubbers can provide further control.

The characteristic odor of the kraft mill is caused by the emission of reduced sulfur

compounds, the most common of which are hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, dimethyl sulfide, and

dimethyl disulfide, all with extremely low odor thresholds. The major source of hydrogen sulfide is

the direct contact evaporator, in which the sodium sulfide in the black liquor reacts with the carbon

dioxide in the furnace exhaust. Indirect contact evaporators can significantly reduce the emission of

hydrogen sulfide. The lime kiln can also be a potential source of odor, as a similar reaction occurs

with residual sodium sulfide in the lime mud. Lesser amounts of hydrogen sulfide are emitted with

the noncondensables of offgases from the digesters and multiple-effect evaporators.

Methyl mercaptan and dimethyl sulfide are formed in reactions with the wood component,

lignin. Dimethyl disulfide is formed through the oxidation of mercaptan groups derived from the

lignin. These compounds are emitted from many points within a mill, but the main sources are the

digester/blow tank systems and the direct contact evaporator.

Although odor control devices, per se, are not generally found in kraft mills, emitted sulfur

compounds can be reduced by process modifications and improved operating conditions. For example,

black liquor oxidation systems, which oxidize sulfides into less reactive thiosulfates, can considerably

reduce odorous sulfur emissions from the direct contact evaporator, although the vent gases from such

systems become minor odor sources themselves. Also, noncondensable odorous gases vented from the

digester/blow tank system and multiple effect evaporators can be destroyed by thermal oxidation,

usually by passing them through the lime kiln. Efficient operation of the recovery furnace, by

avoiding overloading and by maintaining sufficient oxygen, residence time, and turbulence,

significantly reduces emissions of reduced sulfur compounds from this source as well. The use offresh water instead of contaminated condensates in the scrubbers and pulp washers further reduces

odorous emissions.

Several new mills have incorporated recovery systems that eliminate the conventional direct-

contact evaporators. In one system, heated combustion air, rather than fuel gas, provides direct-contact

evaporation. In another, the multiple-effect evaporator system is extended to replace the direct-contact

evaporator altogether. In both systems, sulfur emissions from the recovery furnace/direct-contact

evaporator can be reduced by more than 99 percent.



43/254

Sulfur dioxide is emitted mainly from oxidation of reduced sulfur compounds in the recovery

furnace. It is reported that the direct contact evaporator absorbs about 75 percent of these emissions,

and further scrubbing can provide additional control.

Potential sources of carbon monoxide emissions from the kraft process include the recovery

furnace and lime kilns. The major cause of carbon monoxide emissions is furnace operation well

above rated capacity, making it impossible to maintain oxidizing conditions.

Some nitrogen oxides also are emitted from the recovery furnace and lime kilns, although

amounts are relatively small. Indications are that nitrogen oxide emissions are on the order of 0.5 to

1.0 kilograms per air-dried megagram (kg/Mg) (1 to 2 pounds per air-dried ton [lb/ton]) of pulp

produced from the lime kiln and recovery furnace, respectively.5-6

A major source of emissions in a kraft mill is the boiler for generating auxiliary steam and

power. The fuels are coal, oil, natural gas, or bark/wood waste. See Chapter 1, "External Combustion

Sources", for emission factors for boilers.

Table 10.2-1 presents emission factors for a conventional kraft mill. The most widely used

particulate control devices are shown, along with the odor reductions through black liquor oxidation

and incineration of noncondensable offgases. Tables 10.2-2, 10.2-3, 10.2-4, 10.2-5, 10.2-6, and 10.2-7

present cumulative size distribution data and size-specific emission factors for particulate emissions

from sources within a conventional kraft mill. Uncontrolled and controlled size-specific emission

factors7 are presented in Figure 10.2-2, Figure 10.2-3, Figure 10.2-4, Figure 10.2-5, Figure 10.2-6, and

Figure 10.2-7. The particle sizes are expressed in terms of the aerodynamic diameter in micrometers

(m).

10.2.3 Acid Sulfite Pulping

10.2.3.1 Process Description -

The production of acid sulfite pulp proceeds similarly to kraft pulping, except that different

chemicals are used in the cooking liquor. In place of the caustic solution used to dissolve the lignin in

the wood, sulfurous acid is employed. To buffer the cooking solution, a bisulfite of sodium,

magnesium, calcium, or ammonium is used. A diagram of a typical magnesium-base process is shown

in Figure 10.2-8.

Digestion is carried out under high pressure and high temperature, in either batch mode or

continuous digesters, and in the presence of a sulfurous acid/bisulfite cooking liquid. When cooking is

completed, either the digester is discharged at high pressure into a blow pit, or its contents are pumped

into a dump tank at lower pressure. The spent sulfite liquor (also called red liquor) then drains

through the bottom of the tank and is treated and discarded, incinerated, or sent to a plant for recovery

of heat and chemicals. The pulp is then washed and processed through screens and centrifuges toremove knots, bundles of fibers, and other material. It subsequently may be bleached, pressed, and

dried in papermaking operations.

Because of the variety of cooking liquor bases used, numerous schemes have evolved for heat

and/or chemical recovery. In calcium base systems, found mostly in older mills, chemical recovery is

not practical, and the spent liquor is usually discharged or incinerated. In ammonium base operations,

heat can be recovered by combusting the spent liquor, but the ammonium base is thereby consumed.

In sodium or magnesium base operations, the heat, sulfur, and base all may be feasibly recovered.

10.2-4 EMISSION FACTORS (Reformatted 1/95) 9/90


44/254

Table 10.2-1 (Metric And English Units). EMISSION FACTORS FOR KRAFT PULP

EMISSION FACTOR RATING: A

Source

Type

Of

Control

Particulate Sulfur Dioxide(SO2)Carbon Monoxide(CO) Hydrogen Su(Sm)

kg/Mg lb/ton kg/Mg lb/ton kg/Mg lb/ton kg/Mg lb

Digester relief and blow

tank Untreatedb ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.02

Brown stock washer Untreatedb ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.01

Multiple effect evaporator Untreatedb ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.55

Recovery boiler and direct

evaporatorUntreatedd 90 180 3.5 7 5.5 11 6e 1

Venturi

scrubberf 24 48 3.5 7 5.5 11 6e 1

ESP 1 2 3.5 7 5.5 11 6e 1

Auxiliaryscrubber 1.5 - 7.5g 3 - 15g

6e 1

Noncontact recovery boiler

without direct contact

evaporator Untreated

ESP

115

1

230

2

ND

ND

ND

ND

5.5

5.5

11

11

0.05h

0.05h

Smelt dissolving tank Untreated

Mesh pad

Scrubber

3.5

0.5

0.1

7

1

0.2

0.1

0.1

ND

0.2

0.2

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

0.1j

0.1j

0.1j

Lime kiln Untreated

Scrubber

or ESP

28

0.25

56

0.5

0.15

ND

0.3

ND

0.05

0.05

0.1

0.1

0.25m

0.25m

Turpentine condenser Untreated ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.005

Miscellaneousn Untreated ND ND ND ND ND ND ND N

9/90(Reformatted

1/95)

WoodProductsIndustry

10.2-5


45/254


46/254


Figure 10.2-2. Cumulative particle size distribution and size-specific emission

factors for recovery boiler with direct-contact evaporator and ESP.

Table 10.2-2 (Metric Units). CUMULATIVE PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND

SIZE-SPECIFIC EMISSION FACTORS FOR A RECOVERY BOILER WITH A

DIRECT-CONTACT EVAPORATOR AND AN ESPa

EMISSION FACTOR RATING: C

Particulate Size

(m) Uncontrolled Controlled Uncontrolled Controlled

Cumulative Mass %


47/254


Figure 10.2-3. Cumulative particle size distribution and size-specific emission factors for

recovery boiler without direct-contact evaporator but with ESP.


SIZE-SPECIFIC EMISSION FACTORS FOR A RECOVERY BOILER WITHOUT A

DIRECT-CONTACT EVAPORATOR BUT WITH AN ESPa


Particulate Size


Cumulative Mass %


48/254



lime kiln with venturi scrubber.


SIZE-SPECIFIC EMISSION FACTORS FOR A LIME KILN WITH A VENTURI SCRUBBERa


Particulate Size


Cumulative Mass %


49/254


Figure 10.2-5. Cumulative particle size distribution and size-specific emission factors for lime

kiln with ESP.


SIZE-SPECIFIC EMISSION FACTORS FOR A LIME KILN WITH AN ESPa


Particulate Size


Cumulative Mass %


50/254


Figure 10.2-6. Cumulative particle size distribution and size-specific emission factors for smelt

dissolving tank with packed tower.


SIZE-SPECIFIC EMISSION FACTORS FOR A SMELT DISSOLVING TANK WITH A

PACKED TOWERa


Particulate Size


Cumulative Mass %


51/254



smelt dissolving tank with venturi scrubber.


SIZE-SPECIFIC EMISSION FACTORS FOR A SMELT DISSOLVING TANK WITH A

VENTURI SCRUBBERa


Particulate Size


Cumulative Mass %


52/254


53/254

If recovery is practiced, the spent (weak) red liquor (which contains more than half of the raw

materials as dissolved organic solids) is concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator and a direct-

contact evaporator to 55 to 60 percent solids. This strong liquor is sprayed into a furnace and burned,

producing steam to operate the digesters, evaporators, etc. and to meet other power requirements.

When magnesium base liquor is burned, a flue gas is produced from which magnesium oxide

is recovered in a multiple cyclone as fine white power. The magnesium oxide is then water slakedand is used as circulating liquor in a series of venturi scrubbers, which are designed to absorb sulfur

dioxide from the flue gas and to form a bisulfite solution for use in the cook cycle. When sodium

base liquor is burned, the inorganic compounds are recovered as a molten smelt containing sodium

sulfide and sodium carbonate. This smelt may be processed further and used to absorb sulfur dioxide

from the flue gas and sulfur burner. In some sodium base mills, however, the smelt may be sold to a

nearby kraft mill as raw material for producing green liquor.

If liquor recovery is not practiced, an acid plant is necessary of sufficient capacity to fulfill the

mills total sulfite requirement. Normally, sulfur is burned in a rotary or spray burner. The gas

produced is then cooled by heat exchangers and a water spray and is then absorbed in a variety of

different scrubbers containing either limestone or a solution of the base chemical. Where recovery is

practiced, fortification is accomplished similarly, although a much smaller amount of sulfur dioxide

must be produced to make up for that lost in the process.

10.2.3.2 Emissions And Controls11 -

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is generally considered the major pollutant of concern from sulfite pulp

mills. The characteristic "kraft" odor is not emitted because volatile reduced sulfur compounds are not

products of the lignin/bisulfite reaction.

A major SO2 source is the digester and blow pit (dump tank) system. Sulfur dioxide is

present in the intermittent digester relief gases, as well as in the gases given off at the end of the cook

when the digester contents are discharged into the blow pit. The quantity of sulfur dioxide evolved

and emitted to the atmosphere in these gas streams depends on the pH of the cooking liquor, the

pressure at which the digester contents are discharged, and the effectiveness of the absorption systems

employed for SO2 recovery. Scrubbers can be installed that reduce SO2 from this source by as much

as 99 percent.

Another source of sulfur dioxide emissions is the recovery system. Since magnesium, sodium,

and ammonium base recovery systems all use absorption systems to recover SO2 generated in recovery

furnaces, acid fortification towers, multiple effect evaporators, etc., the magnitude of SO2 emissions

depends on the desired efficiency of these systems. Generally, such absorption systems recover better

than 95 percent of the sulfur so it can be reused.

The various pulp washing, screening, and cleaning operations are also potential sources ofSO2. These operations are numerous and may account for a significant fraction of a mills SO2emissions if not controlled.

The only significant particulate source in the pulping and recovery process is the absorption

system handling the recovery furnace exhaust. Ammonium base systems generate less particulate than

do magnesium or sodium base systems. The combustion productions are mostly nitrogen, water vapor,

and sulfur dioxide.



54/254

Auxiliary power boilers also produce emissions in the sulfite pulp mill, and emission factors

for these boilers are presented in Chapter 1, "External Combustion Sources". Table 10.2-8 contains

emission factors for the various sulfite pulping operations.

10.2.4 Neutral Sulfite Semichemical (NSSC) Pulping

10.2.4.1 Process Description9,12-14 -

In this method, wood chips are cooked in a neutral solution of sodium sulfite and sodium

carbonate. Sulfite ions react with the lignin in wood, and the sodium bicarbonate acts as a buffer to

maintain a neutral solution. The major difference between all semichemical techniques and those of

kraft and acid sulfite processes is that only a portion of the lignin is removed during the cook, after

which the pulp is further reduced by mechanical disintegration. This method achieves yields as high

as 60 to 80 percent, as opposed to 50 to 55 percent for other chemical processes.

The NSSC process varies from mill to mill. Some mills dispose of their spent liquor, some

mills recover the cooking chemicals, and some, when operated in conjunction with kraft mills, mix

their spent liquor with the kraft liquor as a source of makeup chemicals. When recovery is practiced,

the involved steps parallel those of the sulfite process.

10.2.4.2 Emissions And Controls9,12-14 -

Particulate emissions are a potential problem only when recovery systems are involved. Mills

that do practice recovery but are not operated in conjunction with kraft operations often utilize

fluidized bed reactors to burn their spent liquor. Because the flue gas contains sodium sulfate and

sodium carbonate dust, efficient particulate collection may be included for chemical recovery.

A potential gaseous pollutant is sulfur dioxide. Absorbing towers, digester/blower tank

systems, and recovery furnaces are the main sources of SO2, with amounts emitted dependent upon the

capability of the scrubbing devices installed for control and recovery.

Hydrogen sulfide can also be emitted from NSSC mills which use kraft type recovery

furnaces. The main potential source is the absorbing tower, where a significant quantity of hydrogen

sulfite is liberated as the cooking liquor is made. Other possible sources, depending on the operating

conditions, include the recovery furnace, and in mills where some green liquor is used in the cooking

process, the digester/blow tank system. Where green liquor is used, it is also possible that significant

quantities of mercaptans will be produced. Hydrogen sulfide emissions can be eliminated if burned to

sulfur dioxide before the absorbing system.

Because the NSSC process differs greatly from mill to mill, and because of the scarcity of

adequate data, no emission factors are presented for this process.



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Table 10.2-8. (Metric And English Units). EMISSION FACTORS FOR SULFITE PUL

Source Base Control

Emission Factorb

Particulate Sulfu

kg/ADUMg lb/ADUT kg/ADUM

Digester/blow pit or dumptankc

All None Neg Neg 5 to 35

MgO Process changed

Neg Neg 1 to 3

MgO Scrubber Neg Neg 0.5

MgO Process change and scrubber Neg Neg 0.1

MgO All exhaust vented through recovery

system Neg Neg 0

NH3

Process change Neg Neg 12.5

NH3

Na

Process change and scrubber

Process change and scrubber

Neg

Neg

Neg

Neg

0.2

1

Ca Unknown Neg Neg 33.5

Recovery systeme MgO Multicyclone and venturi scrubbers 1 2 4.5

NH3 Ammonia absorption and mist

eliminator

0.35 0.7 3.5

Na Sodium carbonate scrubber 2 4 1

Acid plantf NH3 Scrubber Neg Neg 0.2

Na Unknowng Neg Neg 0.1

Ca Jensen scrubber Neg Neg 4

Otherh All None Neg Neg 6 a Reference 11. All factors represent long term average emissions. ADUMg = Air-dried unbleached megagram

unbleached ton. Neg = negligible.b Expressed as kg (lb) of pollutant/air dried unbleached Mg (ton) of pulp.

9/90(Reformatted

1/95)


10.2-16


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Table 10.2-8 (cont.).

c Factors represent emissions after cook is completed and when digester contents are discharged into blow pit or

gases are vented from digester during cook cycle, but these are usually transferred to pressure accumulators an

use in cooking liquor. In some mills, actual emissions will be intermittent and for short periods.

d May include such measures as raising cooking liquor pH (thereby lowering free SO 2), relieving digester pressuand pumping out digester contents instead of blowing out.

e Recovery system at most mills is closed and includes recovery furnace, direct contact evaporator, multiple effe

fortification tower, and SO2 absorption scrubbers. Generally only one emission point for entire system. Facto

emissions during periodic purging of recovery systems.fNecessary in mills with insufficient or nonexistent recovery systems.g Control is practiced, but type of system is unknown.h Includes miscellaneous pulping operations such as knotters, washers, screens, etc.

9/90(Reformatted

1/95)


10.2-17


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References For Section 10.2

1. Review Of New Source Performance Standards For Kraft Pulp Mills, EPA-450/3-83-017,

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1983.

2. Standards Support And Environmental Impact Statement, Volume I: Proposed Standards Of

Performance For Kraft Pulp Mills, EPA-450/2-76-014a, U. S. Environmental ProtectionAgency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1976.

3. Kraft Pulping - Control Of TRS Emissions From Existing Mills , EPA-450/78-003b,

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, March 1979.

4. Environmental Pollution Control, Pulp And Paper Industry, Part I: Air, EPA-625/7-76-001, U.

S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, October 1976.

5. A Study Of Nitrogen Oxides Emissions From Lime Kilns, Technical Bulletin Number 107,

National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement, New York, NY,

April 1980.

6. A Study Of Nitrogen Oxides Emissions From Large Kraft Recovery Furnaces , Technical

Bulletin Number 111, National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream

Improvement, New York, NY, January 1981.

7. Source Category Report For The Kraft Pulp Industry, EPA Contract Number 68-02-3156,

Acurex Corporation, Mountain View, CA, January 1983.

8. Source test data, Office Of Air Quality Planning And Standards, U. S. Environmental

Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1972.

9. Atmospheric Emissions From The Pulp And Paper Manufacturing Industry ,EPA-450/1-73-002, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC,

September 1973.

10. Carbon Monoxide Emissions From Selected Combustion Sources Based On Short-Term

Monitoring Records, Technical Bulletin Number 416, National Council of the Paper Industry

for Air and Stream Improvement, New York, NY, January 1984.

11. Background Document: Acid Sulfite Pulping, EPA-450/3-77-005, U. S. Environmental

Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, January 1977.

12. E. R. Hendrickson, et al., Control Of Atmospheric Emissions In The Wood Pulping Industry,

Volume I, HEW Contract Number CPA-22-69-18, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,Washington, DC, March 15, 1970.

13. M. Benjamin, et al., "A General Description of Commercial Wood Pulping And Bleaching

Processes", Journal Of The Air Pollution Control Association, 19(3):155-161, March 1969.

14. S. F. Caleano and B. M. Dillard, "Process Modifications For Air Pollution Control In Neutral

Sulfite Semi-chemical Mills", Journal Of The Air Pollution Control Association, 22(3):195-199,

March 1972.



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1 2 3

3 Simple Steps to Estuary Restoration

MonitorDef ne Target & Repair.

2. Determine what has changed

over time

.

remediation

2. Seek funding, partners, and approvals

.

. Annually monitor all target sites

. Target negative changes for detailed


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Monitoring SurfaceWater Quality

A Guide for Citizens,Students, and Communities

in Atlantic Canada

Monitoring SurfaceWater Quality

A Guide for Citizens,Students, and Communities

in Atlantic Canada

Canada - New Brunswick Water/Economy Agreement

Environment

Canada

Environnement

Canada


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1

Monitoring Surface Water Quality:

A Guide for Citizens, Students and Communities in Atlantic Canada

ISBN 0-662021530-3

DSS Cat. No. EN37-109-1994E


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2

Editors:

Hugh J. O'Neill Environment Canada

Environmental Conservation Branch

Ecosystem Science Division

Moncton, N.B.

Matthew McKim New Brunswick Community College

Saint John, N.B.

Dr. John Allen Huntsman Marine Science Centre

St. Andrews, N.B.

Jerry Choate New Brunswick Department of the

Environment

Fredericton, N.B.Contributors:

Dr. Thomas A. Clair Environment Canada

Daniel Lger Environmental Conservation Branch

Harold Bailey Ecosystem Science Division

Joseph Pomeroy Moncton, N. B.

Stephen Hawboldt Clean Annapolis River Project (CARP)

Rob Rainer St. Croix Estuary Project

Jim Sharkey

Harry Collins Miramichi River EnvironmentalAssessment Committee

Esperanza Stancioff University of Maine Cooperative

Extension

Carl Plourde Socit d'amnagement de la

rivire Madawaska et du lac

Temiscouata Inc.

A product of the Canada-New Brunswick Water/Economy Arrangement

1994


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3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................... vi

PREFACE .........................................................................................................................................................viii

1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 1

2.0 WATER AND HOW HUMANS INTERACT WITH IT .................................................................... 3

The Hydrologic Cycle............ ............. ............. ............. ............. .............. ............. ............. ....... 3

Point and Non-Point Sources of Pollution ............ .............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ... 5

3.0 THE CHEMISTRY OF SURFACE WATERS ................................................................................... 9

What do we find in our waters ............ ............. ............. ............. .............. ............. ............. ....... 9

Water Quality Parameters........................................................................................................ 13Colour.....................................................................................................................

Dissolved Oxygen ............ .............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .............. .......... 15

pH ..................................................................................................................... 16

Specific Conductance................................................................................................. 18

Temperature............................................................................................................... 19

Total Dissolved Solids................................................................................................ 23

Turbidity

Water Clarity ............ ............. ............. .............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .............. ............. ............. ...... 26

Salinity ............ ............. .............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .. 27

Other Parameters..................................................................................................................... 28

Chlorophyll-a...................................................................................................................................................... 28

Faecal Coliform Bacteria..................................................................................................................................... 28

4. ORGANIZING A COMMUNITY-BASED WATER QUALITY MONITORING

PROGRAM........................................................................................................................................... 31

5. WATER SAMPLING.......................................................................................................................... 43

General Water Sampling Considerations ................................................................................. 43

Observation-Based Samples ............. ............. ............. ............. .............. ............. ........ 44

Preparation for Field Trips....................................................................................................... 45

Collecting Surface Water Samples ............ .............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. 47

Field Quality Assurance........................................................................................................... 48

General Measures ...................................................................................................... 48

Prevention of Sample Contamination............ ............. ............. .............. ............. ........ 49

Field Quality Control ............ ............. ............. ............. .............. ............. ............. ...... 51

Bottle Blanks ............................................................................................................. 51

Filter Blanks ............ ............. ............. ............. ............. .............. ............. ............. ...... 51

Spiked Samples.......................................................................................................... 52

Field Measured Parameters...................................................................................................... 52


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5

APPENDIX V

EXAMPLES OF GRAPHICAL OUTPUTS USED TO INTERPRET AND PRESENT WATER QUALITYINFORMATION 98

APPENDIX VI ...................................................................................................................................................101

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............ ............. ............. ............. ............. .............. ............. ........101


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6

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This document is based in part upon the Environment Canada reports "Sampling for Water Quality"

(1983) and the "Water Quality Sourcebook: A Guide to Water Quality Parameters" (1979). Environment Canada,

Atlantic Region, has offered to its environmental technicians a "Basic Course in Water Quality Sampling" from

which sections were extracted and modified for this guidance document.

Esperanza Stancioff's "Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring" is one of the more recent and

comprehensive manuals for volunteer monitoring of coastal waters. Stancioff's steps for organizing a monitoring

program provided an organizational framework, and were modified to reflect a Canadian approach in our section

entitled "Organizing a Community Based Monitoring Program".

The freshwater biological content of this document comes from Dr. Mike Dickman's "Waterways

Walkabouts". Dr. Dickman effectively illustrates how aquatic plants can be used as indicators of water quality.

The Canada-New Brunswick Water Economy Arrangement provided funding support for operating the

New Brunswick pilot projects described in the Case Studies, and for printing this guidance document.

Mrs. Louise Boulter is thanked for typing numerous drafts and the final document.

The Editors


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7

PREFACE

The scientific study of water quality is a fairly recent phenomenon which arose from human health

concerns. One of the first major works was in the 1840s where the drinking waters of large English cities were

studied to try to understand the causes of the typhoid and cholera epidemics which raged periodically. This work

provided the initial impetus for ensuring safer drinking waters and sewage disposal.

By the early 1910s, investigators began examining the relationships between industrial effluents and

human health and fisheries resources. It wasn't until the 1950s that legislators in North America and Europe

began to establish laws protecting aquatic habitats.

The history of water quality monitoring in Canada is relatively short. Apart from a small number of

university and fisheries studies, health concerns were the driving force behind most water quality studies in the

early to mid part of the 20th century. In the 1950s, large scale data collection began by the Federal Department of

Energy, Mines and Resources, the Department of Fisheries, and their provincial counterparts. Only since the mid-

1960's has full documentation of results in data banks and reports become the practice.

The work of Environment Canada and of environmental agencies in provincial governments is to provide

environmental monitoring (including water quality) data amenable to scientific interpretation. Depending on the

situation, the data should allow the determination of the severity of pollution problems, to assess trends in water

quality in impacted areas, to provide background information on poorly studied basins, to study seasonal changes

to be expected in undisturbed situations or in gathering data for areas where developments are expected to bring

further changes. These data can be compared to water quality objectives, so that an estimation of overall quality

can be made in relation to the various uses planned or being made of basin waters.

In recent years, interest in community-based water quality monitoring using volunteers has increased.

Regional success stories on the Miramichi River (Miramichi Swim Watch) and Annapolis River (Clean Annapolis

River Project) suggest great potential in community-based programs. Through the Atlantic Coastal Action

Program (ACAP), multi-stakeholder groups are bringing citizens, industry and government together to work

towards a shared goal, a sustainable economy within healthy local environments. ACAP groups are building a

sense of community ownership in their local watersheds, rivers, estuaries and coastal areas. At almost every ACAP

site there has been enthusiasm for some form of community-based environmental monitoring, in general, and

water quality monitoring in particular.


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8

Unfortunately, little information exists on community-based water quality monitoring programs in

Canada. Success stories in the United States such as the Massachusetts Water Watch Partnership have provided

inspiration for Canadian efforts. The United States Environmental Protection Agency as well as numerous

community groups have produced documentation on community-based water quality monitoring.

This document is not an all-encompassing manual, but rather a guide and compilation of relevant

Canadian and American information on community-based water quality monitoring. There can be no set

prescription for a program as each community will be different with respect to land-use, stream and coastal

characteristics, industry, population and issues. It is intended that sufficient information be presented so that a

volunteer group can make an organized and well-prepared start on a monitoring project. To do this, appendices

have been included that describe five regional case studies, a list of vendors of monitoring equipment, and a list of

funding agencies. A generic glossary and list of reference material have been compiled. While the focus of this

document is on water quality monitoring, the principles outlined are general enough so that groups interested in

habitat inventory, wildlife monitoring, land-use inventories and other environmental monitoring projects will find

sections relevant.


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9

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Canadians generally take for granted what appears to be an almost unlimited amount of clean water. In

reality, most of us live close to our southern border while most of our fresh water flows north. Atlantic Canadians

are dependent upon the fresh water in our wells, rivers, and lakes. As a coastal region, we have numerous

estuaries and near shore areas of importance.

Water plays an intimate role in our living environment. Water of suitable quality and quantity is essential

to all life forms. It shapes and beautifies the landscape, controls our climate, determines the nature of the

surrounding environment and is a vital requirement in agriculture, industry, power generation, recreation and

tourism. The basic problem we face is that human's uses of water can interfere with others. While water of good

quality is needed for drinking, swimming, fishing, farming, and manufacturing, water can also be used for the

disposal of industrial waste, sewage, and waste heat. Its quality can deteriorate and limit its future use.

Increasing population and industrial activity have focussed public attention on water quality and the need

to monitor and protect the resource. This has prompted changes in legislation to control water pollution, and

environmental agencies have been created to manage the resource. Water quality monitoring has traditionally been

carried out by provincial and federal government agencies, municipalities, industry, and researchers at academic

institutions. In recent years, citizens and environmental interest groups have become more active in water quality

monitoring. In the United States, for example, numerous volunteer groups routinely carry out water quality

monitoring.

Water quality monitoring provides an avenue for meaningful participation by the public in environmental

stewardship. Such approaches serve to educate individuals as to the simplicities, complexities, and costs of

monitoring; provide information on environmental resources that can be of value to a large group of data users;

and can influence decision making. Educational functions include removing barriers presented by scientific

terminology, increasing knowledge of key environmental issues, providing experience with simple but relevant

monitoring techniques, and developing an understanding of the expense and value associated with monitoring.

Using this information, a monitoring group can inform the public of the environmental health of their local

ecosystem, monitor changes in environmental quality due to pollution and pollution control measures, and provide

information to both the regulators and the regulated. Identifying locations that most urgently require remediation,

identifying the need for in-depth studies or research to fill important information gaps, and identifying the priority

of contaminants and pollution sources will ensure that the data collected will influence decision making.


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10

It is hoped that this manual will spark the participant's interest in water quality work and encourage

greater community participation in watershed management and environmental stewardship.


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11

2.0 WATER AND HOW HUMANS INTERACT WITH IT

Before discussing water quality monitoring, it is important to step back and quickly review the

hydrological cycle (water cycle) and how we as humans impact upon water quality. A community-based group

must consider all potential sources of contaminants within a watershed, or study area. What happens upstream in

a watershed has direct influence on a study area.

The Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle is a world-wide natural circulation system in which water evaporates from the earth's

surface (from oceans, from other bodies of water and from land areas), condenses to form clouds and is returned to

the earth as precipitation.

Evaporation is a continuous process, particularly from the ocean surface. A large part of the evaporated

moisture condenses and is returned directly to the ocean as precipitation. A considerable portion, however, is

carried over land areas by wind where it is precipitated as rain, sleet or snow. A relatively small amount may

condense as dew or frost. Nearly all of this dew or frost evaporates directly or is absorbed by plants and returned to

the atmosphere by transpiration.

The moisture which falls over the land as precipitation may follow any number of courses. Some re-

evaporates before reaching the ground. Some is intercepted by vegetation, buildings or pavement and evaporates.

That which reaches the ground infiltrates or runs off into stream channels, to be carried to the ocean. In its

passage back to the ocean, some water evaporates from the surface of streams and lakes and some seeps into the

ground.

Of the water which enters the ground, either by direct infiltration or through the banks or beds of streams,

part is stored near the surface where it evaporates or is used by vegetation and returned to the atmosphere by

transpiration. Another portion joins the ground water and may find its way to streams, appear at the surface in

springs, or travel through the ground to the ocean. On the way to the ocean, there may be an interchange, in either

direction, between streams and ground water.

Although the basic cycle is simple in concept--ocean to cloud, to land, to river, to ocean--it is obvious that,

with the many alternative routes water may follow in every phase of the cycle, the analysis of the hydrologic cycle

is an extremely complex task.


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12

Throughout the cycle, the composition of water changes. Atmospheric water can be thought of being

fairly pure under natural circumstances, but on contact with soils and bedrock, becomes a dilute solution of

sodium, potassium, calcium, bicarbonate, sulphate and chloride. Moreover, a number of minor inorganic and

organic compounds can also appear. Other factors influencing the composition of water, include sea-spray, and

human activity.

Point and Non-Point Sources of Pollution

One of the main reasons for water quality monitoring, is to assess human influence on aquatic ecosystems.

The sources of ecosystem disturbance, however, are not necessarily as simple as effluent pipes.

Human influence on water quality is often thought of in simple terms, such as discharging wastes from

sewage collection systems or industrial outfalls. Without doubt, these "point sources" can have major impacts on

receiving waters. Generally, related problems are correctable once the sources are identified and remedial

technology is applied.

More difficult to deal with are problems emanating from diffuse, "non-point" sources. Examples of non-

point sources include acid precipitation being generated often thousands of kilometres away, siltation of streams

caused by logging, woods roads and agriculture, the input of nutrients from agricultural fertilization of fields, and

urban runoff.

The changes in water quality which are caused by these activities are often cumulative in effect and difficult to

remedy because of the widely scattered sources.

Special Characteristics of Atlantic Canada

Water quality conditions are somewhat different in Atlantic Canada than in other parts of Canada for a

number of reasons. Firstly, most of the region, due to its coastal setting, receives higher rain and snowfall amounts

than much of Canada. Secondly, because of past glacial activity in large portions of our region, soils and glacial

tills which act as reservoirs for ground water are much thinner than in Central Canada. These two factors combine

to make our lakes and rivers more hydrologically dynamic than in most parts of the country.


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13

Coupled with the flow characteristics of our rivers, is an abundance of bogs and other wetlands which can

contribute high levels of naturally produced dissolved organic carbon. In some cases, this gives the waters a

brownish colour and potentially complicates the interpretation of water quality information.

Another characteristic of our region is the generally low number of highly industrialized areas. Most

pollution sources in our region are relatively small-scale or diffuse compared to situations elsewhere in North

America, and so often produce more subtle effects which require careful collection and analysis of data. However,

in the heavily industrialized areas of Saint John, Halifax and Sydney, there are large industries whose effluent can

have a significant influence on environmental quality. Little River in Saint John, N.B. for example, receives

discharges from a paper plant, oil refinery, municipal sewers, as well as urban runoff. Various contaminants could

be present in each effluent type but any environmental effect in the river could be difficult to attribute to a specific

source.

All the above factors support the need for careful evaluation of all aspects of sample collection, analysis

and interpretation regardless of where samples are collected to ensure meaningful results.


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14

3.0 THE CHEMISTRY OF SURFACE WATERS

What do we find in our waters

Precipitation itself is not pure water. In much of Atlantic Canada, sodium chloride (salt) is an important

component of precipitation due to the influence of sea-spray on local atmospheric conditions. Other ions carried by

sea-spray are calcium, magnesium, potassium and sulphate. Other potential influences on precipitation chemistry

are dust from soils, a phenomenon more important in western Canada, and the inputs of acid forming substances,

which result in acid rain. Precipitation that reaches the earth, is subject to ion exchange reactions with soils,

bedrock and lake sediments, which considerably alter its original composition. Table 1 illustrates differences in

major ions between precipitation and surface waters at a site in central Nova Scotia. Some parameters increased in

concentration due to geologic input and contributions from soils while others decreased due to uptake by plants and

micro-organisms.

Table 1

Average ion concentrations of rain and streamwater in central Nova

Scotia. Data are in mg/L.(Freedman and Clair 1987)

Constituents Precipitation Roger's Brook

pH

Calcium

Magnesium

Sodium

Potassium

Iron

Aluminum

Manganese

Ammonium

Sulphate

Chloride

Nitrate

Alkalinity

Dissolved Organic Carbon

4.6

0.09

0.07

0.600

0.04

-

-

-

0.06

1.32

1.05

0.6

-

-

5.1

0.93

0.61

3.16

0.27

0.4

0.11

0.04

-

3.10

4.8

0.014

0.90

7.3

- indicates not detected

Seasonal changes influence the concentration of a number of parameters in water. Snowmelt periods, for

example, will increase parameters such as sulphate and nitrate which are deposited with the snow, and decrease


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15

dissolved organic carbon (DOC) which is generated by soils especially in summer. Dry summer periods will

increase the importance of ground water to streams and lakes and thus ions generated there, such as calcium and

magnesium, will be at higher concentrations.

Mineral ions, metals and dissolved organic matter are not the only substances found in water. Gases are

also present. For example, oxygen is produced through photosynthesis by aquatic primary producers, and is also

exchanged with the atmosphere. It is used in most respiration activities of aquatic biota, with the exception of

anaerobic degradation in sediments and pollution situations. A major by-product of aerobic respiration is carbon

dioxide (CO2) which is then used by plants. In natural waters, respiration aside, CO2 is usually formed by the

breakdown of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3). Both oxygen and CO2 are slightly

soluble in water and can be exchanged with the atmosphere, though CO2

solubility is much greater. The amount

of each gas in water is dependent on biological activity, water temperature, and on mixing and turbulance.

Dissolved oxygen concentrations at sea level in pure water has been calculated for a range of temperatures (Table

2). Deviations from these values can indicate high biological uptake if measured values are lower than those

estimated in the table, or high photosynthesis activity or vigorous turbulence in the water body, should measured

values be higher. Decomposition of industrial wastes that contain organic matter can consume oxygen resulting in

less being available for aquatic animals.

Other substances, such as waste discharges from towns and industries, as well as pesticides from a number

of sources can also be found in waters of the region.

Pesticides, for example, are used in silviculture operations, agricultural areas, and in urban areas for home and

garden/turf management. Where these chemicals are found, however, depends greatly upon the chemical

properties of the substance. Some may remain in the water while other contaminants absorb to sediment particles

and are deposited in the bottom sediments.


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16

Table 2

Solubility of oxygen, from a wet atmosphere at a pressure of 760 mm Hg, in mg per litre, at temperatures from 0 to 35C.

Temp 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

0

1

2

3

4

5

14.16

13.77

13.40

13.05

12.70

12.37

14.12

13.74

13.37

13.01

12.67

12.34

14.08

13.70

13.33

12.94

12.60

12.28

14.04

13.66

13.30

12.94

12.60

12.28

14.00

13.63

13.26

12.91

12.57

12.25

13.97

13.59

13.22

12.87

12.54

12.22

13.93

13.55

13.19

12.84

12.51

12.18

13.89

13.51

13.15

12.81

12.47

12.15

13.85

13.48

13.12

12.77

12.44

12.12

13.81

13.44

13.08

12.74

12.41

12.09

6

7

8

9

10

12.06

11.76

11.47

11.19

10.92

12.03

11.73

11.44

11.16

10.90

12.00

11.70

11.41

11.14

10.87

11.97

11.67

11.38

11.11

10.85

11.94

11.64

11.36

11.08

10.82

11.91

11.61

11.33

11.06

10.80

11.88

11.58

11.30

11.03

10.77

11.85

11.55

11.27

11.00

10.75

11.82

11.52

11.25

10.98

10.72

11.79

11.50

11.22

10.95

10.70

11

12

13

1415

10.67

10.43

10.20

9.989.76

10.65

10.40

10.17

9.959.74

10.62

10.38

10.15

9.939.72

10.60

10.36

10.13

9.919.70

10.57

10.34

10.11

9.899.68

10.55

10.31

10.09

9.879.66

10.53

10.29

10.06

9.859.64

10.50

10.27

10.04

9.839.62

10.48

10.24

10.02

9.819.60

10.45

10.22

10.00

9.789.58

16

17

18

19

20

9.56

9.37

9.18

9.01

8.84

9.54

9.35

9.17

8.99

8.83

9.52

9.33

9.15

8.98

8.81

9.50

9.31

9.13

9.96

8.79

9.48

9.30

9.12

8.94

8.78

9.46

9.28

9.10

8.93

8.76

9.45

9.26

9.08

8.91

8.75

9.43

9.24

9.06

8.89

8.73

9.41

9.22

9.04

8.88

8.71

9.39

9.20

9.03

8.86

8.70

21

22

23

24

25

8.68

8.53

8.38

8.25

8.11

8.67

8.52

8.37

8.23

8.10

8.65

8.50

8.36

8.22

8.09

8.64

8.49

8.34

8.21

8.07

8.62

8.47

8.33

8.19

8.06

8.61

8.46

8.32

8.18

8.05

8.59

8.44

8.30

8.17

8.04

8.58

8.43

8.29

8.15

8.02

8.56

8.41

8.27

8.14

8.01

8.55

8.40

8.26

8.13

8.00

26

27

28

29

30

7.99

7.86

7.75

7.64

7.53

7.97

7.85

7.74

7.62

7.52

7.96

7.84

7.72

7.61

7.51

7.95

7.83

7.71

7.60

7.50

7.94

7.82

7.70

7.59

7.48

7.92

7.81

7.69

7.58

7.47

7.91

7.79

7.68

7.57

7.46

7.90

7.78

7.67

7.56

7.45

7.89

7.77

7.66

7.55

7.44

7.88

7.76

7.65

7.54

7.4331

32

33

34

35

7.42

7.32

7.22

7.13

7.04

7.41

7.31

7.21

7.12

7.03

7.40

7.30

7.20

7.11

7.02

7.39

7.29

7.20

7.10

7.01

7.38

7.28

7.19

7.09

7.00

7.37

7.27

7.18

7.08

6.99

7.36

7.26

7.17

7.07

6.98

7.35

7.25

7.16

7.06

6.97

7.34

7.24

7.15

7.05

6.96

7.33

7.23

7.14

7.05

6.95

* From Hutchinson (1957)

Water Quality Parameters

The following sections describe some of the water quality parameters that are used to gain basic insights

into water quality. Some are applicable to both freshwater and estuarine waters. Much of this material has been

extracted from the "Water Quality Sourcebook" (Environment Canada, 1979).

Colour


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Two measures of colour are possible; true colouris a measure of the dissolved colouring compounds,

whereas apparent colouris influenced by the suspended material in the sample. The colour of water is attributable

to the presence of organic and inorganic materials; different materials absorb various light frequencies. Colour is

measured according to the platinum-cobalt scale, which compares the colour of the water sample with that of a

series of standard chemical solutions. Water with low turbidity exhibits virtually identical values for apparent and

true colour. Water with a turbidity level greater than 3 Jackson Turbidity Units (JTU) usually has a yellow, red, or

brown tinge.

Environmental Range

Water whose colour is less than 10 platinum-cobalt (Pt-Co) units passes unnoticed to visual inspection;

water with a value of 100 resembles black tea and may be encountered in waters draining peat deposits. Water

from swamps and bogs may exhibit values in the 200 to 300 Pt-Co unit range.

Sources

A water's colour may be derived from natural mineral components such as iron and manganese, and from

organic sources. Common organic sources include algae, protozoa, and natural products from decaying vegetation

such as humic substances, tannins, and lignins. The leaching of organic soils can also produce other less common

organic acids. Since humic substances, tannins, and lignins are complex natural organic compounds that are

resistant to microbial decay, they are ubiquitous in the environment and are a common source of natural water

colour.

Organic and inorganic compounds from industrial or agricultural uses may add colour to a water. For

example, steel works, refineries, chemical plants, pulp and paper plants, and a number of other industries may alter

the colour of their discharge waters. Colouration may also result from irrigation.

Water Quality Guidelines

Colour is not normally considered a serious pollution problem, although colour may be detrimental in

that it interferes with the passage of light, thereby impeding the photosynthesis of aquatic plants. Guidelines

suggest that no undue increase in the colour of natural waters be allowed through waste disposal or other activities.


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Domestic, industrial and recreational uses of a water may be affected by its colour. For aesthetic

considerations and to prevent possible staining of clothes, food, and fixtures the acceptable limit for true colour in

public drinking waters is 15 Pt-Co units. For waters used for direct recreational contact such as swimming the

maximum permissible limit for colour is 100, although the objective is the same as the drinking water limit.

Effects on Use

Any perceptible colour in raw waters is objectionable from a purely aesthetic viewpoint. Although

coloured water often has some absorptive and coagulative action that prevents scaling in industrial boilers, it is

undesirable for many industrial processes. The production of fine papers, white textiles and pharmaceuticals, as

well as steam generation, ice manufacture, beverage and photographic industries, and domestic uses may also be

adversely affected by the colour of a water.

Dissolved Oxygen

Oxygen is one of the gases that is found dissolved in natural surface waters. It is slightly soluble in water.

The amount of dissolved oxygen in natural water varies since it is dependent upon temperature, salinity, turbulence

(mixing) of the water, and atmospheric pressure (decreasing with altitude). The concentration of dissolved oxygen

is subject to diurnal and seasonal fluctuations that are due, in part, to variations in temperature, photosynthetic

activity and river discharge. Respiration by organisms and re-aeration processes control dissolved oxygen

concentrations. The decomposition of organic wastes by micro-organisms and oxidation of inorganic wastes may

reduce dissolved oxygen to concentrations approaching zero.

Environmental Range

Typically the concentration of dissolved oxygen in natural surface water is less than 10 mg/L. The

maximum solubility of atmospheric oxygen (i.e. saturation) in freshwater ranges from approximately 15 mg/L at 0

C to 8 mg/L at 25C at sea level (see Table 2). Seawater saturation ranges from 11 mg/L at 0C to 7 mg/L at 25

C.

Sources


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The oxygen dissolved in water may be derived from either the atmosphere or from photosynthesis by

aquatic plants including phytoplankton.


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Dissolved oxygen concentrations produce no adverse physiological effect on humans, however, adequate

amounts of dissolved oxygen must be available for fish and other aquatic animals.

Many aerobic organisms cannot survive below certain levels of dissolved oxygen. The dissolved oxygen

requirement is dependent on temperature and varies greatly from organism to organism, therefore, the

recommendation of a single arbitrary oxygen concentration for all organisms in all types of waters is not very

useful. Fluctuations in the concentration of dissolved oxygen to extremely low concentrations are particularly

harmful to the organisms in an aquatic environment. Although minimum acceptable values of dissolved oxygen

are not appropriate, it has been shown that concentrations of less than 4 mg/L produce detrimental effects on most

aquatic organisms.

Drinking water criteria do not specify any guidelines for dissolved oxygen. However, waters saturated

with dissolved oxygen are preferable for drinking as improved palatability results form dissolved oxygen's ability to

precipitate substances such as iron and manganese, which produce undesirable tastes.

Effects on Use

Waters highly saturated with dissolved oxygen are acceptable for all uses except for industrial

applications, since the presence of dissolved oxygen increases the corrosiveness of a water. Thus, the absence of

dissolved oxygen is preferable for many industrial applications.

pH

pH indicates the balance between the acids and bases in water and is a measure of the hydrogen ion

concentration in solution. pH values reflect the solvent power of water, thereby indicating its possible chemical

reactions on rocks, minerals, and soils.

Environmental Range

As an index of the hydrogen ion concentration, pH is measured on a scale from 0 to 14. A value of 7

indicates a neutral condition; values less than 7 indicate acid conditions, and values greater than 7 indicate


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alkaline conditions in a water. Natural fresh waters range from pH 4 to 9 as controlled by the bicarbonate-

carbonate system. The range of pH is broader in fresh water than in seawater; seawater ranges from 8.0 to 8.3 pH

units. The theoretical pH for rain water is actually slightly acidic with a level of 5.6.

Sources

The presence of carbonates, hydroxides, and bicarbonates increases the basicity of water, while the

presence of free mineral acids and carbonic acid increase its acidity. Acid mine drainage and industrial wastes that

have not been neutralized may significantly lower the pH of the water.


A pH range from 6.5 to 8.5 pH units is acceptable in drinking water. If the pH is outside this range, an

evaluation of the cause and its effects must be ascertained. A pH greater than 8.5 interferes with the disinfection

process of drinking water while a pH below 6.5 can result in premature corrosion.

The pH of the water may influence the species composition of an aquatic environment and affect the

availability of nutrients and the relative toxicity of many trace elements. For the protection of the aquatic

environment, the pH should be within the range of 6.5 to 9 units; also, discharges should not alter the ambient pH

by more than 0.5 pH units in mixing zones. An identical range has been suggested for aesthetic and recreational

uses. A pH value above 9 may lower the solubility of calcium carbonate, causing a precipitate and thus a milky

appearance of the water.

Effects on Use

The pH of drinking water supplies is adjusted to control corrosion in the distribution system. Industries

such as bleaching, brewing, photography, electro-plating, ore dressing, and photo-engraving are also affected by

the pH of their water supplies. Thus, pH is important in determining the treatment of water supplies.

Specific Conductance


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Specific conductance (conductivity) is a numerical expression of a water's ability to conduct an electrical

current. It is measured in microsiemens per centimetre (S/cm) corrected to a standard temperature, usually 25C.

The conductivity of water is dependent on the concentration of dissolved salts and temperature.

Specific conductance provides a good indication of the changes in a water's composition, especially in its

mineral concentration. It is particularly sensitive to variations of dissolved solids, but provides no indication of the

relative quantities of the various components. As more dissolved solids are added, the water's specific conductivity

increases. An empirical relationship exists between specific conductance and total dissolved solids; specific

conductance multiplied by 0.65 closely approximates total dissolved solids, although this relationship should be

derived empirically for each site.


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Environmental Range

Specific conductance in natural surface waters has been found to range from 50 to 150 S/cm. Ground

water and water in arid regions usually have elevated specific conductance. The conductivity of arid waters is

typically 1000 S/cm. The specific conductance of seawater is usually expressed in terms of salinity. Specific

conductance in surface water is usually highest when ground water infiltration provides a significant portion of the

streamflow and is lowest in spring when waters from melting snow provide dilution.

Industrial wastes can elevate the specific conductance of receiving waters to 10,000 S/cm.


No guidelines have been established to regulate specific conductance since the high values are found to

correlate with total dissolved solids; which have outlined objectives.

Effects on Use

Values of high specific conductance reflect the presence of high concentrations of total dissolved solids.

The effects of these are discussed in the section "Total Dissolved Solids".

Temperature

Temperature may be defined as the condition of a body which determines the transfer of heat to, or from,

other bodies. Temperature is usually measured by either a thermometer or thermistor and is expressed on a relative

scale such as the Celsius scale (C). Physical, biological and chemical processes in the aquatic environment are

affected by temperature. For example, increasing water temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen in water

while increasing the oxygen demand of fish. Higher temperature increases the solubility of many chemical

compounds.

Temperature variations are part of the natural climatic regime. Natural bodies of water may exhibit

seasonal and diurnal variations, as well as vertical stratification in temperature. Aquatic organisms have both an

upper and lower temperature limit for optimal growth, spawning, egg incubation and migration. These limits vary


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from species to species. Changes in temperature regimes may, therefore, alter the distribution and species

composition of aquatic communities.

Environmental Range

The temperature of surface water is a function of latitude, elevation, season, time of day, rate of flow,

depth, and other factors. Surface water varies from 0C under ice cover to 40C in hot springs. Ground water

tends to exhibit more uniform temperatures than surface water. Seawater rarely varies by more than 25C, either

in a given location or from place to place.

Sources

The temperature of a water is primarily a reflection of the climatic regime: however, humans can modify

water temperatures. Waters used for cooling in power plants transfer waste heat into receiving waters. The

discharge of many industrial wastes may also elevate water temperatures above ambient levels. The release of

bottom waters from impoundments (dams) in summer may introduce cooler water to rivers receiving such

discharges.


Temperature is a pervasive parameter, yet it is difficult to prescribe guidelines. No single temperature

requirement can be applied uniformly to large areas.

Public drinking waters should be of a temperature that is refreshing to the consumer. Temperatures of 15

C have been viewed acceptable, with an objective of less than 15C. Water temperatures may also affect the

efficiency of standard water treatment processes. Low temperatures reduce biological growth in distribution lines.

Although water-related recreational activities are generally pursued during the warmer months, water

temperatures may affect recreational uses of water. The degree of hazard depends on the immersion time, the

metabolic rate of a swimmer, and the water temperature. Swimmers who are in contact with waters below 15C

for periods longer than one hour and who do not take special precautions risk hypothermia. The immersion of the

human body in water with a temperature above 35C for an extended time period is also hazardous. However, the

temperature that individuals can withstand without decreasing or increasing their deep body (core) temperature

varies considerably.


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The temperature of irrigation water whether it be high or low temperature may affect plant growth either

by direct contact or by altering the soil temperature. However, no specific temperature guidelines have been

proposed.

Changes in the natural freezing patterns and freeze-up dates should be avoided so that wildlife is not

encouraged to remain past normal migration times and then be forced to over-winter in an environmentally

unsuitable region.

It is difficult to specify a temperature objective for the protection of aquatic life and still account for

diurnal and seasonal fluctuations. Table 3 (Environment Canada, 1979) presents four general levels of protection.

Level I dictates no change from the pristine natural state; level II permits some temperature modification but still a

high level of protection for aquatic life; level III allows further modification of natural values; and level IV offers

minimal protection to the aquatic environment and permits increases that may result in damage.


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Table 3

Temperature Guidelines for Fish and Other Aquatic

Organisms

(Environment Canada, 1979)

Level of

Protection

Temperature Criteria

I

II

III

IV

No change bey

resource file -st croix river

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