review of the x-factor: changes in civilian life a report ... · review of the x-factor: changes in...

Review of the X-factor:

Changes in civilian life

A report for the

Office of Manpower Economics

by

Incomes Data Research

December 2017

Review of the X-factor: Changes in civilian life | IDR

This report has been prepared by Incomes Data Research for the Office of Manpower Economics on behalf of the Armed Forces Pay Review Body. It has been researched and written by: Ken Mulkearn Ray Storry Louisa Withers Claire De Bond Georgia Young Steve Glenn Lois Wiggins Sarah Welfare Incomes Data Research The Studio | The Old Gasworks | 43 Progress Road | Leigh-on-Sea | Essex | SS9 5PR t: +44 (0)1702 669 549 e: [email protected] w: www.incomesdataresearch.co.uk

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.incomesdataresearch.co.uk/


of 168

Contents 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 11

1.1. Background ................................................................................................................................. 11

1.2. Methodology and data sources ................................................................................................... 12

2. Turbulence ...................................................................................................................................... 13

2.1. Home ownership and tenure ....................................................................................................... 14

2.2. Social housing ............................................................................................................................. 21

2.3. School standards and admissions .............................................................................................. 22

2.4. Access to, and satisfaction with, NHS services .......................................................................... 25

2.5. Mortgages and credit .................................................................................................................. 28

2.6. Childcare ..................................................................................................................................... 33

3. Spouse/partner employment ........................................................................................................... 37

3.1. Economic activity ........................................................................................................................ 38

3.2. Underemployment among married women ................................................................................. 41

3.3. Managerial status among married women .................................................................................. 43

3.4. Earnings ...................................................................................................................................... 44

3.5. Childcare provision ...................................................................................................................... 49

4. Danger ............................................................................................................................................. 51

4.1. Fatal and non-fatal workplace injuries ........................................................................................ 52

4.2. Sickness absence ....................................................................................................................... 54

4.3. Road traffic accidents .................................................................................................................. 56

4.4. Violent crime................................................................................................................................ 57

4.5. Post-traumatic stress disorder .................................................................................................... 60

4.6. Suicide and self-harm ................................................................................................................. 60

5. Separation ....................................................................................................................................... 64

5.1. Domestic business travel ............................................................................................................ 65

5.2. International business travel ....................................................................................................... 66

6. Job security ..................................................................................................................................... 68

6.1. Employment ................................................................................................................................ 69

6.2. Self-employment ......................................................................................................................... 73

6.3. Unemployment ............................................................................................................................ 75

6.4. Underemployment and overemployment .................................................................................... 76

6.5. Zero-hours contracts ................................................................................................................... 77

6.6. Redundancies ............................................................................................................................. 79

6.7. Labour turnover ........................................................................................................................... 80

7. Hours of work .................................................................................................................................. 82


of 168

7.1. Contracted working hours ........................................................................................................... 83

7.2. Shift and unsocial hours working ................................................................................................ 86

7.3. Overtime and long hours ............................................................................................................. 88

7.4. Shift premiums ............................................................................................................................ 91

7.5. Zero-hours contracts ................................................................................................................... 93

8. Stress, personal relationships and impact of the job ...................................................................... 94

8.1. Work-related stress ..................................................................................................................... 95

8.2. Divorce and separation ............................................................................................................... 98

8.3. Social and mental health issues................................................................................................ 101

8.4. Suicide and self-harm ............................................................................................................... 104

9. Leave ............................................................................................................................................. 108

9.1. Annual leave entitlement ........................................................................................................... 109

9.2. Calculating holiday pay ............................................................................................................. 109

9.3. The ability to choose when to take holiday ............................................................................... 110

9.4. Ability to carry over unused holidays ........................................................................................ 111

9.5. Untaken holidays ....................................................................................................................... 112

10. Training, education, adventure training and personal development ......................................... 113

10.1. Training ..................................................................................................................................... 114

10.2. Education .................................................................................................................................. 115

10.3. Apprenticeships ......................................................................................................................... 118

10.4. Participation in sport .................................................................................................................. 119

11. Promotion and early responsibility ............................................................................................ 121

11.1. Promotion opportunities ............................................................................................................ 121

11.2. Progression and promotion opportunities ................................................................................. 123

12. Autonomy, management control and flexibility ......................................................................... 125

12.1. Autonomy and flexibility at work ................................................................................................ 126

12.2. Lack of autonomy ...................................................................................................................... 137

13. Individual, trade union and collective rights .............................................................................. 140

13.1. Trade union membership .......................................................................................................... 142

13.2. Private and public sectors ......................................................................................................... 143

13.3. Trade union membership – wage premium .............................................................................. 144

13.4. Employment law changes ......................................................................................................... 147

13.5. Employment tribunal fees .......................................................................................................... 153

14. Travel to work ............................................................................................................................ 157

14.1. Method of travelling to work ...................................................................................................... 157

14.2. Time and distance to work ........................................................................................................ 159

14.3. Transport costs.......................................................................................................................... 161


of 168

14.4. Employer assistance with travel costs ...................................................................................... 162

Appendix 1 X-factor component revisions following the 2013 review ................................................... 165

Appendix 2 Data sources used in the 2017 X-factor review ................................................................. 166


of 168

Table 1 Time at same address by employment status, April 2012-March 2013 to April 2016-March2017 ........... 15

Table 2 Home ownership type by employment status, April 2012/March 2013 – April 2016/March 2017 ........... 17

Table 3 Rent status by employment status, 2012-2013 – 2016-2017 ................................................................. 20

Table 4 Housing tenure by age, 2017 .............................................................................................................. 21

Table 5 Housing ownership by age, 2012/2013–2016/2017 ............................................................................. 21

Table 6 Renting by age, 2012/2013–2016/2017 .............................................................................................. 21

Table 7 Number of social housing dwellings in England, 2011-2016 ................................................................. 22

Table 8 Average weekly rents in England, 2010/11-2015/16............................................................................ 22

Table 9 Ofsted performance ratings for secondary schools in England, 2012-2017 ............................................ 22

Table 10 School admission appeals, primary, 2013-2016 ................................................................................. 24

Table 11 School admission appeals, secondary, 2013-2016 .............................................................................. 25

Table 12 Ease of getting through to GP surgery by phone, 2012-2016 .............................................................. 25

Table 13 Able to get an appointment to see or speak to someone, 2012-2016 .................................................. 26

Table 14 Were you successful in getting an NHS dental appointment? ............................................................. 27

Table 15 Overall experience of GP surgery (%) ................................................................................................ 28

Table 16 Overall experience of NHS dental services (%) ................................................................................... 28

Table 17 Ratio of median house price to median gross annual residence-based earnings, 2012-2016 ................ 31

Table 18 Overall effectiveness of active early years registered providers at their most recent inspection ........... 34

Table 19 Average weekly childcare costs - Nursery 25 hours (under 2), 2012-2016 ............................................ 35

Table 20 Average weekly childcare cost - Nursery 25 hours (2 and over), 2012-2016 ......................................... 35

Table 21 Average weekly childcare costs - Childminder 25 hours (under 2), 2012-2016 ..................................... 36

Table 22 Average weekly childcare costs - Childminder 25 hours (2 and over), 2012-2016 ................................. 36

Table 23 Economic activity and employment rates by gender, Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2017 ............................. 38

Table 24 Change in economic activity status of married/co-habiting women who have been resident at their

address for less than 12 months, 2012-2017 ................................................................................................... 40

Table 25 Proportion of married women (16-69) reporting to want to work fewer/more hours, 2014-2017 ......... 41

Table 26 Proportion of married women reporting wanting a better/new job, 2012-2014 .................................. 43

Table 27 Proportion of married women who are managers or supervisors, 2012-2017 ...................................... 43

Table 28 Median hourly pay - excluding overtime for men and women, 2012-2017 .......................................... 45

Table 29 Median hourly pay – excluding overtime for full-time employees by gender, 2012-2017 ..................... 45

Table 30 Median hourly pay – excluding overtime for part-time employees by gender, 2012-2017 .................... 45

Table 31 Median gross hourly pay - including overtime for men and women, 2012-2017 .................................. 47

Table 32 Median gross hourly pay – including overtime for full-time employees by gender, 2012-2017 ............. 47

Table 33 Median gross hourly pay – including overtime for part-time employees by gender, 2012-2017 ............ 47

Table 34 Distribution of men and women (16-69) in each major occupational classification, Apr 2012-Mar 2014 –

Apr 2016-Mar 2017 ....................................................................................................................................... 49

Table 35 Distribution of married and non-married women (16-69) in each major occupational classification, Apr

2012-Mar 2014 – Apr 2016-Mar 2017 ............................................................................................................. 49

Table 36 Number and rate (per 100,000 workers) of fatal injuries to workers ................................................... 52

Table 37 Rates (per 100,000 workers) o non-fatal injuries to workers; and average days lost ............................ 53

Table 38 Self-reported rates of workplace non-fatal injuries (per 100,000 workers) .......................................... 54

Table 39 Average level of employee absence by sector (number of days lost per year), 2012-2016 .................... 55

Table 40 Road accidents by severity, 2011-2016.............................................................................................. 56

Table 41 Road casualties by user type and severity, 2011-2016 ....................................................................... 57

Table 42 Rate of homicide per million in England and Wales, April 2011/March 2012-April 2015/March 2016 ... 58

Table 43 Proportion of offences recorded as homicide where principal suspect is a stranger in England and Wales

.................................................................................................................................................................... 59

Table 44 Suicide rates per 100,000 persons by gender, Great Britain, 2012-2016 .............................................. 61


of 168

Table 45 Suicide rates by gender and five-year age groups, Great Britain, 2012-2016 ....................................... 62

Table 46 People aged 16 to 74 reporting to have self-harmed, 2000, 2007 and 2014 ........................................ 62

Table 47 People aged 16 to 74 reporting to have self-harmed by age, 2000, 2007 and 2014 .............................. 63

Table 48 Business domestic tourism, England, Scotland and Wales, 2012-2015 ................................................ 65

Table 49 Commuting and business trip numbers, distances and duration, 2012-2016 ....................................... 66

Table 50 UK residents travelling on domestic business, 2012-2016 ................................................................... 66

Table 51 Number of visits abroad for UK residents for business by region, 2012-2016 ....................................... 67

Table 52 Average length of stay on visits abroad for UK residents on business by region, 2012-2016 ................. 67

Table 53 Employment, people by full-time and part-time (16+) (thousands) ..................................................... 70

Table 54 Employment levels for men and women (thousands) (seasonally adjusted), Apr-Jun 2012-Apr-Jun 2016

.................................................................................................................................................................... 71

Table 55 Employment levels by age (thousands) (seasonally adjusted), Apr-Jun 2012-Apr-Jun 2016 .................. 72

Table 56 Employment numbers and reasons for temporary and part-time working (16+), Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun

2016 ............................................................................................................................................................. 72

Table 57 Temporary workers by age, 4Q 2012-2016 ........................................................................................ 73

Table 58 All in employment and self-employed, and proportion self-employed (seasonally adjusted) (thousands),

Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016 .......................................................................................................................... 74

Table 59 All self-employed, and by men and women (thousands) (seasonally adjusted), Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun

2016 ............................................................................................................................................................. 74

Table 60 Self-employed by age (thousands) (seasonally adjusted), Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016 ....................... 75

Table 61 Main reason for being self-employed, 2014-2016 .............................................................................. 75

Table 62 UK unemployment rates (aged 16 and over), seasonally adjusted, Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016 ......... 76

Table 63 UK unemployment rates (18-24), seasonally adjusted, Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016 ........................... 76

Table 64 Underemployment and overemployment of those aged 16 and over (not seasonally adjusted) ........... 77

Table 65 Level of those in employment on a zero-hours contract, Apr-Jun 2000-Apr-Jun 2017 ........................... 78

Table 66 Level and rate of people on zero-hours contract, by age (thousands) ................................................. 79

Table 67 Redundancies - levels and rates (not seasonally adjusted), Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016 ..................... 79

Table 68 Median rate of labour turnover (%), (2012-2017) .............................................................................. 81

Table 69 Likelihood of losing main job, by sector (%) ....................................................................................... 81

Table 70 Weekly basic working hours for full-time employees by gender, 2012-2016 ........................................ 83

Table 71 Weekly total working hours for full-time employees by gender, 2012-2016 ........................................ 84

Table 72 Median basic weekly hours, by sector, 2012-2016 ............................................................................. 85

Table 73 Summary figures on basic weekly hours, by sector, 2012-2016 ........................................................... 85

Table 74 Proportion of people working shift work most of the time, 2012-2016 (%) .......................................... 86

Table 75 Proportion of people working evenings, 2012-2016 (%) ..................................................................... 87

Table 76 Proportion of people working night work, 2012-2016 (%) .................................................................. 87

Table 77 Proportion of people working Saturdays, 2012-2016 (%) .................................................................... 87

Table 78 Proportion of people working Sundays, 2012-2016 (%) ...................................................................... 87

Table 79 Percentage of employees who ever work paid or unpaid overtime – 2013-2017 .................................. 88

Table 80 Distribution of paid overtime (% of actual hours of paid overtime) – 2013-2017 ................................. 88

Table 81 Distribution of unpaid overtime (% of actual hours of unpaid overtime) – 2013-2017 .......................... 88

Table 82 Distribution of paid overtime hours by occupational group (%) .......................................................... 89

Table 83 Unpaid overtime by occupational group (%) ..................................................................................... 90

Table 84 Percentage of people working long hours – 2013-2017 ...................................................................... 90

Table 85 Level and rate of people on zero-hours contracts, 2012-2016 ............................................................. 93

Table 86 Self-reported illness caused or made worse by work for people working (all illnesses), 2011/12-2016/17

.................................................................................................................................................................... 96


of 168

Table 87 Estimated working days lost due to self-reported illness caused or made worse by work, 2011/12-

2016/17 ........................................................................................................................................................ 96

Table 88 Average level of employee absence by sector (number of days lost per year), 2012-2016 .................... 97

Table 89 Divorces in England and Wales, 2012-2016 ....................................................................................... 98

Table 90 Divorce rates in opposite sex marriage in England and Wales by gender, 2012-2016........................... 99

Table 91 Divorce rates in opposite sex marriage in England and Wales by gender and age, 2011-2015.............. 99

Table 92 Marriages, 2011-2014 .................................................................................................................... 100

Table 93 Civil partnership formations and dissolutions by gender, 2012-2016 ................................................ 101

Table 94 Alcohol-related death rates per 100,000 persons by gender, 2012-2016 ........................................... 101

Table 95 Alcohol-related deaths per 100,000 by gender and age (25+), 2012-2016 ......................................... 102

Table 96 Rough sleeping estimates in UK, 2012-2016 .................................................................................... 103

Table 97 Prison population statistics, 2012-2016 ........................................................................................... 104

Table 98 Suicide rates per 100,000 persons by gender, Great Britain, 2012-2016 ............................................ 105

Table 99 Suicide rates by gender and five-year age groups, Great Britain, 2012-2016 ..................................... 106

Table 100 People aged 16 to 74 reporting to have self-harmed, 2000, 2007 and 2014 ..................................... 107

Table 101 People aged 16 to 74 reporting to have self-harmed by age, 2000, 2007 and 2014 .......................... 107

Table 102 Median annual leave entitlement excluding bank and public holidays, by sector, 2012-2016 ........... 109

Table 103 Basic annual holiday entitlement by broad sector, May 2017 ......................................................... 109

Table 104 Proportion of employees that had undertaken training since the last 12 months, 2011/12-2015/16 114

Table 105 Breakdown of training by provider, 2011/12-2012/15 ................................................................... 114

Table 106 Reason for training, 2011/2012-2015/16 ...................................................................................... 115

Table 107 Number of young people Not in Education, Employment or Training (NEET), England, 2012-2017 .... 116

Table 108 Proportion of young people Not in Education, Employment or Training (NEET), England, 2012-2017 116

Table 109 University admissions, 2012-2016 ................................................................................................. 117

Table 110 Proportion of acceptances from applicants, 2012-2016 .................................................................. 118

Table 111 All age apprenticeship starts by level and age, 2010/11 to 2014/15 ............................................... 118

Table 112 National average figures on adult participation in sport, Oct 2011/12-Oct 2015/16 ........................ 119

Table 113 Adult participation in sport by type of activity, Oct 2011/12-Oct 2015/16 ....................................... 120

Table 114 How likely do employees feel they will be able to fulfil their career aspirations in their current

organisation, 2014-2017 .............................................................................................................................. 122

Table 115 Number and proportion of under 30s describing themselves as managers of foreman/supervisors .. 124

Table 116 Degree of autonomy over job tasks .............................................................................................. 127

Table 117 Degree of autonomy over job tasks by respondents’ age ............................................................... 128

Table 118 Degree of autonomy over work pace ............................................................................................ 129

Table 119 Degree of autonomy over work pace by respondents’ age ............................................................. 130

Table 120 Degree of autonomy over work manner ........................................................................................ 131

Table 121 Degree of autonomy over work manner by respondents’ age ........................................................ 132

Table 122 Degree of autonomy over task order ............................................................................................ 133

Table 123 Degree of autonomy over task order by respondents’ age ............................................................. 134

Table 124 Degree of autonomy over working hours ...................................................................................... 135

Table 125 Degree of autonomy over work manner by respondents’ age ........................................................ 136

Table 126 Degree of autonomy over working hours by number of hours worked, 2010/11 – 2014/15 .............. 137

Table 127 Level and rate of people on zero-hours contracts ........................................................................... 138

Table 128 Trade Union membership, presence in workplace and collective agreement coverage (% of employees),

2012-2016 ................................................................................................................................................... 142

Table 129 Number of trade unions and trade union membership in the UK, 2012/13-2016/17 ........................ 142

Table 130 Trade union membership density (% of employees), 2012-2016 ...................................................... 143

Table 131 Trade union membership levels by sector (000s), 2011-2016 .......................................................... 143


of 168

Table 132 Trade union presence and collective agreement coverage (% of employees), 2012-2016 ................. 144

Table 133 Trade union wage premium (%), 2012-2016 .................................................................................. 144

Table 134 Industrial action working days lost and stoppages, 2012-2016 ....................................................... 145

Table 135 Proportion (%) of employees with pay and conditions affected by union agreements, by age, 2012-

2016 ........................................................................................................................................................... 145

Table 136 Trade union membership by workplace size (% of employees in workforce that are members of a trade

union or staff association), 2012-2016 .......................................................................................................... 146

Table 137 Trade union presence by workplace size (% of employees with trade union at workplace), 2012-2016

.................................................................................................................................................................. 146

Table 138 Employees or self-employed workers that are members of trade unions - How well run are the trade

unions, 2012 and 2014 ................................................................................................................................. 147

Table 139 Employment tribunal fees – single claimants ................................................................................. 153

Table 140 Usual method of travel to work, 2012-2016................................................................................... 158

Table 141 Mode of transport to work, 2012-2016 ......................................................................................... 159

Table 142 Usual home to work travel time (minutes), 2012-2016 ................................................................... 160

Table 143 Minutes spent travelling to work, 2012-2016 ................................................................................ 160

Table 144 Distance from work in miles, 2010/11-2014/15 ............................................................................. 160

Table 145 Commuting and business trip numbers, distances and duration, 2012-2016 .................................... 161

Table 146 Rise in transport costs, January 2013-September 2017 ................................................................... 162

Table 147 Index measuring the change in rail fares at 1 January each year by sector and ticket type, GB, 2012-

2017 ........................................................................................................................................................... 162


of 168

Executive summary

Our conclusions as to how civilian life has changed in each of the components since the 2012 X-

Factor review are summarised in the following illustration. Overall there has been no change in

four components, improvement in four components (two of which show clear improvement) and

deterioration in five components (one of which shows a clear deterioration). Using a graphic

representation of a 5-point Likert scale to capture the extent of the changes, we would summarise

the changes since the last review for each of the components as follows:

2017 review 2012 review

1. Turbulence ↓ ↓

2. Spouse/partner employment ↑↑ ↓

3. Danger ↑ ↓

4. Separation from family and home ↔ ↔

5. Job security ↔ ↓

6. Hours of work ↔ ↔

7. Stress, personal relationships and impact of the job ↔ ↑ ↑

8. Leave ↔ ↔

9. Training, education, adventure training and personal

development

↑ ↓ ↓

10. Promotion and early responsibility ↔ ↓

11. Autonomy, management control and flexibility ↔ ↓

12. Individual, trade unions and collective rights ↓↓ ↑ ↓

13. Travel to work ↔ ↑

Key: ↑↑ clear improvement, ↑ slight improvement, ↔ no change, ↓ slight deterioration, ↓↓ clear deterioration

Note: The individual X-factor components were reviewed in 2013 which resulted in a number of changes to the

components. ‘Spouse/partner employment’ was not a stand-alone component in 2012 but was examined separately

under Turbulence. ‘Stress, personal relationships and impact of the job’, ‘Training, education, adventure training and

personal development’ and ‘Individual, trade unions and collective rights’ are new components which merged two

former components. See Appendix 1 for a detailed read-across from the 2012 components to the 2017 components.


of 168

1. Introduction

This report has been prepared for the Office of Manpower Economics (OME) by Incomes Data

Research (IDR). It presents results of our assessment of changes in each of the 13 X-factor

components for civilian life over the last five years.

1.1. Background

Introduced in 1970, the X-factor is a pensionable addition to basic military pay. It is currently

worth 14.5% and is intended to reflect the balance of advantages and disadvantages of

conditions of service experienced by members of the Armed Forces compared to workers in the

civilian sector. It takes account of a range of components including the turbulence of military life

and its impact on spousal/partners’ employment. The value and uprating of the X-factor addition

is not based on a formula, but rather on careful consideration of trends in the components to

evaluate any movement in the relative advantage or disadvantage between military and civilian

life. Its value is reviewed every five years and the last review took place in 2012.

There are currently 13 components as follows1:

1. Turbulence

2. Spouse/partner employment

3. Danger

4. Separation

5. Job security

6. Hours of work

7. Stress, personal relationships and impact of the job

8. Leave

9. Training, education, adventure training and personal development

10. Promotion and early responsibility

11. Autonomy, management control and flexibility

12. Individual, trade union and collective rights

13. Travel to work

1 The X-factor components were reviewed in 2013, resulting in the number of components reducing from 18 to 13. See Appendix 1 for details.


of 168

These components take into consideration a range of factors that affect military life, some of

which may be viewed as advantageous and others as disadvantageous. The focus of this review

is to examine available, suitable and relevant data for civilian life for each factor to determine

what change, if any, has taken place since 2012. This review does not cover changes in military

life, which will be conducted independently from this project. The Armed Forces Pay Review

Body (AFPRB) will take evidence from both sides (ie the contractor and the MoD) to assess

whether or not military life has deteriorated compared to civilian life and subsequently make a

decision on the value of the X-factor.

1.2. Methodology and data sources

The first stage involved identifying and assessing potential relevant data sources for each of the

X-factor components. We conducted an audit of the data sources, which determined the extent

to which they are available or obtainable within reasonable time and cost limits, give an

indication of change over time, measure appropriately the purpose of each component and are

credible. Once we confirmed the list of data sources to be used with the OME, and a convention

for dealing with different time series, we undertook stage two of the process – collating and

analysing the data. The third and final stage involved producing an overview of developments

in relevant aspects of civilian life and labour markets, based on the data collected and examined

in stage two and making an assessment of the direction and extent of any changes, taking into

account the quality, reliability and limitations of each data source.

Our assessment draws on a number of data sources as shown in Appendix 2.


of 168

2. Turbulence

Definition: Turbulence is defined as the dislocation to family and social life caused by regular

changes to both the type and geographical location of work whose effect is exacerbated when

the employee receives short notice about these changes.

Turbulence has an impact on the following:

a) home ownership is more difficult as personnel need to move frequently;

b) maintaining friendships and family contacts outside work;

c) developing external interests;

d) accessing state education;

e) continuity and stability of education for the children of Service personnel;

f) accessing NHS medical and dental care; and

g) impact upon credit rating generally.

Armed Forces’ personnel must be able to move at short notice, and sometimes frequently,

between units and theatres. However, this may vary considerably between different personnel

and vary over a career. Such significant and repeated pressure may have a major impact on the

quality of life they experience.

Conclusion: this is a multi-faceted component and proved very complex to analyse but overall

we conclude that the data for this component shows a slight deterioration, based mainly on the

importance of housing in underpinning many of the other aspects of this factor. Taking each of

the data measures in turn:

• Home ownership has declined further, particularly so for younger people. While long-

term housing tenure shows little change, there may be a shift from medium-term to

shorter-term tenure lengths. There has been little change in the type of rented

accommodation, but the trend for younger people to rent rather than own is rising.

• On school standards and school admissions, we found a mixed picture with school

performance improved in many areas but increased admissions appeals, especially in

the secondary sector, so we conclude that there is no overall discernible change.

• Access to NHS services shows little change, with good levels overall. Satisfaction

remains broadly unchanged for the NHS overall and GP services and a slight

improvement in dental services.


of 168

• On credit, the number of mortgage approvals has increased since 2012, as has credit

more generally, which is an improvement for civilians.

• Data on childcare shows that there has been an improvement in the quality of childcare,

according to Ofsted inspection ratings, the number of places is unchanged but childcare

costs have increased, significantly so in London.

Our assessment of how turbulence has changed in civilian life is based on examining changes

in home ownership, as well as data on access to schools and NHS services. Home ownership

is relevant because a rise in the incidence of home ownership indicates a decrease in the extent

of turbulence, and vice versa. We look at mortgage approvals and wider unsecured lending as

a way of examining access to credit. Access to ‘normal’ education opportunities is an important

component of stable life for families, and the use of NHS services is a standard aspect of social

normality. Childcare provision, quality and cost are an indication of ease of access, or otherwise,

to a service which makes other key aspects of life, including stable employment, possible.

2.1. Home ownership and tenure

The data on length of housing tenure, or the time spent at the same address, indicates the

proportions of employees and the self-employed, in each of the five years from 2012 to 2016, in

four categories as follows:

1. Tenure of less than 2 years (short-term);

2. Tenure of over 2 but less than 5 years (short to medium-term);

3. Tenure of over 5 but less than 10 years (medium-term);

4. Tenure of 10 years or more (long-term).

We would describe the trend for employees here as involving stability in long-term tenure, but

with a small deterioration in medium-term tenure. This is because there has been little change in

the proportions of employees with long-term tenures (10 years or more), but there has been a

moderate decline in the proportions enjoying what could be described as a ‘medium-term’ tenure

length (over 5 but less than ten years). Meanwhile the proportions of employees with shorter-term

tenures has increased slightly, which could be pointing towards a future deterioration in tenure

lengths. (The trend for those classified as ‘self-employed’ is similar.)


of 168

Data for category 1 shows a small increase in the proportion of employees who have been at the

same address for less than two years, from 20.3% in 2012/13, to 22.4% in 2016/17. Looking at

category 2, the data also shows a small increase, from 18.5% at the start of the reference period,

to 20% at the end.

For category 3, by contrast, there would appear to have been a moderate decrease in the

proportion of employees with over 5 but less than 10 years’ tenure at the same address – from

20.3% to 16.5%. Meanwhile, for those with the longest tenure (category 4 – 10 years or more),

the data indicates very little change over the period.

Table 1 Time at same address by employment status, April 2012-March 2013 to April 2016-March2017

Length of tenure Employee Self-employed

April 2012 - March 2013

Less than 2 years 20.3 15.8

2 but less than 5 years 18.5 17.0


10 years or more 40.8 45.4











April 2015 - March 2016 Less than 2 years 22.1 17.3




April 2016 - March 2017 Less than 2 years 22.4 17.3




Source: Annual Population Survey/Labour Force Survey.


of 168


of 168

The proportion of employees who own their own home has fallen since 2012, from 71.4% to

68.3%, a fall of nearly 3 percentage points. Figures for those classified as ‘self-employed’ exhibit

a greater decline, from 76.9% to 73.4%, a drop of 3.5 percentage points. Meanwhile the

proportions of each group who rent their home has increased.

Table 2 Home ownership type by employment status, April 2012/March 2013 – April 2016/March 2017

Employee Self-employed

April 2012 - March 2013 Owned, buying incl. part buying 71.4 76.9

Rented 27.9 22.4


Rented 28.4 23.4


Rented 29.6 24.6


Rented 30.6 25.3


Rented 30.9 25.7



of 168

For those renting their home, the proportions show comparatively little change overall, with the

bulk of tenants, between almost three-fifths and two-thirds of employees and self-employed,

renting their home from private landlords.

The proportions renting from local authorities or via ‘social’ housing providers like housing

associations are stable, though the small proportions paying rent to ‘other’ bodies appears to have

risen slightly, perhaps marginally at the expense of the private rented sector.


of 168


of 168

Table 3 Rent status by employment status, 2012-2013 – 2016-2017

Employee Self-employed

2012-2013 Local authority 19.4 14.3

Social 17.2 13.9

Other 4.6 4.8

Private 58.9 67.0


Social 17.3 14.1

Other 4.9 4.9

Private 57.9 66.6


Social 17.5 14.0

Other 5.0 5.2

Private 57.9 65.2


Social 17.4 14.1

Other 5.2 5.6

Private 57.1 64.2


Social 17.5 14.5

Other 5.1 5.7

Private 57.9 65.7


The findings on housing tenure by age are an important consideration for the Armed Forces, since

the age profile of the military is skewed towards the lower age bands, and the AFPRB considers

the impact of turbulence on the ability of military personnel to own their own home. Looking at

housing tenure by age, the figures show that those in the youngest age group (25-34) now rent

almost as much as they own their own home. This trend was present at the outset of the latest

period, but has since strengthened. In 2012/13, some 55% of those in the youngest age group

owned their own home, but in the latest period this had fallen to 52%. So, while people aged 25-

34 are still more likely to own their own home than rent, it might be that this trend could soon be

reversed, unless the situation with regard to housing availability/affordability changes.

As age increases, there is a concomitantly increasing tendency for people to own their own home,

with the large majority (84%) of those aged 55 and over owning their own home, and only 15%

renting.


of 168

Table 4 Housing tenure by age, 2017

Age band 25-34 35-44 45-54 55+

Owned, including shared ownership (%) 52 69 79 84

Rented (%) 47 31 20 15


Table 5 Housing ownership by age, 2012/2013–2016/2017

Age bands (%)

16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55+ Total

2012/13 60.4 55.0 73.2 82.0 86.6 71.9

2013/14 59.3 54.0 72.9 81.3 86.1 71.2

2014/15 57.5 53.3 70.9 80.4 85.2 70.0

2015/16 57.4 52.3 69.6 79.5 84.3 69.1

2016/17 58.5 51.9 68.9 79.3 83.8 68.8

Note: ownership includes part-ownership, for instance in conjunction with a housing association or other provider. Source: Annual Population Survey.

Table 6 Renting by age, 2012/2013–2016/2017

Age bands (%) Total

16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55+

2012/13 38.9 44.1 26.2 17.5 12.6 27.5

2013/14 39.8 45.1 26.5 18.1 13.1 28.1

2014/15 41.5 45.8 28.5 18.9 14.1 29.2

2015/16 41.6 46.8 29.8 19.8 14.9 30.2

2016/17 40.7 47.1 30.5 20.1 15.4 30.4

Source: Annual Population Survey.

2.2. Social housing

The Department for Communities and Local Government 2 publishes local authority housing

statistics which cover local authority housing stock, rent, waiting lists and evictions. Data on the

number of social housing dwellings shows that the number owned by local authorities has

declined, while those owned by housing associations has grown following large-scale transfers

from local authorities. Overall the total number of social housing dwellings has been maintained,

but there have been subsequent consequences for average rents since these are higher for PRP

dwellings than local authority social housing.

2https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/582793/Local_Authority_H

ousing_Statistics_England_year_ending_March_2016.pdf

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/582793/Local_Authority_Housing_Statistics_England_year_ending_March_2016.pdf

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/582793/Local_Authority_Housing_Statistics_England_year_ending_March_2016.pdf


of 168

Table 7 Number of social housing dwellings in England, 2011-2016

Year Local Authority Private Registered Provider Other public sector

2011 1,725,905 2,319,511 63,237

2012 1,693,000 2,359,000 75,000

2013 1,682,000 2,392,000 73,000

2014 1,669,000 2,407,000 64,000

2015 1,643,000 2,452,000 55,000

2016 1,612,000 2,494,000 57,000

Source: Local Authority Housing Statistics, DCLG/ONS.

Table 8 Average weekly rents in England, 2010/11-2015/16

Year Local Authority, £ Private Registered Provider, £

2010-2011 £67.83 £77.91

2012-2012 £73.58 £78.28

2012-2013 £78.55 £83.21

2013-2014 £82.44 £88.41

2015-2015 £85.89 £92.30

2015-2016 £87.93 £95.89

Source: Local Authority Housing Statistics, DCLG/ONS.

2.3. School standards and admissions

Access to facets of life that contribute significantly to domestic and social normality is an important

aspect of both civilian and military life. For civilians, this can be measured in a number of ways.

One of these is the performance of schools, as measured by inspection.

Based on their inspections of schools in England, Ofsted data show a steady improvement in

school performance over recent years with the proportion of ‘good’ or ‘outstanding’ primary

schools increasing from 69% in 2012 to 90% in 2017 and the corresponding figures for secondary

schools increasing from 70% to 89% over the same period.

Table 9 Ofsted performance ratings for secondary schools in England, 2012-2017

Proportion (%)

Outstanding Good Requires improvement Inadequate

As at 31 August 2012 21 49 28 3

As at 31 August 2013 20 58 19 3

As at 31 August 2014 20 61 17 3

As at 31 August 2015 20 64 14 2

As at 31 August 2016 21 68 10 2

As at 31 March 2017 21 68 9 2

Source: Ofsted.


of 168

Education Scotland, responsible for inspecting schools, issued a report in April 2017 covering its

inspections over the period 2012-2016. It reported that over that period, the majority of primary

and secondary schools received a positive inspection, albeit with areas for development. It noted

the continuous improvement in pupil outcomes, in particular, a steady improvement in the

percentage of young people leaving school for positive destinations, the percentage of leavers

attaining an SCQF 4 and SCQF 5 in National Qualifications in literacy and numeracy, and an

improvement in the attainment of young people living across almost all Scottish Index of Multiple

Deprivation deciles.

In Wales, Her Majesty's Chief Inspector of Education and Training (Estyn), published data relating

to its inspections of schools. Since 2012/13, the proportion of primary school achieving a ’good’

or ‘excellent’ outcome has fluctuated between 62% and 72% but the past three years have

remained broadly stable. Judgements for secondary schools have generally been at a lower level

and have again fluctuated (between 39% and 53%) achieving a ’good’ or ‘excellent’ outcome over

this period.

In Northern Ireland, a school’s effectiveness is judged by the Education and Training Inspectorate

in relation to its ‘capacity for sustained improvement in the interest of all the learners’.

Performance across school phases since 2012 has been mixed with a slight increase in the

proportion of early years schools with a ‘high level of capacity’, a slight decrease for primary

schools and a notable increase in performance in the secondary sector.

The data here is confined to just two of the years in our five-year reference period. This is because

the relevant questions were only asked in two waves of the relevant survey (‘Understanding

Society’). In this survey some questions are core and are asked in every wave while others are

rotated, and others again are merely topical, arising for a short period before disappearing

altogether.

The survey asked respondents about school standards in 2011/12 and again in 2014/15. There

was little difference between each survey in the proportions reporting school standards as

‘excellent’, ‘very good’, ‘fair’, or ‘poor’. For primary schools, the greatest proportion, some 55%, in

each year regarded primary schools as ‘very good’, while between a quarter and a third regarded

primaries as ‘excellent’. (This did show a small increase, with the proportion in this response

category rising from just below 26% to just above 28%.) The proportions in the ‘fair’ category


of 168

showed a small decrease, from 17% to 15.2%, and there was almost no change in the very small

proportions reporting that they felt their local primary schools were ‘poor’. For secondary schools,

the figures and the changes in them were very similar, though with slightly smaller proportions

regarding schools as ‘very good’ – 51% and 52% in each survey year.

Additionally, on school standards, the latest schools census data (‘Schools, pupils and their

characteristics: January 2017’) from the DfE indicates that while overall pupil numbers in state

funded schools have grown by some 7% since 2012, class sizes have increased only marginally

(from 26.8 to 27.1 in primary schools and from 20.5 to 20.8 in secondary schools).

The number of admissions appeals registered with local authorities for primary and secondary

schools represents another method of measuring parents’ satisfaction. The data here reflects the

number of parents who are dissatisfied with schools’ decisions to reject their children’s

applications for admission as pupils. According to the School Census and Admission Appeals

Survey, from 2013/14 to 2016/17 the number of appeals in primary schools fluctuated, from 3.6%

to 3.8% than back to 3.4% of admissions. In secondary schools; the volume of appeals increased

steadily over the period, from 3.3% in 2013/14 to 4.8% in 2016/17. The proportion of decisions in

parents’ favour across both phases of school decreased slightly over the period.

Table 10 School admission appeals, primary, 2013-2016

LA-maintained primary schools

Number of schools admissions

Number of appeals lodged

Appeals heard Appeals decided in parents’ favour Number Percentage Number Percentage

England 2013/14 833,230 30,315 (3.6%) 21,080 2.5 4,135 19.6

England 2014/15 849,452 32,160 (3.8%) 22,279 2.6 4,255 19.1

England 2014/15 865,069 33,270 (3.8%) 22,820 2.6 4,152 18.2

England 2016/17 841,532 28,451 (3.4%) 19,336 2.3 3,494 18.1

Note: previous years are not comparable and so have been excluded from the school appeals data.

Source: Department for Education.


of 168

Table 11 School admission appeals, secondary, 2013-2016

LA-maintained secondary schools

Number of schools

admissions

Number of appeals lodged

Appeals heard Appeals decided in parents’ favour

Number Percentage Number Percentage

England 2013/14 610,640 20,235 (3.3%) 15,885 2.6 4,245 26.7

England 2014/15 632,252 22,440 (3.5%) 17,735 2.8 4,869 27.5

England 2015/16 640,705 29,031 (4.5%) 22,964 3.6 6,040 26.3

England 2016/17 674,790 32,435 (4.8%) 25,290 3.7 6,220 24.6

Note: previous years are not comparable and have been excluded. Source: Department for Education.

Our analysis of generally increasing school performance, modestly increased class sizes and

increased admissions appeals presents a mixed picture on school standards so we conclude that

there is no overall discernible change.

2.4. Access to, and satisfaction with, NHS services

Another facet of life that provides access to social normality is the standard of NHS services. The

GP Patient Survey, covering around 800,000 people, asks patients a range of questions about

their GP, the surgery and health more broadly and specifically asks about the ease of being able

to get through on the phone and make an appointment. There has been a slight increase in people

experiencing difficulties getting through to their GP surgery by phone between 2012 and 2016.

Over the same period there has been very little change in the proportion of patients unable to get

an appointment to see their GP. In both cases the change is too small to be significant and

suggests ease of getting through on the phone and making an appointment is unchanged.

Table 12 Ease of getting through to GP surgery by phone, 2012-2016

Proportion (%)

Not very easy Not at all easy Fairly easy Very easy

June 2012 13 5 47 31

December 2012 14 6 47 30

June 2013 15 7 47 28

December 2013 15 7 47 27

July 2014 16 8 47 26

January 2015 17 8 46 25

July 2015 17 9 46 25

January 2016 17 9 46 24

July 2016 17 9 46 24

Source: GP Patient Survey.


of 168

Table 13 Able to get an appointment to see or speak to someone, 2012-2016

Proportion %

No Yes, but had to call back closer to the day Yes

June 2012 9 12 75

December 2012 10 13 74

June 2013 10 13 74

December 2013 10 13 73

July 2014 11 13 73

January 2015 11 13 73

July 2015 11 12 73

January 2016 11 12 73

July 2016 11 12 73



of 168

The GP Patient Survey also asks respondents about access to NHS dental services. Of the 59%

who, when asked, have tried over the preceding two years to get an NHS dental appointment for

themselves, the figures for those who were successful have been both high and stable: 93% in

2012 and 93% in 2017.

Table 14 Were you successful in getting an NHS dental appointment?

Proportion %

Yes No Can't remember

June 2012 93 5 2

June 2013 93 5 2

July 2014 93 5 2

July 2015 93 5 2

July 2016 93 5 2

July 2017 93 5 2


Patients are also asked to rate their overall experience of NHS-provided GP and dental services.

It shows a slight decline in the proportion of patients rating their overall experience as ‘very good’.


of 168

Overall the proportion of patients rating their experience of the GP surgery as ‘good’ or ‘very good’

has fallen marginally from 88% in 2012 to 85% in 2017. Over the same period patients’ experience

of NHS dental services has improved marginally with the proportion of patients rating their

experience as ‘very good’ increasing from 47% in 2012 to 50% in 2017.

Table 15 Overall experience of GP surgery (%)

Very good Fairly good Neither good nor poor Fairly poor Very poor

June 2012 47 42 8 3 1

June 2013 45 42 9 3 1

July 2014 43 43 10 4 1

July 2015 43 42 10 4 1

July 2016 44 42 10 4 1

July 2017 43 42 10 4 1

Source: GP Patient Survey

Table 16 Overall experience of NHS dental services (%)

Very good Fairly good Neither good nor poor Fairly poor Very poor

June 2012 47 37 9 4 3

June 2013 48 36 9 4 3

July 2014 48 36 9 4 3

July 2015 49 36 9 4 3

July 2016 50 35 8 4 3

July 2017 50 35 8 4 3


The British Social Attitudes survey also provides data on satisfaction with NHS services, based

on a nationally representative sample of members of the public (rather than patients as is the

case with the GP Patient Survey), and shows that 63% are satisfied with the NHS overall, 73%

with GP services and 61% NHS dental services. The 2016 findings mirror those from the GP

Patient Survey, with no significant change in public satisfaction with the NHS overall or GP

services but a notable increase in satisfaction with dental services.

2.5. Mortgages and credit

Armed Forces’ personnel often face difficulties accessing credit as a result of the turbulence

caused by work. This can affect their ability to receive approval for loans. We have examined data

for civilians from the Bank of England on both secured and unsecured lending; numbers of


of 168

approvals for lending secured on dwellings (including new mortgages and remortgages) and wider

consumer lending (principally credit card and overdrafts).

Approvals for secured lending has increased over the past five years from around 100,000 per

month in 2012, to over 120,000 per month over the last year or so. The latest figures show total

approvals for secured lending to individuals at 129,885 in October 2017, which includes both new

house purchases and remortgages.

As the chart overleaf shows, approvals for remortgages have increased at a faster rate than

approvals for house purchases, from 31,287 in January 2012 to 31,287 in October 2017

compared to an increase from 56,171 to 64,575 for house purchases over the same period. Over

the longer-term approvals are on an upward trend, having fallen significantly during the recession

and the situation in terms of lending has improved for civilians since the last review in 2012.

However, it is important to note that there has been a decline in the affordability of home

ownership over the same period. According to a Parliamentary Briefing paper published on 14

November 2017, the median house price in England in 2016 was 7.7 times higher than median

gross annual earnings3, up from 6.8 times in 2012. The figures for England and Wales combined

show a similar trend – 7.6 in 2016 compared to 6.8 in 2012.

3 See http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7747/CBP-7747.pdf.

http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7747/CBP-7747.pdf


of 168


of 168

Table 17 Ratio of median house price to median gross annual residence-based earnings, 2012-2016

Region 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

England and Wales 6.73 6.76 6.73 6.95 7.37 7.58

England 6.79 6.77 6.76 7.09 7.53 7.72

North East 5.11 5.01 4.99 5.04 5.17 5.11

North West 5.28 5.23 5.14 5.41 5.54 5.62

Yorkshire and the Humber 5.39 5.35 5.29 5.54 5.69 5.70

East Midlands 5.63 5.48 5.52 5.84 6.13 6.20

West Midlands 5.92 5.89 5.84 6.19 6.29 6.37

East of England 6.83 6.79 6.94 7.30 7.86 8.33

London 9.18 9.15 9.62 10.77 11.78 12.88

South East 7.67 7.64 7.89 8.20 8.81 9.43

South West 7.46 7.45 7.41 7.65 8.00 8.40

Wales 5.51 5.56 5.46 5.55 5.64 5.73

Source: What is affordbable housing?, Parliamentary Briefing paper 14 November 2017.

Looking at wider consumer credit, principally credit card borrowing and overdrafts, the Bank of

England statistics 4 indicate growth in gross lending over the period by some 50% in cash terms

from 2012 to 2017. Some 70% of this was from ‘monetary financial institutions’ (banks) and a

similar proportion consisted of credit card loans. Figures on new lending show that this has also

continued to climb, indicating growth on new credit granted.

4 See table 5.6 here: http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/statistics/Pages/bankstats/current/default.aspx


of 168


of 168

2.6. Childcare

Data compiled by OFSTED shows that since 2012 the number of childcare providers 5 has

declined slightly, mainly due to a fall in the number of registered childminders. This appears to

have little impact on the number of childcare places, with the estimated number of places broadly

unchanged since 2012.

5 OFSTED categorises providers as one of the following; Childcare on non-domestic premises are

nurseries, pre-schools, holiday clubs and other private provision on business premises, usually registered

on the Early Years Register (EYR) because they look after children aged 0–5, Childminders are people

who are paid to look after one or more children they are not related to in someone’s home. The majority

are registered on the EYR because they look after children aged 0–5, but those who look after 5–7 year

olds need to register on the Childcare Register (CR), Childcare on domestic premises is where 4 or more

people look after children together in someone’s home. The majority are registered on the EYR and some

are registered on the CR, depending on the age of the children they look after, and home childcarers are

nannies who care for children aged 0-18 wholly or mainly in the child’s own home. They are not required to

register with Ofsted but may choose to do so on the Voluntary Childcare Register (VCR).


of 168

In respect of the quality of childcare available, there has been a significant fall in the number of

providers being rated as ‘requires improvement’ following inspection and corresponding increases

in those rated as either ‘outstanding’ or ‘good’.

Table 18 Overall effectiveness of active early years registered providers at their most recent inspection

EYR

providers

Total number

inspected Outstanding Good

Requires Improvement

Inadequate

Number Percentage of inspections (%)

At 31 March 2017 66,142 53,788 16 77 6 1

At 31 August 2016 67,254 55,290 15 76 8 1

At 31 August 2015 71,312 58,809 15 70 14 1

At 31 August 2014 76,131 65,301 12 68 18 2

At 31 August 2013 79,992 67,349 12 65 21 1

At 31 August 2012 81,920 66,968 12 62 25 1

Source: Childcare providers and inspections, Ofsted.

The Family and Childcare Trust produce an annual survey on childcare provision and costs,

based on data collected from local authorities and family information centres. This data shows


of 168

that childcare costs for under school-aged children have continued to climb over the period since

the last review.

Nursery fees have risen at a faster rate than childminder fees over the period and fees for both

have risen at a significantly faster rate in London that other parts of Britain. As the tables 19-22

show, the average cost of 25 hours nursery care for a child under 2 has increased from £102.05

a week in 2012, to £116.77 a week by 2016 – an increase of 14.4%. The fees for the same care

in London has increased by 24.2%, from an average of £126.80 a week in 2012 to £158.73 in

2016. Nursery fees for older children over 2 have increased by more than those for children under

2, presumably as demand for older children is greater. Average fees have risen by 14.7% overall

but by 32.5% in London.

The fees childminders charge have also risen over the period 2012-2016 but a slower rate than

nursery fees and the most significant difference is in Wales, where nursery fees have increased

by around 20% but childminder fees have only increased by around 4%.

Table 19 Average weekly childcare costs - Nursery 25 hours (under 2), 2012-2016

2012, £ 2013, £ 2014, £ 2015, £ 2016, £

% change over the period*

British average of regions and nations 102.05 106.38 109.89 115.45 116.77 14.4

England 103.19 108.51 110.95 117.3 118.13 14.5

Scotland 101.49 101.19 106.04 110.01 111.13 9.5

Wales 92.35 92.36 103.17 104.32 110.16 19.3

London 126.8 113.17 140.12 152.06 158.73 24.2

*IDR calculation. Source: Childcare Costs Survey, Family & Childcare Trust.

Table 20 Average weekly childcare cost - Nursery 25 hours (2 and over), 2012-2016

2012, £ 2013, £ 2014, £ 2015, £ 2016, £



England 98.75 106.52 106.19 111.64 113.06 14.5

Scotland 94.52 94.35 102.06 99.93 104.06 10.1

Wales 89.33 90.49 102.28 103.44 109.07 22.1

London 112.24 124.73 136.93 140.64 148.74 32.5



of 168

Table 21 Average weekly childcare costs - Childminder 25 hours (under 2), 2012-2016

2012, £ 2013, £ 2014, £ 2015, £ 2016, £



England 92.61 98.98 100.74 105.28 105.33 13.7

Scotland 93.1 93.22 95.59 100.37 102.5 10.1

Wales 92.96 95.61 94.24 96.81 96.51 3.8

London 129.59 131.08 136.4 146.31 148.12 14.3


Table 22 Average weekly childcare costs - Childminder 25 hours (2 and over), 2012-2016

2012, £ 2013, £ 2014, £ 2015, £ 2016, £



England 91.83 97.27 101.51 104.15 104.42 13.7

Scotland 92.04 92.92 96.84 99.3 102.02 10.8

Wales 92.06 95.02 94.24 96.81 96.53 4.9

London 129.02 128.34 138.77 144.27 146.81 13.8



of 168

3. Spouse/partner employment

Definition: The turbulent nature of life in the Armed Forces may have a varied and detrimental

impact on spouse/partner employment.

This includes:

a) limited employment opportunities for spouse/partner which covers finding employment,

finding employment within a specific field or industry and/or employment suitably matched to the

spouse’s skills, work experience and qualifications;

b) difficulties for spouse/partner to continue their career, training and achieve promotion (i.e. an

employer may be less likely to consider him/her for promotion as their personal situation is likely

to be taken into account by their employer);

c) spouse/partner is likely to have to accept a lower level of salary due to (a) and (b) above. This

is also likely to affect the benefits package, and in particular the pension.

Conclusion: There has been a clear improvement in women’s employment in terms of both

the level and quality of employment. Satisfaction with employment has also increased. Taking

each of the labour market statistics in turn:

• Women’s economic activity and employment has grown over the period and the

employment rate for married or cohabiting women in this cohort has grown at a slightly

faster rate than for non-married women in the cohort.

• Data from the Annual Population Survey and Understanding Society indicates that

married women are more satisfied with their jobs, with a noticeable decline in the

proportion of married women wanting to work more hours at their current rate of pay

and fewer women reporting wanting a better or new job.

• There is some evidence that women’s gross pay has increased slightly higher than

that for men over the period.

• The proportion of women employed as supervisors or managers is unchanged over the

period.

• Government changes extending free childcare also represents an improvement for

working parents.


of 168

In this chapter we examine women’s economic activity, their employment status, quality of

employment and earnings levels. We use women as a proxy for spouse/partner due to the fact

that a large majority of Armed Forces’ personnel are men, and many, perhaps most, have a

female partner. We focus on married women, by which we mean married women, those in a civil

partnership and those co-habiting with a partner.

3.1. Economic activity

The economic activity and employment rates for the whole population have risen over the last

five-year period by around one percentage point in economic activity and by around 4

percentage points in employment. By gender, the economic activity rate has increased at a

faster rate for women than it has for men, with an increase of around 1.8 percentage points for

women compared to 0.3 percentage points for men (albeit from a lower level overall for women).

Growth in employment shows a larger increase for men than women, with an increase of 3.9

percentage points in the employment rate for men compared to an increase of 4.3 percentage

points in the employment rate for women.

Table 23 Economic activity and employment rates by gender, Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2017

All Men (age 16-65) Women (age 16-60)

Activity

rate %

Employment

rate %

Activity

rate %

Employment

rate %

Activity

rate %

Employment

rate %

Apr-Jun 2012 78.9 72.4 83.1 75.9 74.3 68.6

Apr-Jun 2013 79.0 72.7 82.9 75.9 74.8 69.3

Apr-Jun 2014 79.2 74.1 83.1 77.6 75.1 70.4

Apr-Jun 2015 79.3 74.7 82.8 77.9 75.4 71.2

Apr-Jun 2016 79.6 75.6 83.3 79.1 75.6 71.8

Apr-Jun 2017 79.9 76.3 83.4 79.6 76.1 72.9

Source: Labour Force Survey.


of 168


of 168

A closer look at economic activity by marital status shows that married women6 are more likely

to be in employment than single women, and single women are more likely to be economically

inactive. As table 24 shows, 38% of non-married women are economically inactive, compared

with 26% of married women and 71% of married women are employed, compared to 56% of

non-married women.

Table 24 Change in economic activity status of married/co-habiting women who have been resident at their

address for less than 12 months, 2012-2017

% employed % ILO unemployed % inactive

Married Non married

All Married Non married

All Married Non married

All

2012/13 64.3 51.0 57.8 6.3 8.7 7.5 29.4 40.3 34.7

2013/14 66.3 51.7 59.3 5.8 8.7 7.2 27.9 39.7 33.5

2014/15 66.7 55.7 61.7 4.8 7.9 6.2 28.5 36.4 32.1

2015/16 70.1 56.9 64.2 4.8 6.6 5.6 25.0 36.4 30.2

2016/17 70.6 56.4 64.4 3.5 5.9 4.5 25.9 37.7 31.1

Source: Annual Population Survey.

We also looked at the breakdown between employment and self-employment for women – both

married and unmarried. The data here (which also comes from the Annual Population Survey)

shows that the bulk of women in both married and non-married categories are employed rather

than self-employed. However, the proportion in self-employment has risen over the period for

both groups, and at a greater rate for non-married women. To illustrate, in 2012/13, some 9.8%

of married women were self-employed. In the latest figures, for 2016/17, this had risen to 11%.

For non-married women the respective figures were 6.1% and 8.1%.

Military families typically have to move home more frequently than civilians and this can have

an impact on spouses’ continuity of employment. We have looked at employment rates for

women who have been resident at their address for less than 12 months as a comparator group.

The data shows that in the three months to March 2017 the employment rate is lower for these

women than for all women at 64.4% compared to 70.2% for all women. As the chart shows there

has been an increase in the employment rate for married and non-married women over the last

6 Throughout this chapter we refer to ‘married’ women which covers married women, women in a civil

partnership and those co-habiting. Where we use the term ‘non-married’, this refers to single women,

separated women, divorcees, widows and those with a partner but not co-habiting.


of 168

five years and a closer look shows that the employment rate for married or cohabiting women in

this cohort has grown at a slightly faster rate than for non-married women in the cohort.

3.2. Underemployment among married women

Married women wanting to work fewer hours has declined marginally between 2013 and 2017

from 35.2% to 34.5%, at the same time there has been a noticeable decline in the proportion of

married women wanting to work more hours at their current rate of pay. This could be an

indication of married women being more satisfied with their current working situation.

Table 25 Proportion of married women (16-69) reporting to want to work fewer/more hours, 2014-2017

Want to work fewer hours Want to work more hours at current pay rate

Apr 2012/Mar 2013 35 9

Apr 2013/Mar 2014 35 9

Apr 2014/Mar 2015 35 9

Apr 2015/Mar 2016 36 8

Apr 2016/Mar 2017 35 8

Note: ‘married’ includes married women, women in a civil partnership and those co-habiting and ‘non-married’

includes single women, separated women, divorcees, widows and those with a partner but not co-habiting.

Source: Annual Population Survey (APS) 2013-2017.


of 168

We have also broken down these figures according to whether (married) women were employed

or self-employed. Employees responded to the question of whether they would like to work fewer

hours in very similar proportions to all married women. However, for self-employed women the

proportions are lower, with around 28% of self-employed married women wishing to work fewer

hours. The slightly falling trend for those wanting to work more hours at the same rate of pay is

replicated for both employed and self-employed married women. And the proportions for

employed married women are similar to those for all married women. This time, though, slightly

greater proportions of self-employed women said they would like to work more hours, beginning

the period at 11.7%, and ending it at 10.3%.

Data from Understanding Society indicates that married women are more satisfied with their job

than was the case in 2012/2013. In 2012-13, 42.3% of married women reported wanting a better

job with their current employer and 35.3% reported wanting a better job with a new employer. In

2014-15, the proportions of married women reporting to want a new job has declined to 40.6%

and 34.0% respectively. Although it should be noted that these figures are based on a relatively

small number of cases at between 1,000 and 1,500.


of 168

Table 26 Proportion of married women reporting wanting a better/new job, 2012-2014

Want a better job with the same

employer

Want a better job with a new employer

W4 2012-2013 42.3 35.3

W6 2014-2015 40.6 34.0

Note this analysis is based on small samples of around 1,500. Source: Understanding Society, Waves 4 and 6.

3.3. Managerial status among married women

The proportion of married women in managerial or supervisory roles is unchanged over the last

five-year period between 2012/2013 to 2016/2017 at 35%. A further breakdown by married

women who are either managers or supervisors shows that the proportion of married women who

are managers has been very slowly declining, while the proportion of supervisors has fluctuated

falling marginally in 2013/2014, ticking up slightly the following year, only to fall again in the

subsequent year. In the last year the proportion has picked up again to a similar level recorded in

2012/2013. Overall the trend is broadly flat.

Table 27 Proportion of married women who are managers or supervisors, 2012-2017

Total proportion % Breakdown by level

Manager Foreman or supervisor

Apr 2012/Mar 2013 35.2 23.5 11.7

Apr 2013/Mar 2014 34.9 23.5 11.5

Apr 2014/Mar 2015 34.8 23.3 11.6

Apr 2015/Mar 2016 34.3 23.1 11.3

Apr 2016/Mar 2017 34.7 23.1 11.6

Source: Annual Population Survey (APS) 2011-2017.


of 168

3.4. Earnings

According to the Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (ASHE), median hourly rate of basic pay

for men and women have grown at similar rates since 2012. The introduction of the National

Living Wage for employees aged 25 and over, at £7.20 on 1 April 2016 (and subsequent

increase to £7.50 on 1 April 2017), has an impact on earnings growth for men and women,

boosting pay at the lower end of the earnings distribution which in turn has led to a rise in median

earnings.


of 168

Table 28 Median hourly pay - excluding overtime for men and women, 2012-2017

Year All employees £ph Men £ph Women £ph

2012 11.23 12.50 10.05

2013 11.53 12.85 10.31

2014 11.55 12.82 10.36

2015 11.72 13.00 10.49

2016 12.09 13.35 10.92

2017p 12.44 13.72 11.20

% change 2012-17 10.8 9.8 11.4

Source: ASHE, ONS.

Table 29 Median hourly pay – excluding overtime for full-time employees by gender, 2012-2017


2012 12.77 13.27 12.01

2013 13.02 13.60 12.24

2014 13.09 13.61 12.30

2015 13.29 13.85 12.51

2016 13.59 14.16 12.82

2017p 13.94 14.48 13.16

% change 2012-17 9.2 9.1 9.6

Source: ASHE, ONS.

Table 30 Median hourly pay – excluding overtime for part-time employees by gender, 2012-2017


2012 8.02 7.72 8.14

2013 8.26 7.91 8.37

2014 8.33 8.00 8.44

2015 8.43 8.01 8.55

2016 8.87 8.46 8.98

2017p 9.12 8.76 9.21

% change 2012-17 13.7 13.5 13.1

Source: ASHE, ONS.


of 168

Looking at gross hourly pay shows some differentiation in earnings growth for men and women,

with growth in median gross hourly pay for women around 1 percentage point higher than for

men (9.7% compared to 8.8%). Figures on gross pay for part-time workers indicate similar

growth rates for male and female part-time workers.


of 168

Table 31 Median gross hourly pay - including overtime for men and women, 2012-2017


2012 11.28 12.60 10.06

2013 11.59 12.96 10.32

2014 11.61 12.93 10.37

2015 11.78 13.12 10.50

2016 12.16 13.45 10.93

2017p 12.49 13.81 11.20

% change 2012-2017 10.7 9.6 11.3

Source: ASHE, ONS.

Table 32 Median gross hourly pay – including overtime for full-time employees by gender, 2012-2017


2012 12.83 13.41 12.01

2013 13.13 13.73 12.25

2014 13.16 13.73 12.31

2015 13.35 13.97 12.53

2016 13.66 14.25 12.84

2017p 14.00 14.59 13.18

% change 2012-17 9.1 8.8 9.7

Source: ASHE, ONS.

Table 33 Median gross hourly pay – including overtime for part-time employees by gender, 2012-2017


2012 8.02 7.71 8.14

2013 8.26 7.90 8.37

2014 8.34 8.00 8.45

2015 8.47 8.10 8.57

2016 8.90 8.50 9.00

2017p 9.11 8.75 9.20

% change 2012-17 13.6 13.5 13.0

Source: ASHE, ONS.

Occupational segregation, whereby men are more likely to be found in higher-paying managerial

and technical jobs and women in lower-paying administration and caring jobs, plays an important

role in the differences in earnings. As the chart shows, the proportion of men classified as

‘Managers, Directors & Senior Officials’ is almost double that of women at 12.4%, compared to


of 168

6.6% for women. At the other end of the scale the proportion of women in lower-paying

occupations, such as ‘Administrative & Secretarial Occupations’ and ‘Caring, Leisure & Other

Service Occupations’ far outstrip the proportion of men in these occupations.

A look at how the distribution of men and women in each category has changed since 2012 shows

that there has been a slight increase in the proportion of females in the top two classifications for

managers and professionals (SOC 1 & 2), however this trend is also evident for men.

There has however been a small decrease in the proportion of women in administrative jobs (SOC

4). It is likely that headcount reductions across the public sector in recent years has had an

influence on the proportion of women in administrative jobs.


of 168

Table 34 Distribution of men and women (16-69) in each major occupational classification, Apr 2012-Mar 2014 – Apr 2016-Mar 2017

SOC 2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women

1 12.1 6.1 12.2 6.1 11.9 6.4 12.0 6.6 12.4 6.6

2 19.6 20.7 19.9 21.5 19.6 21.4 20.0 21.4 20.5 21.9

3 15.8 12.0 15.8 12.0 15.8 12.0 15.4 12.1 15.4 12.3

4 5.5 19.2 5.4 18.8 5.6 18.4 5.8 18.2 5.5 17.8

5 14.0 1.7 14.1 1.7 14.4 1.6 14.2 1.7 13.8 1.8

6 3.4 15.9 3.5 16 3.5 16.1 3.4 16.2 3.5 15.9

7 6.5 11.9 6.4 11.6 6.2 11.5 6.2 11.3 6.4 11.1

8 10.6 1.5 10.5 1.5 10.6 1.6 10.5 1.7 10.4 1.6

9 12.6 11 12.3 10.8 12.4 10.9 12.4 10.8 12.1 11.0

SOC Key: 1 Managers, Directors & Senior Officials, 2 Professional Occupations, 3 Associate Professional & Technical

Occupations, 4 Administrative & Secretarial Occupations, 5 Skilled Trades Occupations, 6 Caring, Leisure & Other

Service Occupations, 7 Sales & Customer Service Occupations, 8 Process, Plant & Machine Operatives, 9 Elementary

Occupations. Source: Labour Force Survey.

Table 35 Distribution of married and non-married women (16-69) in each major occupational classification, Apr 2012-Mar 2014 – Apr 2016-Mar 2017

SOC 2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

Married Non-

married Married Non-




married

1 6.9 4.7 6.9 4.6 7.1 5.0 7.5 5.1 7.6 4.9

2 23.4 15.9 24.4 16.3 24.5 16.1 24.8 15.6 25.5 15.7

3 12.6 11.1 12.5 11.0 12.4 11.3 12.7 11.2 12.7 11.7

4 20.3 17.2 19.8 17.2 1.6 1.7 19.5 16.0 18.5 16.4

5 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.9 1.7 1.9

6 15.2 17.0 15.1 17.7 14.9 18.1 14.8 18.6 14.7 18.0

7 9.5 16.1 9.3 15.7 9.3 15.4 9.1 15.2 8.8 15.3

8 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.5 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.7 1.5

9 8.9 14.8 8.8 14.3 8.8 14.6 8.6 14.6 8.9 14.7

SOC Key: 1 Managers, Directors & Senior Officials, 2 Professional Occupations, 3 Associate Professional & Technical

Occupations, 4 Administrative & Secretarial Occupations, 5 Skilled Trades Occupations, 6 Caring, Leisure & Other

Service Occupations, 7 Sales & Customer Service Occupations, 8 Process, Plant & Machine Operatives, 9 Elementary

Occupations. Source: Labour Force Survey.

3.5. Childcare provision

Since the last X-Factor review the early education entitlement, which provides all children in

England free early education and childcare, has been extended to cover funding for some 2-

year olds. Currently all 3 and 4-year olds qualify for 570 free hours of childcare a year, usually


of 168

taken as 15 hours a week. Since September 2014 children in families in receipt of certain

benefits, such as income support, qualify for funding from 2 years old. More recently, in

September 2017, funding for 3 and 4-year olds has been extended to 1,140 hours (30 hours a

week) for working parents who earn at least £120 a week (on average) but not more than

£100,000 each a year. Both these changes represent an improvement for childcare funding for

civilians, albeit that only some people qualify for 2-year old funding and the 30-hour funding has

only recently come into effect.


of 168

4. Danger

Definition: Danger includes:

a) a threat of real or perceived violence;

b) an environment or area which is deemed physically unsafe or uncomfortable for either natural,

manmade and/or political reasons;

c) danger of death;

d) short or long-term injury to physical health;

e) short or long-term injury to mental health;

f) injury to oneself or others.

This may be experienced by the individual or may be experienced by others which the individual

seeks to defend or accompany. However Armed Forces’ personnel are in addition able to: a) exert

within defined (and varying) parameters the threat of violence or active violence upon others, and;

b) carry and/or use lethal weaponry. For Armed Forces’ personnel this may arise from a number

of circumstances including: a) armed conflict, b) training, and/or; c) terrorism.

Conclusion: The data gathered and reviewed for this section reveals that the level of

physical danger in civilian life has reduced over the last four years since 2012. The only

exception is related to PTSD where estimates suggest there has been an increase, however

the data is inconclusive. Overall, we conclude that there has been a moderate improvement

in this component for civilian life. Looking at each of the measures in detail:

• The incidence of homicide remains relatively low, despite the rate in March 2016

being slighter higher than the rate for the last four years.

• The number of road accidents and fatalities, as a result of these accidents, have also

decreased in the period.

• There has been no change in the rate of fatal injuries in the workplace and the long-

term decline in non-fatal injuries has continued.

• There has been a decrease in wider sickness absence from work.

• The data on PTSD, is limited and somewhat inconclusive but appears to indicate a

growing proportion of people are affected by PTSD. There is also evidence of

increased reporting of self-harm.

• The statistics on suicide indicate little change over the period.


of 168

This chapter seeks to examine trends in physical and mental danger. Physical danger includes

both safety at work and also in the wider environment/society, since military personnel can be

endangered by the work they carry out but also by being in an unsafe environment/society.

Therefore, our assessment looks at data on workplace injuries, sickness absence (which can

be an indicator of the extent of safety at work), road traffic accidents and violent crime. As well

as the risk of physical injury, this component covers short-term and long-term injuries to mental

health. To examine changes in these areas for civilians this chapter looks at data on Post-

Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), a mental health anxiety disorder which is caused by a very

stressful, life-threatening or frightening event, and can result in suicide and self-harming. Military

service, particularly where it involves combat, or exposure to attack, can be a cause of PTSD

and other mental health issues among military personnel, either during or after service. Similarly,

there are a range of traumatic events that can cause PTSD in civilians, such as a serious

accident, attack or abuse.

4.1. Fatal and non-fatal workplace injuries

The Health and Safety Executive reports on employer-reported injuries from the Reporting of

Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) survey and on self-

reported injuries recorded by the Labour Force Survey (LFS). According to both sources, there

has been a long-term decline in both fatal and non-fatal injuries.

The long-term trend in the rate of fatal injuries has shown recent signs of levelling off with the

rate remaining at 0.4 per 100,000 employees for the last four consecutive years between

2012/13 and 2015/16.

Table 36 Number and rate (per 100,000 workers) of fatal injuries to workers

Year Employees Self-employed Workers

Number % Number % Number %

2011-12 114 0.5 57 1.3 171 0.6

2012-13 99 0.4 51 1.1 150 0.5

2013-14 92 0.4 44 1.0 136 0.5

2014-15 97 0.4 45 0.9 142 0.5

2015-16 108 0.4 39 0.8 147 0.5

Source: Health and Safety Executive Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations

(RIDDOR)


of 168

The rate of non-fatal injuries to employees reported by employers fell in 2015/16, continuing a

long-term downward trend. In total, an estimated 4.5 million working days were lost due to self-

reported non-fatal workplace injuries, on average 0.18 days per worker (LFS), a figure that has

remained relatively broadly stable since 2011/12.

Table 37 Rates (per 100,000 workers) o non-fatal injuries to workers; and average days lost

Year Self-reported non-fatal injuries Average days lost per worker due

to non-fatal workplace injuries

2011-12 2,090 0.19

2012-13 2,240 0.22

2013-14 2,130 0.18

2014-15 (r) 2,030 10.16

2015-16 (p) 2,030 0.18

Source: HSE (Labour Force Survey data).


of 168

Rates of self-reported non-fatal injuries to workers resulting in a period of absence (over three

days and over seven days) have decreased since 2011/12 although have been broadly flat for

the last three years.

Table 38 Self-reported rates of workplace non-fatal injuries (per 100,000 workers)

Over 3 days absence Over 7 days absence

Year 95% confidence level 95% confidence level

Central Lower Upper Central Lower Upper

2011/12 750 660 840 550 480 630

2012/13 800 710 900 610 530 690

2013/14 690 600 770 500 430 570

2014/15 660 580 740 510 430 580

2015/16 660 570 750 500 420 570

Source: Labour Force Survey.

4.2. Sickness absence

Figures on sickness absence levels from the Chartered Institute for Personnel and Development

(CIPD) show that the average level of absence for all sectors for 2016 is 6.3 days per employee,


of 168

the lowest recorded level for seven years and half a day down on the 6.8 days recorded in 2012.

A significant decline in the level of sickness absence has been recorded between 2015 and 2016

than for the last four years overall. Manufacturing and production organisations have seen less

change over the last few years, but their average absence level has similarly decreased by half a

day in 2016 compared to the level recorded in 2015. The public sector typically records the highest

level of sickness absence and this is usually more than a day higher than the level recorded for

all sectors overall. However, the level of sickness in the public sector has increased to be close

to two or more days above the level recorded for all sectors in 2015 and 2016.

Table 39 Average level of employee absence by sector (number of days lost per year), 2012-2016

Year All sectors Private services sector

2012 6.8 5.7

2013 7.6 7.2

2014 6.6 5.5

2015 6.9 5.8

2016 6.3 5.2

Source: CIPD Absence Management surveys 2012-2016.


of 168

4.3. Road traffic accidents

Data on road accidents reported to the police (Stats19 system) provides detailed information on

the circumstances of personal injury road accidents, including the types of vehicles involved and

the consequent casualties.

The number of road accidents decreased in the period between 2011 and 2016, by 8.5%, while

the number of fatalities because of those accidents has declined by around 11% since 2011.

Table 40 Road accidents by severity, 2011-2016

Fatalities Seriously injured Slightly injured All severities

2011 1,797 20,986 128,691 151,474

2012 1,637 20,901 123,033 145,571

2013 1,608 19,624 117,428 138,660

2014 1,658 20,676 123,988 146,322

2015 1,616 20,038 118,402 140,056

2016 1,695 21,725 113,201 136,621

Source: Department of Transport (Stats19).

The table overleaf shows that the number of casualties by road users and severity and shows

that overall casualties have either declined marginally or remained stable over the period.

The only exception is for casualties for HGV occupants which have increased by 13% compared

to the average figure for 2010-2014.


of 168

Table 41 Road casualties by user type and severity, 2011-2016

2010-14 average

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

% change over 2010-14

% change over 2015

Car occupants

- killed 820 801 785 797 754 816 -1 8

- seriously injured 8,233 8,232 7,641 8,035 7,888 8,975 9 14

- slightly injured 111,578 110,675 101,361 106,698 103,065 99,255 -11 -4

Pedestrians

- killed 424 420 398 446 408 448 6 10

- seriously injured 5,255 5,559 4,998 5,063 4,940 5,140 -2 4


Pedal cyclists

- killed 112 118 109 113 100 102 -9 2



Motorcyclists

- killed 353 328 331 339 365 319 -10 -13



Goods vehicles

- killed 58 62 58 47 65 66 13 2

- seriously injured 498 499 481 532 561 563 13 0


Bus/coach occupants

- killed 9 11 10 7 5 9 2 80

- seriously injured 331 312 332 293 275 277 -16 1


Source: Department of Transport (Stats19).

4.4. Violent crime

The Home Office Homicide Index contains detailed record-level information about each homicide

recorded by police in England and Wales. The database is continually updated with revised

information from the police and the courts and, as such, is a richer source of data than the main

recorded crime dataset. Despite having increased from the previous year, the number of

homicides has shown a generally flat trend over the past five years and is currently at one of the

lowest levels since the late 1980s.


of 168

There were 9.9 recorded offences of homicide per million population in the year to March 2016,

up slightly from the 9.4 offences per million recorded as homicide in the year to March 2012. The

homicide rate for men (13.8 per million population) was more than twice that for women (6.0 per

million population) in the year to March 2016, with little change over the period.

Table 42 Rate of homicide per million in England and Wales, April 2011/March 2012-April 2015/March 2016

Homicides (number per million population)

Men Women Total

Apr 2011 to Mar 2012 13.0 6.0 9.4

Apr 2012 to Mar 2013 13.0 6.0 9.6

Apr 2013 to Mar 2014 12.0 6.0 9.1

Apr 2014 to Mar 2015 12.0 6.0 9.0

Apr 2015 to Mar 2016 13.8 6.0 9.9

Source: Homicide Index, Home Office.


of 168

The ‘stranger’ category includes police or prison officers killed in the course of duty, and where

there is insufficient information about the suspect (eg a terrorist or a contract killing) to determine

the relationship to the victim. Men are more likely to be killed by a stranger than women and the

latest figures show that 27% of male victims were killed by strangers compared to 9% of female

victims. We have chosen to look specifically at homicide where the principal suspect is a stranger

as a measure of the safety of society. The vast majority of homicides are committed by someone

known to the victim, such as spouse or ex-partner, and we have chosen not to look at this for our

assessment of this component because this type of homicide is linked to the relationships

between the suspect and the victim.

Table 43 Proportion of offences recorded as homicide where principal suspect is a stranger in England and Wales

Year All victims (%) Male victims (%) Female victims (%)

Apr '11 to Mar '12 27 34 13

Apr '12 to Mar '13 27 34 10

Apr '13 to Mar '14 22 29 8

Apr '14 to Mar '15 22 28 11

Apr '15 to Mar '16 22 27 9

Source: Homicide Index, Home Office.


of 168

4.5. Post-traumatic stress disorder

There are no currently reliable datasets recording post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), partly

linked to difficulties in diagnosis. NHS Digital began collecting data on PTSD as a primary reason

for referral as part of the Mental Health Services Data Set (MHSDS) from January 2016, but this

data has not yet been published. However, this will provide a credible and appropriate data

source for examining changes in PTSD diagnoses in the next X-factor review.

Having said that, the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey provides estimates for the number of

people affected by PTSD. The APMS 20147 provides estimates of persons affected by PTSD

based on screening questionnaires. The 2014 survey estimates that while around a third (31.4%)

of individuals had experienced at least one traumatic event, around one in twenty (4.4%) screened

positive for PTSD, although positive screening does not necessarily mean that the person is

suffering from PTSD.

The report also shows that overall 3.3% believed they had PTSD and 1.9% of these has already

been diagnosed by a professional. The proportion of people with positive screening for PTSD

appears to have ticked up from the 2007 APMS survey when it stood at 3.0%.

4.6. Suicide and self-harm

The number of suicide deaths across Great Britain has fluctuated between 2012 and 2016,

however the rate has remained very similar. Suicide is over three times as prevalent for men as

it is for women and the suicide rate for men rose in 2013 but fell back again in 2014 and again in

the following two years. The 2016 rate is a little lower than that for 2012. Suicides among women

have fluctuated to a lesser extent and the rate in 2016 is the same as it was in 2012.

7 The Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey 2014

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/556596/apms-2014-full-rpt.pdf


of 168

Table 44 Suicide rates per 100,000 persons by gender, Great Britain, 2012-2016

Year All Men Women

Deaths Rate Deaths Rate Deaths Rate

2012 5,716 10.5 4,385 16.5 1,331 4.8

2013 5,939 10.9 4,634 17.5 1,305 4.7

2014 5,854 10.6 4,423 16.5 1,431 5.1

2015 5,870 10.6 4,377 16.2 1,493 5.3

2016 5,668 10.1 4,287 15.7 1,381 4.8

Source: Office for National Statistics (ONS).

A breakdown by gender and five-year age groups shows that suicide is most prevalent among

men aged 40 to 44 and women 50 to 54. The rate for men in this age bracket has fallen over the

period from 25.7 to 23.7 per 100,000 deaths, while that for women aged 50 to 54 has increased

a little from 7.8 to 8.1 deaths per 100,000.


of 168

Table 45 Suicide rates by gender and five-year age groups, Great Britain, 2012-2016

Men 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69

2012 6.0 14.7 17.3 19.2 22.8 25.7 25.1 22.9 19.7 14.1 11.3

2013 6.6 13.8 15.4 19.0 23.0 26.5 26.3 24.3 23.1 18.0 11.4

2014 6.6 13.1 15.8 16.9 19.5 25.7 26.2 24.8 19.8 15.1 12.1

2015 8.0 14.1 15.4 18.4 19.1 23.7 23.4 20.7 21.3 16.1 12.9

2016 7.1 14.1 16.9 18.0 18.6 23.7 22.9 21.6 19.7 14.3 11.9

Women

2012 1.8 3.2 4.9 4.7 5.4 6.6 7.9 7.8 6.0 4.9 3.6

2013 1.6 3.3 3.4 4.8 6.9 6.2 7.4 6.8 6.3 4.1 4.1

2014 2.6 4.3 4.5 4.9 6.2 6.9 7.2 7.9 6.2 4.9 4.4

2015 2.9 3.7 4.7 5.4 6.1 6.0 7.2 8.5 6.6 6.7 4.4

2016 2.9 5.2 3.9 5.0 4.7 6.7 6.8 8.1 6.4 5.4 4.1


NHS Digital produces data on self-harming from the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey and it

shows that the proportion of people8 reporting to have self-harmed has increased from 2.4% in

2000, to 3.8% in 2007, to 6.4% in 2014. It is important to note that some of the increase could be

due to greater awareness and less ‘taboo’ surrounding self-harming, which means people are

more likely to report that they have self-harmed in 2014 than they were in 2000. Three-quarters

of those that had reported self-harming in the 2014 survey stated that this was to relieve feelings

of anger, stress, anxiety or depression.

The data shows that broadly similar proportions of men and women reported self-harming in 2000

and 2007 but by 2014 the proportion of women had grown at a much faster rate than men, rising

from 3.8% in 2007 to 7.9% in 2014, compared to a rise of 3.7% to 5.0% for men.

Table 46 People aged 16 to 74 reporting to have self-harmed, 2000, 2007 and 2014

Men Women All

2000 2.1 2.7 2.4

2007 3.7 3.8 3.8

2014 5.0 7.9 6.4

Source: Psychiatric Morbidity Survey, NHS Digital.

8 People aged 16 to 74.


of 168

Age has a significant effect on a person’s likelihood of self-harming, with younger people

(especially younger women) much more likely to report having self-harmed. People age 16 to 24

are in the highest risk category, followed by those aged 25 to 34. As the table shows, the number

of people reporting self-harm has increased across all age brackets. For most groups the

proportion of people reporting to have self-harmed has doubled or nearly trebled since 2000,

however the proportion of those aged 65 to 74 has increased tenfold, driven by an increase in

women in this age group reporting self-harm.

Table 47 People aged 16 to 74 reporting to have self-harmed by age, 2000, 2007 and 2014

16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 16-74

2000 5.3 3.8 2.5 1.0 0.9 0.1 2.4

2007 8.9 4.6 4.7 2.1 0.9 0.1 3.8

2014 13.7 10.3 6.4 2.9 3.3 1.1 6.4



of 168

5. Separation

Definition: Separation is defined as being separated from home and/or family for a period of

time because of working commitments. The length of time for which separation takes place will

vary according to the nature of the job. Normally the length of separation would be

standardised, e.g. a North Sea worker would normally work for a set period of weeks and then

return home for a set period of time.

The acceptability of this will depend upon the personal circumstances of the individual and it is

important to draw a distinction between voluntary separation (i.e. where a soldier chooses to

serve unaccompanied in order to give family stability) and involuntary separation (for example

operations and pre-deployment training). Those with families may experience an impact on the

quality of family life due to the absences.

Armed Forces’ personnel may experience variable separation depending upon the number of

military operations. Some separation is an inevitable part of Service life and the X-factor takes

into account short periods of separation (of less than seven days). Longer periods of separation

are compensated by the Longer Separation Allowance. These allowances are not dependent

upon marital status.

Conclusion: Overall, we suggest this component shows little change over the past years.

Looking at the relevant statistics:

• Data from the CAA’s passenger survey and the National Travel Survey suggests the

number of domestic business trips has been fairly stable with the Great Britain Tourism

survey suggesting a slight decline in UK business travel.

• The International Passenger Survey (IPS) data meanwhile shows a marginal increase

in international business trips with the average length of stay remaining broadly

unchanged.

Our findings here are underlined to some extent by findings in other chapters – notably hours

of work, which we found unchanged (though the rise in the incidence of zero-hours contracts,

where staff have to be available but are not guaranteed work, is a concern), and commuting,

which we also found to be unchanged.


of 168

In this chapter we examine data on business travel for civilians as a proxy for the separation

experienced while military personnel are away for short periods of time on training or work. As far

as we are aware there are no datasets covering whether employees are given a choice over

business travel and from experience reviewing job descriptions business travel is often cited as a

requirement of the job.

5.1. Domestic business travel

Data from the Great Britain Tourism survey, which is based on 100,000 interviews per annum,

shows that domestic business travel in England, Scotland and Wales has declined over the

period 2012 to 2016 both in respect of trips taken and nights spent away from home.

Domestic business trips have fallen from 18.9 million in 2012 to 16.5 million in 2016.

Correspondingly, nights spent away from home on business (bed nights) have also fallen, down

from 44.5 million in 2012 to 37.6 million in 20159.

Table 48 Business domestic tourism, England, Scotland and Wales, 2012-2015

Trips (millions) % change (pa) Bed nights (millions) % change (pa)

2012 18.9 2% 44.5 7%

2013 17.8 -6% 40.1 -10%

2014 15.9 -11% 37.5 -6%

2015 16.5 4% 37.6 0%

Source: Great Britain Tourism Survey, TNS/Visit England, Visit Scotland and Visit Wales.

The National Travel Survey, conducted by the Department for Transport, provides information

on business trips and the data suggests a stable picture, with little change in the number of

trips, distance covered or time spent travelling.

9 A change in methodology in 2016 resulted in a break in the time series data and data collected before

December 2015 is not comparable with more recent data for 2016 and 2017 tourism.


of 168

Table 49 Commuting and business trip numbers, distances and duration, 2012-2016

Purpose 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Average number of commuting trips per year 142 145 147 142 144

Average commuting miles per trip 9.0 8.8 8.8 9.2 9.0

Average minutes spent commuting - 29 29 31 30

Average number of business trips per year 28 30 32 31 33

Average business miles per trip 19.4 20.9 20.1 20.1 19.3

No. of individuals surveyed 16,670 16,192 16,491 15,525 15,840

Source: National Travel Survey.

The Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) undertakes a survey of passengers at a number of major UK

airports and the following table provides data on UK residents travelling on domestic business

at Gatwick, Heathrow and Stansted10 between 2012 and 2016. The figures show that domestic

business travel has declined at Gatwick but increased at Heathrow and Stansted over the period.

Collectively, the numbers of business trips from these airports has remained stable over the

period.

Table 50 UK residents travelling on domestic business, 2012-2016

Gatwick Heathrow Stansted Total across the three

airports

000s % 000s % 000s % 000s

2012 1,353 4.0 1,402 2.0 425 2.4 3,180

2013 1,205 3.4 1,666 2.3 404 2.3 3,275

2014 1,115 2.9 1,806 2.5 451 2.3 3,372

2015 1,225 3.1 1,425 1.9 542 2.4 3,192

2016 990 2.3 1,595 2.1 641 2.7 3,226

Note: The figures in the table detail the number of passengers and also the proportion of all passengers on domestic business at that specific airport. The proportion will be affected by changes in other types of passengers, such as those travelling on international business and domestic and international leisure. Source: Passenger Survey, Civil Aviation Authority.

5.2. International business travel

The ONS’ International Passenger Survey is based on interviews with around 300,000

passengers at main airports, ports and the Channel Tunnel. This data shows that business travel

10 IDR has selected these airports since they represent three main airports which consistently feature in

the CAA’s survey every year.


of 168

by UK residents has increased marginally worldwide over the past five years. While the figures

for most countries fell in 2013, they subsequently recovered from 2015.

Table 51 Number of visits abroad for UK residents for business by region, 2012-2016

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

000s 000s 000s 000s 000s

North America 598 603 662 652 663

Europe 5,402 5,219 5,177 5,523 5,554

- of which EU 4,796 4,608 4,616 5,014 5,038

- of which EU15 4,479 4,295 4,317 4,681 4,671

- of which EU Other 317 313 300 332 367

Other countries 956 928 917 974 939

Total world 6,956 6,750 6,756 7,149 7,156

Source: International Passenger Survey, Office for National Statistics.

The average length of stay for UK residents on business is 3.9 days in Europe, 8.4 days in North

America and 14.4 days in other countries. Overall the average trip length is 5.7 days. These

rates have fluctuated slightly over the past five years but overall, we conclude that the rate

across all destinations has remained stable.

Table 52 Average length of stay on visits abroad for UK residents on business by region, 2012-2016

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

North America 9.2 9.4 8.6 10.0 8.4

Europe 3.9 3.9 3.6 4.0 3.9

- of which EU 3.7 3.7 3.4 3.8 3.8

- of which EU15 3.6 3.6 3.3 3.7 3.7

- of which EU Other 5.1 5.6 4.9 5.5 4.8

Other Countries 14.0 15.2 12.6 13.9 14.4

Total World 5.7 5.9 5.3 5.9 5.7

Source: International Passenger Survey, Office for National Statistics.


of 168

6. Job security

Definition: Job security is defined as the knowledge, based on past history, that the individual

will be able to work within the same organisation, albeit within different divisions, for a significant

number of years and enjoy similar or increased levels of remuneration.

Within the Armed Forces job security has long been recognised as a key benefit compared with

the more fluid employment market in civilian life. The more stable career pattern may persuade

some personnel to accept the disadvantages that come from service life.

Job security may be affected by level of personal fitness.

Conclusion: We conclude that job security is unchanged over the period. This is for the

following reasons. In 2012 the UK economy was recovering from recession and this was

reflected in the labour market figures with high unemployment (peaking at 8% in 2012, and

particularly affecting those aged between 18 and 24) and a high rate of redundancies. Now,

the labour market is more buoyant with a high level of employment and low levels of

unemployment and the evidence points to a generally good level of job security. But the rise

in various forms of non-standard employment, which tend to be associated with poorer terms

and conditions, particularly for young people, qualifies this, and leads us to conclude that

overall, the situation has slightly worsened since the last review. Looking at each of the

measures in detail:

• Official statistics show that over two million more people were employed in 2016

compared to 2012, unemployment has also declined sharply, including for the long-

term employed. The level and rate of redundancies has also fallen significantly over

the last four years.

• Evidence from the CIPD surveys from both employers and employees support the

official statistics on this generally good outlook for job security. The CIPD surveys

show that an increase in staff turnover between 2013 and 2016 was predominantly

attributed to employees leaving voluntarily and there has been an increased feeling of

job security among employees in the same period.

• There is evidence of a decline in the proportions of temporary and part-time workers

seeking permanent and full-time work respectively.


of 168

• However, along with these mainly positive points on job security, young people in the

economy are still likely to fare slightly worse than people in other age categories and

young people are still more likely to be in non-permanent work and on zero-hours

contracts. While the unemployment rate for people aged 18 to 24 has fallen between

2012 and 2016, people in this age group still have an unemployment rate 6.9

percentage points higher than the unemployment rate overall.

• Young people are also more likely to be in non-permanent work and on zero-hours

contracts. The latter has been a fairly recent phenomenon (or rather the term ‘zero hours

contracts’ has) and the number of people on these contracts has increased by almost

280,000 in the two years between 2014 and 2016. This is one of the major

developments in employment – alongside the rise in ‘contested self-employment’,

though this has not risen to the same extent – and as such we think it disqualifies to

some extent the improvements in employment/unemployment since the recession.

In order to assess changes in job security in civilian life we start by looking at broad changes in

employment and unemployment levels, paying close attention to prospects for young people

since the military provides career opportunities for semi-skilled school-leavers which tend to be

better than those at civilian employers. We also look at the quality of work by examining data on

the availability of full-time work, self-employment and zero hours contracts. Redundancies and

labour turnover are further indicators of the extent of job security for the civilian population.

6.1. Employment

The figures on employment from the Labour Force Survey show that in the second quarter of

2016 there were 31.7 million people in employment, this is up by over two million from the same

quarter in 2012 when there were 29.7 million people in employment. The number of people

working full-time has increased by 1.7 million over the same period and the number of part-time

workers has increased by 392,000.

These figures show that full-time employment has grown by a higher proportion (8%) than part-

time employment (an increase of around 5%). However, much of the growth in part-time work

over the last four-year period has happened between 2015 and 2016 where the numbers in part-

time work have increased by 233,500 (or 2.8%). Between 2012 and 2016 the numbers in part-

time work increased by 391,684 or 4.8%.


of 168

Table 53 Employment, people by full-time and part-time (16+) (thousands)

All in employment Full-time and part-time workers

Period Total Total people working full-time Total people working part-time

Apr-Jun 2012 29,663 21,521 8,142

Apr-Jun 2013 29,940 21,778 8,162

Apr-Jun 2014 30,709 22,416 8,293

Apr-Jun 2015 31,118 22,818 8,301

Apr-Jun 2016 31,735 23,201 8,534

Source: ONS, Labour Force Survey (seasonally adjusted figures) (July 2017).

The growth in employment has shown through at almost equal levels for men and women with

just over a million more in employment for each gender since 2012. Levels of full-time employment

grew faster than part-time employment for both men and women between 2012 and 2016 (by

6.7% and 9.7% respectively).

By age, figures from the ONS show that employment levels have fallen for those aged 16 and 17

(by around 9,000 workers) and for those aged 35 to 49 (by around 42,000) between 2012 and

2016. For all other age categories employment levels have risen over the same period.


of 168

Employment levels for those aged 65 and over have increased significantly, from 949,000 in 2012

to 1,204,000 in 2016.

Table 54 Employment levels for men and women (thousands) (seasonally adjusted), Apr-Jun 2012-Apr-Jun 2016

All in employment Full-time workers

Period Men Women Men Women

Apr-Jun 2012 15,862 13,801 13,706 7,815

Apr-Jun 2013 15,933 14,007 13,791 7,987

Apr-Jun 2014 16,337 14,372 14,206 8,210

Apr-Jun 2015 16,537 14,582 14,393 8,425

Apr-Jun 2016 16,903 14,833 14,626 8,575



of 168

Table 55 Employment levels by age (thousands) (seasonally adjusted), Apr-Jun 2012-Apr-Jun 2016

Period 16-17 18-24 25-34 35-49 50-64 65+

Apr-Jun 2012 339 3,310 6,622 10,799 7,569 949

Apr-Jun 2013 308 3,239 6,804 10,703 7,780 1,028

Apr-Jun 2014 299 3,431 6,975 10,799 8,020 1,103

Apr-Jun 2015 335 3,473 7,042 10,779 8,266 1,140

Apr-Jun 2016 330 3,538 7,266 10,757 8,554 1,204


Despite a slight fall in the rate of temporary employment from 6.4% in the second quarter of 2012

to 6.2% in the same quarter in 2016, the number and proportion of employees on temporary

contracts has remained stable throughout the period from 2012 to 2016. The number and

proportion employed on a temporary basis because they could not find a permanent job has fallen

since 2012 (from 39.9% in 2012 to 31.7% in 2016) and, while the level of employees working part-

time has increased over the last four years (by almost 425,000), the level and rate of part-time

workers that said they were part-time because they could not find a full-time job has fallen.

Table 56 Employment numbers and reasons for temporary and part-time working (16+), Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016

Temporary employees (reasons for temporary working) Part-time workers (reasons for working part-time)

Period Total (000s)

Total as % of all employees

Could not find permanent job (000s)

% that could not find permanent job

Total* (000s)

Could not find full-time job

% that could not find full-time job

Apr-Jun 2012 1,613 6.4 644 39.9 7,965 1,427 17.9

Apr-Jun 2013 1,566 6.2 603 38.5 7,967 1,453 18.2

Apr-Jun 2014 1,650 6.4 601 36.4 8,132 1,344 16.5

Apr-Jun 2015 1,639 6.2 564 34.4 8,180 1,288 15.7

Apr-Jun 2016 1,664 6.2 528 31.7 8,389 1,151 13.7

Source: ONS, Labour Force Survey (seasonally adjusted figures) (July 2017). *The total includes those who did not give a reason for working part-time and it therefore does not equal the sum recorded in Table 53.


of 168

Table 57 Temporary workers by age, 4Q 2012-2016

Year 16-24 (%) 25-34 (%) 35-44 (%) 45-54 (%) 55+ (%) Total (%)

2012 16.4 5.9 4.6 4.0 5.8 6.6

2013 15.3 6.2 4.4 3.8 6.0 6.4

2014 16.8 5.8 4.5 3.8 6.3 6.6

2015 15.2 6.2 4.0 3.4 5.4 6.2

2016 16.0 5.0 4.0 3.7 5.2 6.1

Source: Labour Force Survey, 2012-2016, Q4.

The proportion of people in permanent jobs has increased slightly over the last four-year period,

from 93.4% in 2012 to 93.9% in 2016. Those aged 16 to 24 are far more likely to be in a job that

is not permanent in some way, and the proportion of people in this age group in non-permanent

work has also only declined slightly over the period, from 16.4% in 2012 to 16.0% in 2016.

6.2. Self-employment

The level of self-employment in the UK has increased from 4.2 million in 2012 to almost 4.8 million

in 2016 (by 558,000 in total). The proportion of those in self-employed work has increased by

around one percentage point of all those employed over the same period. The levels of self-


of 168

employed men and women have both grown by around 280,000 between 2012 and 2016. The

level of self-employed women has increased by a greater percentage than the figure for men (by

around 22%, compared to just over 9% for men). Levels of self-employment have grown for

workers in all age categories between 2012 and 2016, although the most significant increases

have been for those aged 65 and over (from 345,000 in 2012 to 468,000 in 2016, or by almost

36%).

The data shows that, in general, self-employed workers are broadly content with their labour

market status. Relatively few report negative reasons for becoming self-employed, with the largest

proportion citing ‘better work conditions or job satisfaction’ as the main reason for being self-

employed. The proportion who were self-employed because they could not find other employment

is low (4.6% in 2016) and falling.

Table 58 All in employment and self-employed, and proportion self-employed (seasonally adjusted) (thousands), Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016

Period All in employment

Self employed % self-employed (proportion of total employed)

Self-employed (full time)

Self-employed (part-time)

Apr-Jun 2012 29,663 4,225 14.2 3,035 1,189

Apr-Jun 2013 29,940 4,196 14.0 3,013 1,183

Apr-Jun 2014 30,709 4,606 15.0 3,264 1,342

Apr-Jun 2015 31,118 4,519 14.5 3,198 1,321

Apr-Jun 2016 31,735 4,782 15.1 3,397 1,386


Table 59 All self-employed, and by men and women (thousands) (seasonally adjusted), Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016

Period All self-employed Men self-employed Women self-employed

Apr-Jun 2012 4,225 2,973 1,251

Apr-Jun 2013 4,196 2,921 1,276

Apr-Jun 2014 4,606 3,138 1,469

Apr-Jun 2015 4,519 3,087 1,432

Apr-Jun 2016 4,782 3,251 1,532



of 168

Table 60 Self-employed by age (thousands) (seasonally adjusted), Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016

Age bands

Period 16-17 18-24 25-34 35-49 50-64 65+

Apr-Jun 2012 NR 177 658 1,577 1,412 345

Apr-Jun 2013 NR 146 740 1,573 1,346 350

Apr-Jun 2014 NR 167 726 1,719 1,545 432

Apr-Jun 2015 NR 186 742 1,611 1,507 453

Apr-Jun 2016 NR 178 770 1,735 1,630 468

Source: ONS (seasonally adjusted figures) (March 2017).

Table 61 Main reason for being self-employed, 2014-2016

Reason 2014 (%) 2015 (%) 2016 (%)

Better work conditions or job satisfaction 24.0 25.6 28.6

Saw the demand/or market 6.9 6.8 6.9

Nature of job or chosen career 17.9 17.1 15.1

To maintain or increase income 18.0 18.7 17.5

Redundancy 8.1 7.7 7.9

Could not find other employment 5.5 4.5 4.6

Job after retirement 1.8 2.0 1.9

Started or joined a family business 6.0 6.2 5.9

Other 11.8 11.2 11.7

Source: Labour Force Survey, 2014-2016, Q4.

6.3. Unemployment

The level and rate of unemployment has declined sharply in the period 2012 to 2016, falling from

a peak of 8% to 4.9% in the second quarter of 2016, the lowest rate recorded since 2005. The

proportion of long-term unemployed, for over 12 months, has also declined over the period from

34.4% in 2012 to 27.3% in 2016.

The unemployment rate for those aged 18 to 24 has been consistently higher than that for older

age groups since comparable records began in 1992. In 2016 the unemployment rate for those

aged 18 to 24 was 6.9 percentage points higher than the unemployment rate for all aged 16 and

over. The unemployment rate for those aged 18 to 24 has fallen significantly between 2012 and

2016, from 19.6% to 11.8%. This age group also has a lower long-term employment rate than

that for all age groups overall. Just under a fifth of unemployed people aged 18 to 24 have been

unemployed for over 12 months in 2016, a decline around three in ten in 2012.


of 168

Table 62 UK unemployment rates (aged 16 and over), seasonally adjusted, Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016

Period Level Rate % % unemployed over 12 months

Apr-Jun 2012 2,582,364 8.0 34.4

Apr-Jun 2013 2,515,098 7.7 36.3

Apr-Jun 2014 2,061,023 6.3 35.9

Apr-Jun 2015 1,847,859 5.6 31.3

Apr-Jun 2016 1,640,373 4.9 27.3

Source: ONS, Labour Force Survey (seasonally adjusted figures) (August 2017).

Table 63 UK unemployment rates (18-24), seasonally adjusted, Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016

Period Level Rate % % unemployed over 12 months

Apr-Jun 2012 818,784 19.6 29.1

Apr-Jun 2013 786,512 19.3 32.3

Apr-Jun 2014 601,698 14.7 29.9

Apr-Jun 2015 582,516 14.2 24.9

Apr-Jun 2016 478,790 11.8 19.1

Source: ONS, Labour Force Survey (seasonally adjusted figures).

6.4. Underemployment and overemployment

Underemployed workers are those people in employment who are willing to work more hours,

either by working in an additional job, by working more hours in their current job, or by switching

to a replacement job. To be classified as underemployed workers must also be available to start

working longer hours within two weeks and their current weekly hours must be below 40 hours if

they are between 16 and 18 and below 48 hours if they are over 18.

Following the economic downturn in 2008/09 there was an increase in the percentage of the UK

workforce that was identified as underemployed. In 2008, 7.1%, or 2.1 million, of those in work in

the UK were underemployed and this increased to a peak of 10.8% seen between Q3 2012 and

Q1 2013. Since then the underemployment rate has been decreasing and in Q2 2016 it was at

8.3%, but still over a percentage point higher than at the start of the recession.

In 2016 10.5%, or 3.3 million, of workers in the UK were overemployed, meaning that they wanted

to work fewer hours for less pay. Over the longer term the percentage of workers being

overemployed has been decreasing since late 2003 when it peaked at 11.5%, although the

percentage increased between 2012 and 2016, the period in question.


of 168

Table 64 Underemployment and overemployment of those aged 16 and over (not seasonally adjusted)

Period Underemployment level

Overemployment level

Underemployment rate (%)

Overemployment rate (%)

Apr-Jun 2012 3,061,588 2,575,251 10.5 8.9

Apr-Jun 2013 3,090,169 2,665,357 10.5 9.1

Apr-Jun 2014 2,976,814 2,925,651 9.9 9.7

Apr-Jun 2015 2,786,177 3,074,347 9.1 10.1

Apr-Jun 2016 2,599,540 3,270,003 8.3 10.5

Source: ONS, Labour Force Survey (August 2017).

Note: Underemployment and overemployment rates are based on the proportion of total employment excluding

those workers with unknown underemployment and overemployment status.

6.5. Zero-hours contracts

People in employment in the UK on contracts where they are not guaranteed any paid hours in a

given week are referred to as being employed on ‘zero-hours contracts’. ONS data on the number

of employed people on zero-hours contracts shows that there has been a significant increase in

the use of this type of employment contract. There were 252,000 people employed on zero-hours

contracts at the time of the last X-factor review in 2012. By 2017 this figure more than trebled to

883,000. The LFS caveats that some of this increase is likely to have been affected by greater

awareness and recognition of the term ‘zero-hours contract’ but that it is not possible to estimate

the extent.


of 168

Table 65 Level of those in employment on a zero-hours contract, Apr-Jun 2000-Apr-Jun 2017

Year Number of employed people on a zero hours contract

2000 225,000

2001 176,000

2002 156,000

2003 124,000

2004 108,000

2005 119,000

2006 147,000

2007 166,000

2008 143,000

2009 189,000

2010 168,000

2011 190,000

2012 252,000

2013 585,000

2014 624,000

2014 (Oct-Dec) 699,000

2015 747,000

2015 (Oct-Dec) 804,000

2016 903,000

2016 (Oct-Dec) 905,000

2017 883,000

Source: ONS.

The Labour Force Survey (LFS) asks people in employment if their job has flexible working and

if so to choose from a list of employment patterns which best describe their situation. People who

select ‘zero-hours contract’ as an option are included in the figures, which presents the outcomes

of the results by age. The number of people who are shown as on a zero-hours contract are

therefore affected by whether people know they are on a zero-hours contract or not, as some

workers may be unware of the type of employment contract they are employed on.

The estimated number of people employed on zero-hours contracts, according to the LFS figures,

in 2012 was 252,000, representing under 1% of all people in employment. By the same quarter

of 2016, the number of people on these contracts had risen to 903,000 or 2.9% of all in

employment. During October to December 2016 the figure was 905,000, representing 2.8% of all

people in employment. There has a significant increase in the number of people reporting to be

employed on zero-hours contracts in 2013 – doubling over the year – and since this point the


of 168

level has been steadily increasing to reach nearly 1 million. The latest data shows a marginal fall

and could indicate a flattening of the rising trend.

A closer look at the LFS data by age shows that young people aged 16 to 24 are far more likely

to be on zero-hours contracts than people in employment in other age groups. However, it is not

this age category that has seen the most growth in these types of contracts over the last two

years. Zero-hours contracts have increase by 45% overall for all age groups between 2014 and

2016 and the group that has seen the greatest increase in these contracts is those aged 65+ (a

rise of 67%), followed by those aged between 50 and 64 (an increase of 50%).

Table 66 Level and rate of people on zero-hours contract, by age (thousands)

Year 16-24 25-34 35-49 50-64 65+ All ages

2014 Number 235.0 117.0 116.0 127.0 30.0 624.0

% 6.3 1.7 1.1 1.6 2.7 2.0

2015 Number 256.0 152.0 157.0 141.0 41.0 747.0

% 6.7 2.2 1.5 1.7 3.6 2.4

2016 Number 327.0 164.0 172.0 191.0 50.0 903.0

% 8.5 2.3 1.6 2.2 4.1 2.9

Source: ONS, Labour Force Survey.

6.6. Redundancies

The level and rate of redundancies fell significantly over the last four-year period, falling from a

rate of 6% in April to June 2012 to 4.2% in the same quarter of 2016. Redundancies are a good

measure of job security overall in the labour market and they are now back to pre-recession levels.

Table 67 Redundancies - levels and rates (not seasonally adjusted), Apr-Jun 2012 – Apr-Jun 2016

Period Level Rate (%)

Apr-Jun 2012 150,682 6.0

Apr-Jun 2013 123,664 4.9

Apr-Jun 2014 111,969 4.4

Apr-Jun 2015 112,639 4.3

Apr-Jun 2016 111,491 4.2

Source: ONS, Labour Force Survey.


of 168

6.7. Labour turnover

The CIPD survey on Resourcing and Talent Planning records the rate of staff turnover amongst

a sample of employers. These surveys indicate that the median labour turnover rate has risen

over the period from 2012 to 2016, rising from 12% in 2013 to 17% in 2016. Although it is important

to note that between 2006 and 2012 labour turnover fell from 18% to 10%. Taking this finding in

combination with data already presented on rising employment levels and a fall in the number of

redundancies indicates greater movement between firms in a more active labour market, rather

than firms laying people off.

The CIPD survey also asks employees their views on the likelihood of losing their job and shows

that between 2013 and 2016, the level of job security has increased with the proportion of those

feeling they are ‘likely’ to lose their job falling from 14% in 2013 (all sectors) to 8% in 2016.

Similarly, those reporting they are ‘very unlikely’ to lose their job has risen from 19% in 2013 to

26% in 2016.


of 168

Table 68 Median rate of labour turnover (%), (2012-2017)

2012 2013 2014 2016

% labour turnover 12 10 14 17

Source: CIPD Resourcing and Talent Planning Surveys 2012-2017.

Note the survey changed from being conducted annually to bi-annually in 2014.

Table 69 Likelihood of losing main job, by sector (%)

2013 (Autumn) 2014 (Autumn) 2016 (Autumn)

All Private Public All Private Public All Private Public

Very likely 4 4 5 4 3 5 4 3 6

Likely 14 13 18 12 11 21 8 8 11

Neither likely nor unlikely 27 27 26 25 25 22 26 26 24

Unlikely 31 32 29 33 34 33 31 32 29

Very unlikely 19 20 17 22 23 16 26 26 26

Don't know 5 5 5 0 0 0 5 5 4

Source: CIPD Employee Outlook Surveys.


of 168

7. Hours of work

Definition: Hours of work would normally be defined within the employment contract and need to

accord with European legislation, albeit that UK companies may request employees to sign an

agreement which exempts the individual from restrictions imposed by the hours of work

legislation.

Unsocial hours are those worked outside regular ‘office hours’ between Monday and Friday. Such

hours may be the requirement of the job, especially where it is necessary to operate 24 hours a

day.

Employees in many industries and roles receive overtime and shift premiums for hours worked in

addition to or outside normal working hours. However, in some roles, flexibility over hours is

expected and accounted for in basic pay.

Armed Forces’ personnel have a contractual requirement to be available for duty 24 hours a day

and 365 days a year. Overtime and shift premiums are not paid to Armed Forces’ personnel.

Conclusion: overall, we find that the picture on working hours has remained unchanged for

civilians, since the majority of the indicators show no change, with the exception of zero-hours

working. Overall, we found:

• There has been no discernible change in basic weekly hours for full-time employees

over the recent period.

• Our own data on basic (or contractual) working hours shows a slight increase at the

mean, though not at the median.

• The extent of unsocial hours working has altered little for employees, but for the ‘self-

employed’ it has risen.

• In low-paying sectors employers have reduced or removed premiums for weekend

working, and while night premiums have been less affected, the windows for night

premium payments have been put back or reduced.

• On overtime, there has been no change in the numbers working paid or unpaid

overtime.

• There has been significant growth in zero-hours contracts, which has resulted in

greater variation in weekly working patterns and less predictability for some workers.


of 168

Here we examine data on contracted working hours, both from official sources and our own

surveys, to indicate the extent of change in this area. We also look at patterns of shift and

unsocial hours working (and payment for these), overtime and long hours, and the emergence

of zero-hours contracts as a way of managing working time and providing the employer (and

sometimes the employee) with flexibility. Zero-hours contracts are those where an employee is

not guaranteed a set amount of hours each week. Instead, the hours of work required may

fluctuate according to the employer’s requirements.

7.1. Contracted working hours

There has been a small increase in average basic weekly hours between 2012 and 2016, rising

from 36.8 to 37.0 hours at the median and 32.1 and 32.4 hours at the mean. Closer inspection

shows that the increases for all employees is really a representation of an increase in women’s

basic weekly hours, as men’s hours have not changed. Previously we have shown an increase in

women’s employment which could explain the increase.

Table 70 Weekly basic working hours for full-time employees by gender, 2012-2016

Source: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (ASHE), Office for National Statistics.

All employees Men Women

Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean

2012 36.8 32.1 37.5 35.5 32.5 28.5

2013 36.9 32.1 37.5 35.6 32.5 28.6

2014 36.9 32.1 37.5 35.5 32.5 28.7

2015 36.9 32.3 37.5 35.7 32.5 28.8

2016 37.0 32.4 37.5 35.8 32.7 29.0


of 168

Total hours worked each week do not differ much from contractual hours and remain unchanged

at the median at 37.0 however, at the mean there has been a slight increase from 33.1 hours in

2012 to 33.4 hours in 2016. A closer look by gender shows that once again this is due to an

increase in total weekly hours worked by women.

Table 71 Weekly total working hours for full-time employees by gender, 2012-2016

All employees Men Women

Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean

2012 37.0 33.1 37.5 37.0 32.9 29.1

2013 37.0 33.1 37.5 37.0 33.1 29.2

2014 37.0 33.2 37.5 37.0 33.1 29.3

2015 37.0 33.2 37.5 37.0 33.3 29.4

2016 37.0 33.4 37.5 37.1 33.7 29.5

Source: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (ASHE), Office for National Statistics.

IDR data on contractual hours of work by broad sector shows little change at the median but

further analysis shows some upwards movement at the mean.


of 168

Table 72 Median basic weekly hours, by sector, 2012-2016

Sector 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Manufacturing & primary 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5

Not-for-profit & related services 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5

Private sector services 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5

Public sector 37.0 37.0 37.5 37.0 37.0

All sectors 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5

N. 2012, 342; 2013, 561; 2014, 375; 2015, 679; 2016, 381. Source: Incomes Data Research (internal database).

Table 73 Summary figures on basic weekly hours, by sector, 2012-2016

All Manufacturing

& primary

Not-for-profit &

related services

Private sector

services

Public sector

2012

Count 343 79 46 113 105

Median 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.0

Mean 37.4 37.6 36.5 38.1 36.9

Mode 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.0

2013

Count 561 163 121 183 94

Median 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.0

Mean 37.5 37.7 37.3 37.7 37.3

Mode 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5

2014

Count 375 117 68 149 41

Median 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5

Mean 37.6 38.0 36.9 37.8 37.3

Mode 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5

2015

Count 679 129 158 236 156

Median 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.0

Mean 37.6 37.6 37.1 38.1 37.1

Mode 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.0

2016

Count 381 105 166 86 24

Median 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.0

Mean 37.9 37.9 37.2 38.7 36.8

Mode 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.0



of 168

7.2. Shift and unsocial hours working

Data on the prevalence of shift working shows that the proportion of employed people reporting

to work shifts ‘most of the time’ in 2016 is broadly unchanged compared to 2012, although there

was an increase the previous year. Over the same period the proportion of self-employed people

reporting to work shifts ‘most of the time’ has increased, albeit from a lower level overall. This

could be linked to the ‘gig’ economy with more firms requiring staff to be self-employed in sectors

frequently requiring shift work, such as delivery driving and logistics.

Table 74 Proportion of people working shift work most of the time, 2012-2016 (%)

Year Employee Self-employed

2012 16.3 3.3

2013 16.2 3.0

2014 16.3 3.2

2015 17.0 3.2

2016 16.4 3.5

Source: APS/LFS/ONS/IDR.


of 168

A more detailed look at the prevalence of particular types of shift working among employed people

shows that evening, night, Saturday and Sunday working have all declined marginally. Among

self-employed, evening and night working have increased marginally, while Saturday and Sunday

working have declined.

Table 75 Proportion of people working evenings, 2012-2016 (%)


2012 27.3 34.2

2013 26.6 34.2

2014 27.5 36.9

2015 26.8 37.0

2016 26.5 36.7


Table 76 Proportion of people working night work, 2012-2016 (%)


2012 11.9 10.6

2013 11.8 10.8

2014 12.3 10.7

2015 12.2 11.6

2016 11.8 11.4


Table 77 Proportion of people working Saturdays, 2012-2016 (%)


2012 27.0 43.9

2013 26.2 41.9

2014 26.6 42.9

2015 26.2 41.6

2016 25.6 42.2


Table 78 Proportion of people working Sundays, 2012-2016 (%)


2012 19.3 28.4

2013 18.7 27.0

2014 19.2 26.5

2015 19.0 26.3

2016 18.5 26.2



of 168

7.3. Overtime and long hours

The data on overtime working shows there has been no change over the period in the proportion

of people working paid or unpaid overtime. Looking at different levels of paid and unpaid overtime

shows that there has been a slight increase in the proportion working more than 12 hours a week

of paid overtime between 2013/2014 and 2015/2016.

Table 79 Percentage of employees who ever work paid or unpaid overtime – 2013-2017

Year Proportion of employees who said yes Proportion of employees who said no (%)

2013/14 38.8 61.2

2014/15 38.8 61.2

2015/16 37.8 62.2

2016/17 38.9 61.1

Source: APS/IDR.

Table 80 Distribution of paid overtime (% of actual hours of paid overtime) – 2013-2017

Year 0.25 to 5 hours 5.25 to 12 hours Over 12 hours

2013/14 51.8 32.6 15.5

2014/15 52.1 32.4 15.5

2015/16 50.8 32.8 16.4

2016/17 51.0 31.6 17.4

Source: APS/IDR.

Table 81 Distribution of unpaid overtime (% of actual hours of unpaid overtime) – 2013-2017

Year 0.25 to 5 hours 5.25 to 12 hours Over 12 hours

2013/14 50.2 29.3 20.5

2014/15 50.1 29.5 20.3

2015/16 49.9 29.9 20.2

2016/17 50.5 28.8 20.7

Source: APS/IDR.

A closer look at employees reporting to work over 12 hours’ overtime each week shows that the

increase is primarily due to increases in higher managerial and professional occupations working

more than 12 hours’ paid overtime on the one hand and non-managerial occupations, especially

semi-routine and routine occupations, working more than 12 hours’ unpaid overtime on the other

hand.

As the table shows, the proportion of those working over 12 hours’ paid overtime a week in

managerial and professional occupations has increased from 15.6% in 2013/14 to 20.8% in


of 168

2015/16. Meanwhile the proportion of routine occupation workers reporting working 12 or more

hours of unpaid overtime has increased from 15.4% in 2013/14 to 23.1% in 2016/2017.

Table 82 Distribution of paid overtime hours by occupational group (%)

Higher managerial and professional

Lower managerial and professional

Intermediate occupations

Lower supervisory and technical

Semi-routine occupations

Routine occupations

2013/14

0.25 to 5 hours 58.9 58.0 61.6 45.0 46.4 44.5

5.25 to 12 hours 25.5 28.8 27.0 36.4 36.7 38.2

Over 12 hours 15.6 13.2 11.4 18.7 16.9 17.3

2014/15

0.25 to 5 hours 60.6 57.3 62.7 45.5 46.3 45.2

5.25 to 12 hours 24.7 29.4 25.5 37.0 35.9 37.9

Over 12 hours 14.8 13.4 11.8 17.4 17.8 16.9

2015/16

0.25 to 5 hours 58.1 55.0 62.0 43.6 46.5 43.4

5.25 to 12 hours 25.1 30.4 25.9 38.2 35.0 38.0

Over 12 hours 16.9 14.7 12.1 18.2 18.5 18.6

2016/17

0.25 to 5 hours 53.5 55.5 60.6 47.8 46.0 43.5

5.25 to 12 hours 25.7 28.7 27.3 33.1 35.2 37.3

Over 12 hours 20.8 15.8 12.1 19.1 18.9 19.2

Source: APS/IDR.


of 168

Table 83 Unpaid overtime by occupational group (%)

Higher managerial and professional

Lower managerial and professional

Intermediate occupations

Lower supervisory and technical

Semi-routine occupations

Routine occupations

2013/14

0.25 to 5 hours 42.0 46.7 74.0 64.3 74.7 64.5

5.25 to 12 hours 34.2 31.1 17.5 20.7 12.9 20.2

Over 12 hours 23.8 22.2 8.5 15.0 12.4 15.4

2014/15

0.25 to 5 hours 41.9 46.8 74.7 64.0 70.3 60.6

5.25 to 12 hours 36.1 30.1 17.7 20.6 16.2 17.7

Over 12 hours 22.1 23.1 7.6 15.4 13.5 21.7

2015/16

0.25 to 5 hours 42.1 46.1 73.3 62.4 73.1 61.2

5.25 to 12 hours 35.4 31.6 18.2 23.0 14.2 12.9

Over 12 hours 22.5 22.3 8.5 14.6 12.7 25.8

2016/17

0.25 to 5 hours 43.6 47.0 74.8 61.3 69.1 58.7

5.25 to 12 hours 33.6 30.5 16.6 21.5 13.1 18.2

Over 12 hours 22.8 22.4 8.6 17.2 17.8 23.1

Source: APS/IDR.

A larger proportion of self-employed people than employees report to work more than 45 hours a

week overall, however the figures show that both the proportion of employed and self-employed

workers, working more than 45 hours a week, has decreased slightly overall.

Table 84 Percentage of people working long hours – 2013-2017

2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17

Up to 45 hours

More than 45 hours

Up to 45 hours

More than 45 hours

Up to 45 hours

More than 45 hours

Up to 45 hours

More than 45 hours

Employee 82.0 18.0 82.0 18.0 82.4 17.6 82.3 17.7

Self-employed

70.9 29.1 71.0 29.0 71.8 28.2 71.8 28.2

Source: APS/IDR.


of 168

7.4. Shift premiums

There has been a long running trend away from paying higher rates for some forms of unsocial

hours working in some parts of the economy, notably retail but also other areas employing mostly

low-paid workers. IDS’s 2015 report on seven day working practices and payments11 notes that

‘premium payments on top of basic pay have traditionally been used to compensate staff for

working unsocial hours. However, across most sectors of the economy unsocial hours working

arrangements and the associated premiums have changed in recent years as 24/7 operations

have become more prevalent.’ Also, as the statutory floor for wages has increased, employers

have cut back on premiums for weekends and/or bank holidays, although night premiums have

been affected far less.

The IDS report also noted that payments are typically higher for junior staff than senior staff (as

a proportion of basic pay) and that the level and incidence of unsocial hours payments vary by

sector and type of work. The type of labour being employed and labour markets are important

too. For example, in engineering (and manufacturing more broadly), shift working is common, and

semi-skilled and skilled workers generally receive significant percentage premiums on top of their

basic pay as compensation, particular for continuous shifts and other shift patterns that involved

night work. White-collar engineers and engineering managers are more likely than white-collar

workers in other sectors to receive overtime pay.

By contrast, retail is an area of the economy where, over the past two decades or so, opening

hours have been extended. At the same time, the expansion of higher education created a ready

supply of labour for whom weekend working was often the only way of combining necessary work

with their studies; and since most students do not have dependents, they were perhaps less likely

than other employees to regard weekend working as ‘unsocial’.

Our recent report on pay in the retail sector12 reported that premium pay in the retail sector has

been gradually eroded since around 2000, with reductions in premiums for Sunday working the

most marked change. These premiums are now typically worth time-and-a-half (T+50%), down

from double time (2T) in 1994 when the Sunday Trading Act came into force.

11 ‘Seven day practices and payments: A research report for the Office of Manpower Economics’, Incomes Data

Services, March 2015. 12 ‘Pay and conditions in retail’, Incomes Data Research, January 2017.


of 168

Night premiums have historically been more resilient to change, although certain developments

have occurred here as well over the past few years. These have tended to reduce the ‘window’

during which night premiums apply, typically starting at 11pm rather than 10pm and finishing at

6am rather than 7am. The majority of retailers that supplied details of night premiums continue to

maintain these as separate additions, either as a percentage of the hourly rate or as a flat-rate

hourly premium. Where they are paid separately, night premiums are typically worth 33%,

although some firms pay a premium worth 50% or even 100% (2T).

Bank holiday working continues to attract a premium, although here again we have seen a

downward trend, with some employers limiting the days on which bank holiday premiums apply.

Commonly in the hospitality sector these now only apply on Boxing Day or New Year’s Day.

The advent of the National Living Wage (NLW) for workers aged 25 and over on 1 April 2017 has

resulted in a renewed focus on premium pay, with some employers reducing or removing these

payments as a means of offsetting rises in basic pay. Our 2016 report for the Low Pay

Commission on employers’ reactions to implementing the NLW showed reducing/removing

unsocial hours premiums as the most commonly implemented measure and more often this was

cited by employers in childcare and social care/housing than retailers (most likely as many

retailers had already moved to new contracts with premiums removed/reduced in the earlier

period as set out above). Our 2017 report found further evidence of employers making changes

to premium pay as a result of the NLW uprating. These changes are by no means wide scale but

there is evidence in some lower-paid parts of the economy and across the public sector.

Meanwhile research currently being conducted by IDR specifically on shift pay13 shows that

premiums are still very much part of the reward package for shift workers across the

manufacturing industries. Provisional analysis shows that 32 of 35 (91%) respondents in

manufacturing and primary pay separate allowances, premiums or additions for working shifts14,

with typical shift premiums ranging from 10% to 33.5% depending on the pattern worked.

13 Employers were surveyed in November 2017, with results due for publication January 2018. 14 Of the three that do not pay separate allowances, two operate annual hours and are likely to pay a

‘consolidated’ salary in line with this arrangement.


of 168

7.5. Zero-hours contracts

Data on the level and rate of people on zero-hours contracts shows significant and continued

growth since 2013. In the period April to June 2012 there were 252,000 people on zero-hours

contracts, or 0.8% of all employed people. The number of people on zero-hours contracts doubled

by the following year and has been increasing at a steady rate to stand at 903,000 people, 2.9%

of all employed people. The negative publicity associated with these forms of contracts has

sometimes led employers to guarantee employees a minimum number of hours as an alternative,

but these alternative approaches are not always an improvement.

Table 85 Level and rate of people on zero-hours contracts, 2012-2016

Year Period Level (000s) Rate (%) of employed people

2012 April - June 252 0.8

2013 April - June 585 1.9

2014 April - June 624 2.0

2014 October - December 699 2.3

2015 April - June 747 2.4


2016 April - June 903 2.9

Note: October-December figures are only available from 2014 onwards. Not seasonally adjusted. Source: Labour

Force Survey, Office for National Statistics.


of 168

8. Stress, personal relationships and impact of the job

Definition: Stress at work arises when individuals have excessive pressures or other demands

placed on them at work. In the Armed Forces, it may be a consequence of individuals having

difficulty coping with certain aspects of the job.

Employers would expect to minimise stress by planning, providing new or additional resources,

and/or re-organising work. However, depending on the organisation, this may not always be

possible in the Armed Forces owing to lack of resources or manpower.

Depending on the level of deployment, Armed Forces’ personnel may experience significantly

greater levels of stress than would normally be acceptable in civilian occupations. The Armed

Forces may also experience additional stress because of overstretch for operational reasons.

Stress may have short- and long-term impacts on Service personnel both during and after

employment in the Armed Forces. The impact of this can be varied and detrimental. As a result,

individuals may experience difficulties adjusting to civilian life, including difficulties in finding and

maintaining civilian employment.

Difficulties maintaining relationships with spouse, partner, children, friends and family which has

a detrimental impact upon family life and may result in a higher than average rate of divorce

amongst married/civil partnership couples. This may also have an impact upon other types of

personal relationships, in that where individuals are not married, or, part of a civil partnership,

relationships may be curtailed. A minority may also experience social and mental problems, such

as issues misusing alcohol or drugs, vagrancy, criminal activity and/or suicide.

Conclusion: We have looked at a number of different factors, however in our view the most

important one for assessing the change in this component in civilian life is work-related stress

the rate of which the data shows is broadly unchanged, though the incidence has increased.

While rough sleeping and self-harm show increases, other factors either showed an

improvement (sickness absence, divorce rates, alcohol-related deaths among young people)

or remained the same (prison population figures, suicide rates). Therefore, we conclude that

this component is unchanged. Looking at each of the measures in detail:


of 168

• The number of instances of work-related stress has risen but the rate is broadly

unchanged

• There has been a decrease in wider sickness absence from work.

• Divorces (and marriages) have continued to fall, part of a longer running trend evident

since the 1970s and unchanged since the last review. Civil partnership dissolutions

have increased, but it is likely there are other factors at play including the Marriage

(Same Sex Couples) Act 2013 and subsequent decline in civil partnerships. The data

on civil partnership dissolutions is inconclusive.

• Alcohol-related deaths have fallen among younger people but risen among older

people.

• Local authority estimates for rough sleeping have risen significantly almost doubling

over the period.

• Recent prison population figures remain broadly static among men and show a slight

decline for women.

• Suicide deaths have fluctuated however the rate has remained broadly unchanged. The

rate for men aged 40 to 49, the category with the largest prevalence of suicide overall,

has fallen slightly over the period.

• Self-harming has increased significantly, notably among women.

This chapter examines data covering a wide range of areas, including stress and illness caused

by work, figures on divorce and separation, suicide, self-harm and alcohol-related deaths, rough

sleeping and prison statistics, which have enabled us to make an assessment of whether civilian

life has worsened in this area since the last review. We look at data covering both the direct and

indirect impacts of stress on individuals.

8.1. Work-related stress

The ONS produce statistics on levels and rates of self-reported illness at work which shows that

the total number of cases has risen by 220,000 cases between 2011/12 and 2016/17. The

number of new cases has risen to 62,000 over the period. The rate of self-reported illness per

100,000 employed has risen from 3,550 in 2012/12 to 3,970 in 2016/17, while the rate of new

cases remains broadly unchanged over period at 1,580 per 100,000.


of 168

Looking specifically at cases where illness has been classified by the individual as stress,

depression or anxiety, these have increased over the period (by 96,000) to stand at a rate of

1,610 per 100,000 workers. The change in new cases is smaller (at 14,000) and the rate has

declined marginally over the period from 430 to 420 per 100,000 workers. Overall, we conclude

that the trend is broadly flat. It could be that some of the increase in incidence is due to the greater

awareness and reporting of mental health issues at work. However, one reason the rate is

unchanged is that the size of the workforce has increased over the period.

Table 86 Self-reported illness caused or made worse by work for people working (all illnesses), 2011/12-2016/17

2011/12 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/2017

Total cases 1,079,000 1,246,000 1,247,000 1,310,000 1,299,000

- per 100,000 employed 3,550 3,990 3,910 4,050 3,970

New cases 454,000 537,000 518,000 528,000 516,000

- per 100,000 employed 1,500 1,720 1,620 1,630 1,580

Of which is classified as stress, depression or anxiety:

Total cases 430,000 488,000 442,000 487,000 526,000

- per 100,000 employed 1,420 1,560 1,390 1,510 1,610

New cases 222,000 244,000 235,000 224,000 236,000

- per 100,000 employed 730 780 740 690 720

Notes Total cases (prevalence) includes long-standing as well as new (incidence) cases. New cases consist of those who first became aware of their illness in the last 12 months. Source: Labour Force Survey (LFS).

In respect of working days lost due to work-related illness, it is estimated to total 25.7 million, a

rate of 0.99 days per worker overall, of which 12.5 million (or 0.48 days per worker) is due to

stress, depression or anxiety caused or made worse by work. While the absolute number of days

lost has increased, the rate remains broadly unchanged overall.

Table 87 Estimated working days lost due to self-reported illness caused or made worse by work, 2011/12-2016/17

2011/12 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/2017

Estimated days lost 10,475,000 11,247,000 9,993,000 11,665,000 12,530,000

- average per worker 0.44 0.46 0.40 0.46 0.48

Of which is due to stress, depression or anxiety

Estimated days lost 22,256,000 23,663,000 23,367,000 25,910,000 25,674,000

- average per worker 0.94 0.96 0.93 1.01 0.99

Source: Labour Force Survey (LFS).


of 168

Similarly, while the number of working days lost to any type of sickness absence has increased

over the period, from 132.4 in 2011 to 137.3 in 2016, the overall rate has decreased marginally,

from 2.1 in 2011 to 1.9 in 2016.15

The Chartered Institute for Personnel and Development (CIPD) also produce figures on sickness

absence and these show that the average level of absence for all sectors is 6.3 days per employee

in 2016 – the lowest recorded level for seven years and half a day down on the 6.8 days recorded

in 2012. A significant decline in the level of sickness absence has been recorded between 2015

and 2016 than for the last four years overall.

Manufacturing and production organisations have seen less change over the last few years, but

their average absence level has similarly decreased by half a day in 2016 compared to the level

recorded in 2015. The public sector typically records the highest level of sickness absence and

this is usually more than a day higher than the level recorded for all sectors overall. However, the

level of sickness in the public sector has increased to be close to two or more days above the

level recorded for all sectors in 2015 and 2016.

Table 88 Average level of employee absence by sector (number of days lost per year), 2012-2016

Year All sectors Private services sector

2012 6.8 5.7

2013 7.6 7.2

2014 6.6 5.5

2015 6.9 5.8

2016 6.3 5.2

Source: CIPD Absence Management surveys 2012-2016.

15 For details see

https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/labourproductivity/articles/sicknessabsenceinthelabourmarket/2

016




of 168

8.2. Divorce and separation

The number of divorces among opposite-sex marriages had been falling, but in the latest figures,

for 2016, it showed an increase. Overall though, the trend over the whole period is down. Further

analysis by gender and by age shows a similar trend, i.e. down over the whole period, but an

increase in the latest figures for almost all categories, apart from men aged 20-24 and women

aged 25-29.

Table 89 Divorces in England and Wales, 2012-2016

All decrees Decree absolute Decree of nullity

2012 118,140 117,991 149

2013 114,720 114,523 197

2014 111,169 110,951 218

2015 101,055 100,685 370

2016 106,959

106,602

357



of 168

Table 90 Divorce rates in opposite sex marriage in England and Wales by gender, 2012-2016

Divorce decrees per 1,000 married population (opposite sex)

2012 2012

2013 2014 2015 2016 Men 10.2

10.2 9.8 9.3 8.5 8.9

Women 10.0 10.0

9.8 9.3 8.5 8.9 Source: Office for National Statistics (ONS).

Table 91 Divorce rates in opposite sex marriage in England and Wales by gender and age, 2011-2015

Divorce decrees per 1,000 married population (opposite sex)

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Men 20-24 17.5 14.6 13.1 10.5 9.4

25-29 17.4 15.9 13.5 13.0 13.2

30-34 17.3 15.9 14.0 11.9 13.0

35-39 17.9 16.7 13.9 12.6 13.4

40-44 17.8 16.7 14.6 13.1 13.6

45-49 15.8 15.3 13.7 12.6 13.8

50-54 11.9 12.0 11.0 10.2 10.8

55-59 7.7 7.8 7.4 7.1 7.8

60 and over 2.3 2.3 2.1 1.9 2.2

All ages 10.2 9.8 9.3 8.5 8.9

Women 20-24 17.0 16.3 12.1 11.1 11.8

25-29 18.7 16.8 14.8 13.2 12.7

30-34 17.5 16.2 14.5 12.4 13.9

35-39 17.0 16.2 13.8 12.7 13.9

40-44 16.8 16.3 14.9 12.9 13.7

45-49 14.3 14.0 12.9 12.0 12.9

50-54 9.7 10.0 9.4 8.7 9.3

55-59 5.7 5.7 5.5 5.1 5.9

60 and over 1.6 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.9

All ages 10.0 9.8 9.3 8.5 8.9


One major development over the period has been the introduction of same-sex marriage. The

Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013 gave same-sex couples rights identical to those in

opposite-sex marriages. Marriages of same-sex couples have only been possible since 29

March 2014 and the ONS has to date only published one year of data (for 2015). Data for 2016

will be published at the end of 2017.

Over the period 2011-2015 opposite-sex marriages have continued to decline, as part of a longer

running trend evident since the early 1970s. Civil partnerships have also declined, markedly so


of 168

since 2013 when the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013 came into effect and while it is not

yet known whether this is due to a rise in same-sex marriages it is likely that this has had an

effect.

Table 92 Marriages, 2011-2014

Year Number of marriages

2011 249,000

2012 264,000

2013 241,000

2014 247,000

Note: 2015 marriage data is not yet available. Source: Office for National Statistics (ONS).

The number of civil partnership dissolutions has increased markedly over the period 2012-2016,

with about 1.6 times as many recorded in 2016 as in 2012. By gender, there have been significant

increases of civil partnership dissolutions brought forward by both men and women. However,

over the same period there has been a significant decline in the number of civil partnership

formations, markedly so in 2014 and 2015, though the number increased a little in the latest

figures. Legislative changes on same-sex marriages and civil partnerships have had an impact

and therefore it is difficult to draw firm conclusions from the data.


of 168

Table 93 Civil partnership formations and dissolutions by gender, 2012-2016

Year Civil partnership formations Civil partnership dissolutions

Total Men Women Total Men Women

2012 6,362 3,138 3,224 809 339 470

2013 5,646 2,673 2,973 974 398 576

2014 1,683 954 729 1,061 463 598

2015 861 570 291 1,211 523 688

2016 890 604 286 1,313 528 785


8.3. Social and mental health issues

The stress, personal relationships and impact of the job component notes that some military

personnel can suffer from a range of social and mental health issues, including alcohol misuse,

vagrancy, crime and suicide, due to longer-term impacts of the jobs. For civilians, we assess

changes in alcohol-related deaths, rough sleeping and suicide rates.

Between 2012 and 2016 the annual number of alcohol-related deaths has risen from 8,367 to

9,214. The corresponding rate per 100,000 persons increased from 14.0 to 14.8. Alcohol-related

deaths are much more prevalent among men than women – around double. The gender-related

rates have increased by a broadly similar magnitude over this period.

Table 94 Alcohol-related death rates per 100,000 persons by gender, 2012-2016

All Men Women

Rate Number Rate Number Rate Number

2012 14.0 8,367 19.1 5,473 9.4 2,894

2013 14.0 8,416 19.1 5,565 9.1 2,851

2014 14.3 8,697 19.4 5,687 9.6 3,010

2015 14.2 8,758 19.2 5,693 9.7 3,065

2016 14.8 9,214 20.2 6,070 9.8 3,144


By age, alcohol-related deaths have fallen for younger people but risen for older people. Alcohol-

related deaths have generally fallen among under 60s, more noticeably for those aged over 35.

Over the same period alcohol-related deaths among pensioners have increased, with the rate per

100,000 men aged 80-89 rising from 23.2 to 32.3. Similarly, the rate per 100,000 women aged

80-89 has risen from 10.7 to 14.9.


of 168

Table 95 Alcohol-related deaths per 100,000 by gender and age (25+), 2012-2016

Age 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Change 2011-16^ Men

25-29 2.5 2.3 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.8 -0.7

30-34 6.2 5.9 5.5 4.3 5.0 5.9 -0.3

35-39 12.8 12.5 12.8 12.4 11.4 10.0 -2.8

40-44 24.0 21.7 22.6 19.1 19.4 20.2 -3.8

45-49 32.1 30.1 30.0 30.9 30.2 30.2 -1.9

50-54 39.4 34.7 37.9 36.1 36.9 37.1 -2.3

55-59 46.8 42.0 43.7 42.6 42.2 42.4 -4.4

60-64 46.7 42.6 45.3 47.6 44.9 48.0 1.3

65-69 41.0 40.3 39.9 42.9 43.8 45.7 4.7

70-74 37.2 31.8 29.0 35.4 33.9 40.1 2.9

75-79 27.9 33.2 27.6 28.9 29.6 34.3 6.4

80-84 23.2 27.9 23.4 27.4 24.2 32.3 9.1

85 and over 20.1 19.7 19.1 20.0 22.3 23.7 3.6

Women

25-29 1.5 1.0 0.9 1.1 0.9 1.1 -0.4

30-34 3.9 3.3 3.1 3.9 2.9 3.0 -0.9

35-39 7.7 4.8 6.2 6.3 6.5 5.0 -2.7

40-44 12.4 10.4 10.0 10.4 11.6 11.3 -1.1

45-49 14.2 15.5 14.4 15.8 16.1 15.7 1.5

50-54 20.5 18.1 18.5 18.4 17.3 19.0 -1.5

55-59 22.4 22.2 21.4 22.1 23.1 22.1 -0.3

60-64 21.0 19.3 22.4 20.4 22.2 22.6 1.6

65-69 15.8 19.3 17.2 17.4 18.1 18.3 2.5

70-74 16.4 16.6 13.0 16.2 17.1 16.2 -0.2

75-79 15.2 15.6 13.5 17.8 14.6 17.5 2.3

80-84 10.7 12.5 13.2 12.4 13.0 14.9 4.2

85 and over 8.5 10.3 9.4 8.8 8.5 10.7 2.2

^IDR calculation. Source: Office for National Statistics (ONS).

The Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG) publishes rough sleeping

estimates based on data collected from local authorities in England. This data shows that there

has been a significant increase in the number of people estimated to be sleeping rough in

England.


of 168

Table 96 Rough sleeping estimates in UK, 2012-2016

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

England 2,309 2,414 2,744 3,569 4,134

% change from previous year 6 5 14 30 16

London 557 543 742 940 964

% change from previous year 25 -3 37 27 3

Rest of UK 1,752 1,871 2,002 2,629 3,170

% change from previous year 1 7 7 31 21

Source: Department of Communities and Local Government (DCLG) Homelessness statistics.

The prison population statistics shows a significant difference in the population of men and women

within prisons, with many more men in prison than women. The ‘all persons’ figures show a fairly

inconclusive change, which mirrors that of the male population, however there is more of a

prominent downward trend in the number of women in prisons. Note however that historically, the

prison population remains very high when compared with most of the previous century.16

16 For details, see researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN04334/SN04334.pdf


of 168

Table 97 Prison population statistics, 2012-2016

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

All 85,617 83,005 84,684 84,777 84,323

Men 81,478 79,158 80,749 80,893 80,467

Women 4,139 3,847 3,935 3,884 3,856

Source: Ministry of Justice.

8.4. Suicide and self-harm

Recorded suicides have fluctuated between 2012 and 2016, however the rate has remained very

similar. Suicide is over three times as prevalent for men as it is for women and the suicide rate

for men rose in 2013 but fell back again in 2014 and again in the following two years. The 2016

rate is a little lower than that for 2012. Suicides among women have fluctuated to a lesser extent

and the rate in 2016 is the same as it was in 2012.


of 168

Table 98 Suicide rates per 100,000 persons by gender, Great Britain, 2012-2016

Year All Men Women

Deaths Rate Deaths Rate Deaths Rate

2012 5,716 10.5 4,385 16.5 1,331 4.8

2013 5,939 10.9 4,634 17.5 1,305 4.7

2014 5,854 10.6 4,423 16.5 1,431 5.1

2015 5,870 10.6 4,377 16.2 1,493 5.3

2016 5,668 10.1 4,287 15.7 1,381 4.8


A breakdown by gender and five-year age groups shows that suicide is most prevalent among

men aged 40 to 44 and women 50 to 54. The rate for men in this age bracket has fallen over the

period from 25.7 to 23.7 per 100,000 deaths, while that for women aged 50 to 54 has increased

a little from 7.8 to 8.1 deaths per 100,000.


of 168

Table 99 Suicide rates by gender and five-year age groups, Great Britain, 2012-2016

Men 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69

2012 6.0 14.7 17.3 19.2 22.8 25.7 25.1 22.9 19.7 14.1 11.3

2013 6.6 13.8 15.4 19.0 23.0 26.5 26.3 24.3 23.1 18.0 11.4

2014 6.6 13.1 15.8 16.9 19.5 25.7 26.2 24.8 19.8 15.1 12.1

2015 8.0 14.1 15.4 18.4 19.1 23.7 23.4 20.7 21.3 16.1 12.9

2016 7.1 14.1 16.9 18.0 18.6 23.7 22.9 21.6 19.7 14.3 11.9

Women

2012 1.8 3.2 4.9 4.7 5.4 6.6 7.9 7.8 6.0 4.9 3.6

2013 1.6 3.3 3.4 4.8 6.9 6.2 7.4 6.8 6.3 4.1 4.1

2014 2.6 4.3 4.5 4.9 6.2 6.9 7.2 7.9 6.2 4.9 4.4

2015 2.9 3.7 4.7 5.4 6.1 6.0 7.2 8.5 6.6 6.7 4.4

2016 2.9 5.2 3.9 5.0 4.7 6.7 6.8 8.1 6.4 5.4 4.1


NHS Digital produces data on self-harming from the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey, which

shows that the proportion of people17 reporting to have self-harmed has increased from 2.4% in

2000, to 3.8% in 2007, to 6.4% in 2014. It is important to note that some of the increase could be

due to greater awareness and less ‘taboo’ surrounding self-harming, which means people are

more likely to report that they have self-harmed in 2014 than they were in 2000. Three-quarters

of those that had reported self-harming in the 2014 survey stated that this was to relieve feelings

of anger, stress, anxiety or depression.

The data shows that broadly similar proportions of men and women reported self-harming in 2000

and 2007 but by 2014 the proportion of women had grown at a much faster rate than men, rising

from 3.8% in 2007 to 7.9% in 2014, compared to a rise of 3.7% to 5.0% for men.

17 People aged 16 to 74.


of 168

Table 100 People aged 16 to 74 reporting to have self-harmed, 2000, 2007 and 2014

Men Women All

2000 2.1 2.7 2.4

2007 3.7 3.8 3.8

2014 5.0 7.9 6.4


Age has a significant effect on a person’s likelihood of self-harming, with younger people

(especially younger women) much more likely to report having self-harmed. People aged 16 to

24 are in the highest risk category, followed by those aged 25 to 34. As the table shows, the

number of people reporting self-harm has increased across all age brackets. For most groups the

proportion of people reporting to have self-harmed has doubled or nearly trebled since 2000,

however the proportion of those aged 65 to 74 has increased tenfold, driven by an increase in

women in this age group reporting self-harm.

Table 101 People aged 16 to 74 reporting to have self-harmed by age, 2000, 2007 and 2014

16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 16-74

2000 5.3 3.8 2.5 1.0 0.9 0.1 2.4

2007 8.9 4.6 4.7 2.1 0.9 0.1 3.8

2014 13.7 10.3 6.4 2.9 3.3 1.1 6.4



of 168

9. Leave

Definition: Annual leave is defined as the entitlement to a fixed number of working days off from

one’s job as stated in the employment contract.

It would generally be expected that the employer would not be able to dictate the manner that this

time would be utilised and that such leisure time can be booked with prior agreement from the

employer and/or colleagues in accordance with personal or family requirements. Employees

working shifts would normally expect that at main holidays, e.g. Christmas, New Year and August,

summer holiday time, that they would be able to take time off, subject to the needs of the business

and that where necessary the business would hire additional staff to cover such times.

In the event that the holiday time is lost the employee would expect to be compensated in some

way. For some employees leave would be included in the flexible benefits system and can

therefore be traded (i.e. increased or decreased) for other benefits or money. All ranks across the

Services have an allocation of 30 ‘working days’ leave per year. However, leave can be lost for

military reasons.

In practice it may be difficult for Service personnel to take leave when they wish, or plan ahead

as a result of the unpredictability of Service commitments. The addition of Post Operational Tour

Leave can also make it more difficult for individuals to take their full leave entitlement. It remains

MoD policy that commanders enable their personnel to take the full 30 working days leave

allowance unless operational imperatives dictate otherwise. Those required to work at weekends

or during ‘stand-downs’ do not necessarily achieve time off in lieu.

Conclusion: We consider that the situation here is unchanged from the previous review.

• We have examined both typical leave entitlement and restrictions on being able to use

annual leave entitlement and these show that there has been little change in typical

holiday entitlement for employees in the civilian sector.

• With regard to restrictions on taking holiday, data is limited and is more anecdotal in

nature, nonetheless it shows that generally civilians do not face the same restrictions

as military personnel. We have highlighted some examples but we have not identified a

growing trend.


of 168

The data examined here includes the average amount of annual leave to which civilian employees

are entitled, developments in holiday pay, the ability of employees to choose when to take their

leave, ability to carry over unused holidays, and what happens to unused holidays.

9.1. Annual leave entitlement

IDR data on annual leave entitlement shows that there has been no change overall since 2012

however by sector there appears to be a reduction in entitlement for workers in private sector

services and in not-for-profit and related sectors.

Table 102 Median annual leave entitlement excluding bank and public holidays, by sector, 2012-2016

Sector 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Manufacturing and primary 25 25 25 25 25

Not-for-profit and related services 28 28 28 25 20

Private sector services 25 25 25 24 23

Public sector 25 25 30 25 25

All sectors 25 25 25 25 25


Table 103 Basic annual holiday entitlement by broad sector, May 2017

Sector Lower quartile Median Upper quartile Average

Manufacturing and production 22.0 25.0 25.0 24.5

Private sector services 22.0 25.0 27.0 25.0

Public sector 25.0 28.0 33.0 29.8

All sectors 22.0 25.0 27.0 25.3

n = 9.15 employee groups at 543 organisations. Source: XpertHR

9.2. Calculating holiday pay

There has been a significant development in employment law regarding holiday pay since the

2012 X-factor review and this relates to the elements of pay which should be included when

calculating holiday pay. UK employees are legally required to receive the same pay while they

are on annual leave as they normally receive while they are at work for the four weeks of annual

leave required by the EU Working Time Directive. The additional 1.6 weeks’ leave provided by

UK law is not covered by this but many employers choose to apply the same principal to all

holidays for ease. Recent case law has determined that holiday pay calculations needed to

include certain additional payments, such as commission, provided they were ‘normal

remuneration’ (British Airways v Williams and Lock v British Gas) and subsequent cases

http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2012/43.html

http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-inform/case-law/2014/january/lock-v-british-gas


of 168

suggested that normal non-guaranteed overtime should also be included (Bear Scotland v

Fulton). For some employees these decisions have resulted in higher rates of holiday pay.

9.3. The ability to choose when to take holiday

Most employees are able to exercise a level of choice in deciding when to take their annual leave,

subject to any relevant notice provisions or other procedures being followed. However, there are

many circumstances in which employers dictate periods when employees must or cannot take

annual leave, varying from factory shutdowns to day-to-day line manager discretion over when

employees are able to book their leave days.

In the manufacturing sector, particularly in the motor manufacturing and textiles or footwear

sectors, there has long been a tradition of summer shutdowns, where manufacturing ceases and

the factory is closed. This is typically for a two-week period in August and a few days over the

Christmas period. Examples gathered from the footwear sector by IDS in 2014 include some

companies where annual leave throughout the year is fixed around public holidays and the

summer period with the roster published 12 months ahead.18

While fixed annual leave days are most commonly found in manufacturing, background research

for a 2012 IDS study found instances in other sectors, such as one example from the finance

sector where staff in “high risk” financial roles are required to take a two-week-plus block of annual

leave. Some rail transport companies also fix a two-week holiday on the roster for drivers or

maintenance staff.

Christmas is one of the most common times of year for employers across all sectors to require

employees to use some leave days, typically two to four days’ of their entitlement to cover the

period between Christmas Day and New Year, although a 2016 XpertHR survey found that one

in four employers offered employees additional leave days in order to cover this.19 Similarly, it is

common for higher education institutions to have “closure days” during holidays such as

Christmas with mandatory leave days provided in addition to contractual annual leave.

18 IDS, unpublished pay settlement data compiled in 2014. 19 ‘Christmas and New Year Working Arrangements’, XpertHR, November 2016/2017.


of 168

Annual leave for teachers is taken during periods of school closure and public holidays. This is

generally true of school support staff too but, depending on the school or local council there may

be instances where leave can be taken during term time. Elsewhere in the public services there

may be instances where leave is restricted or cancelled in emergency situations for police, fire or

health service workers. In the private sector, some employers also restrict the taking of leave

during particularly busy periods: for instance, retailers may restrict annual leave during Christmas

or leisure establishments during the summer holidays.

On a more routine basis, there may also be restrictions to the number of days’ consecutive leave

that an employee can take, or a line manager might place restrictions on the number of employees

in a team or work area that may take leave at the same time. Some employers discourage

employees from taking more than a set amount of leave consecutively (typically two weeks)

without more senior authorisation. These arrangements may be set out in an individual contract

or collective agreement, but as long as the employer behaves reasonably and follows the correct

processes there is a large degree of flexibility for UK employers in determining whether

employees can take leave at a particular time.

9.4. Ability to carry over unused holidays

In both the public and private sectors it is common for employees to be able to carry over a limited

number of holiday days (typically subject to a maximum of five), although this is likely to be at the

discretion of a manager. While the Working Time Regulations 1998 state that the core four weeks’

statutory annual leave cannot be carried over, it is possible to carry over some of the additional

1.6 weeks’ statutory leave where an agreement allows this, as well as any service-related leave

days.

Some employees are also able to use schemes that allow employees to buy extra leave from their

employer or sell days back (commonly restricted to five). These are most commonly found in the

private sector, such as in finance or office-based roles such as publishing, but are also popular in

the local government sector and the NHS.


of 168

9.5. Untaken holidays

Research compiled by the Trust for London and Middlesex University Business School20, based

on data provided by the ONS and DWP, as well as freedom of information requests from the

Insolvency service, shows that one in 20 employees receiving no paid holidays and an estimated

1.5 billion of holiday pay remains unpaid. Estimates calculated from the LFS/FRS suggests non-

paid holidays are declining, from 5.6% of employees in receipt in 2012/13 to 5.0% in 2013/14 to

4.9% in 2014/15.

20 ‘The weighted scales of economic justice, Unpaid Britain: an interim report’, Middlesex University June

2017.


of 168

10. Training, education, adventure training and personal development

Training is the facilitation of learning new skills, or improving existing skills, which enhance the

abilities of individuals to do their job or further their career. This in turn will facilitate career

progression and increased responsibility where appropriate.

Training may include:

a) technical skills and/or;

b) trade skills and/or;

c) academic skills and/or;

d) management skills and/or;

e) people skills and/or;

f) transferable skills.

For the Armed Forces this includes the opportunity to undertake a range of non-job-specific

training and development opportunities, which are often paid for or subsidised by their employer.

This may include skills training at the end of their career prior to retirement outside the Armed

Forces.

All Service personnel are issued Personal Development Records to record individual skills,

experience and qualifications to enable them to plan, track and demonstrate their personal

development. Adventure training is also an attraction for Service personnel. Adventure training is

undertaken by Officers and Other Ranks as part of their initial training and subsequently, to

encourage personal fitness and develop individual skills.

The Armed Forces also provide the opportunity to participate in sport on an individual and team

basis at no cost to personnel. In particular, individuals may spend significant amounts of time on

training for competitions as this is regarded as part of the job.

Conclusion: The data shows that there have been slight improvements in training, education,

adventure training and personal development for young people and for people in work. We

reached this conclusion on the basis of the following:

• The proportion of young people not in education, employment or training has fallen and

there have been increases in apprenticeships and university admissions.


of 168

• Training for employed people has increased marginally over the period, driven by an

increase in employer- and government-funded training.

• In respect of sporting activity, there has been very little change in the numbers of people

regularly taking part in sports.

In this chapter we examine data on participation in training. We focus on younger people, since

the Armed Forces is a relatively secure and on-going option for semi-skilled people at times of

economic downturn/uncertainty, particularly young people starting out on their working lives.

10.1. Training

There has been an increase in proportion of employees that report having undertaken training in

the last 12 months, and further analysis by training provider indicates that this has been driven by

employer-provided training. Meanwhile, there has been a marginal decline in the proportion of

training that is provided as part of a government training scheme or college, university degree or

diploma course.

Table 104 Proportion of employees that had undertaken training since the last 12 months, 2011/12-2015/16

No. %

Wave 3, 2011/12 7,301 28.7

Wave 4, 2012/13 6,467 27.7

Wave 5, 2013/14 6,190 28.2

Wave 6, 2014/15 6,229 31.8

Wave 7, 2015/16 5,482 33.8

Source: Understanding Society.

Table 105 Breakdown of training by provider, 2011/12-2012/15

Employer Government training scheme

College/university degree or diploma course

Other

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Wave 3, 2011/12 5,504 75.5 213 2.9 525 7.2 1,045 14.3

Wave 4, 2012/13 4,977 77.1 161 2.5 440 6.8 879 13.6

Wave 5, 2013/14 4,779 77.3 187 3.0 365 5.9 854 13.8

Wave 6, 2014/15 4,849 78.2 195 3.1 330 5.3 854 13.3

Wave 7, 2015/16 4,308 78.9 143 2.6 286 5.2 722 13.2



of 168

A closer look at the reason for training indicates that specific training to either improve skills in

current job or to help get a promotion has fallen and health and safety training has increased.

Table 106 Reason for training, 2011/2012-2015/16

To improve skills in your current job

To help you get a promotion

Health & safety training

No. % No. % No. %

Wave 3, 2011/12 4,650 64.1 696 9.6 1,465 20.2

Wave 4, 2012/13 4,011 62.2 584 9.1 1,311 20.3

Wave 5, 2013/14 3,884 62.8 540 8.7 1,324 21.4

Wave 6, 2014/15 3,781 61.2 532 8.6 1,276 20.6

Wave 7, 2015/16 3,317 60.8 475 8.7 1,159 21.3


10.2. Education

The raising of compulsory school leaving age in England from 16 to 17 in 2013 and then to 18 in

2015 has had a significant impact on training for young people. From 2015 young people have to

stay in full-time education, start an apprenticeship or traineeship, or work at least 20 hours a week

whilst participating in part-time education or training. ONS data shows that as a result of this policy

the number of young people classified as ‘not in education, employment or training’ (NEET) has

declined significantly not only for those directly affected but also for young people aged 19 to 24.

As the table shows the number of young people not in education, employment or training aged

16 to 18 has fallen by 52,000 and those aged 19 to 24 has fallen by 242,000 since 2012. As a

proportion, young people aged 16 to 18 not in education or training has fallen by 2.4 percentage

points from 9.7% in 2012 to 7.3% in 2017. Meanwhile the proportion of young people aged 19 to

24 not in education, employment or training has fallen by 5 percentage points from 18.7 in 2012

to 12.7% in 2017.

https://www.gov.uk/apprenticeships-guide

https://www.gov.uk/find-traineeship


of 168

Table 107 Number of young people Not in Education, Employment or Training (NEET), England, 2012-2017

16-18 year olds 19-24 year olds

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2012 186,000 769,000

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2013 158,000 748,000

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2014 128,000 649,000

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2015 134,000 603,000

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2016 121,000 584,000

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2017 134,000 527,000

Source: NEET Quarterly LFS series, Department for Education.

Table 108 Proportion of young people Not in Education, Employment or Training (NEET), England, 2012-2017

16-18 year olds 19-24 year olds

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2012 9.7 18.7

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2013 8.3 18.2

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2014 6.8 15.9

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2015 7.1 14.7

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2016 6.5 14.0

Jan-Mar (Q1) 2017 7.3 12.7

Source: NEET Quarterly LFS series, Department for Education.


of 168

UCAS data on university applicants and acceptances shows that these have increased over the

five-year period 2012 to 2016. The number of applicants has risen from 653,635 in 2012 to

718,350 in 2016 and acceptances have increased from 464,910 in 2012 to 535,175.

Table 109 University admissions, 2012-2016

Name Acceptances Change in count Applicants Change in count

2012 464,910 -27,120 653,635 -46,525

2013 495,595 30,685 677,375 23,740

2014 512,370 16,775 699,685 22,310

2015 532,265 19,895 718,480 18,795

2016 535,175 2,910 718,350 -130

Source: UCAS.

There has also been a growing proportion of acceptances among applicants, albeit at a much

slower rate. In 2012 71% of applicants accepted their university admission offer by 2016 this had

risen to 75%.


of 168

Table 110 Proportion of acceptances from applicants, 2012-2016

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Proportion of acceptances from applicants 71% 73% 73% 74% 75%

Source: UCAS.

10.3. Apprenticeships

Over the last five years there have been two important changes that have had an impact on the

number of apprenticeship starts. In 2013 saw the introduction (and subsequent abolition) of

Advanced Learning Loans for apprentices aged 24 and over, studying at Level 3 and above, the

first example of apprentices being expected to contribute towards the cost of an apprenticeship.

They were subsequently abolished in January 2014 after low take up and the figures published

by the Department for Education show a temporary ‘dip’ in the number of new apprentices in

2013/14.

During the same period, the compulsory school leaving age in England increased from 16 to 17

in 2013, and then to 18 in 2015 (see above) which has had an impact on new apprenticeship

starts among younger people. Overall, apprenticeship starts have fallen marginally between

2011/12 and 2015/16, however new starts among those aged under 19 have risen marginally

over the same period. Overall, we conclude that the trend is broadly flat.

Table 111 All age apprenticeship starts by level and age, 2010/11 to 2014/15

Under 19 19-24 Total

2011/12 129,890 161,420 520,600

2012/13 114,550 165,390 510,200

2013/14 119,760 159,120 440,400

2014/15 125,850 160,180 499,900

2015/16 131,420 153,860 509,400

2016/17* 108,560 125,380 440,300

*August to April. Source: FE Data Library, Department for Education.

The Annual Population Survey also provides a measure of apprentices based on employees

reporting to be in an apprenticeship and the data shows an increase of around 68,000 between

April 2012 to March and April 2016 to March 2017.


of 168

10.4. Participation in sport

Data from the Active Lives survey provides information on the numbers of people regularly taking

part in sport or exercise. As the chart shows, there has been very little change in the proportion

of people regularly exercising and overall the majority of respondents do not take part in any sport

on a regular basis, i.e. within the past 28 days, as defined by the survey.

Table 112 National average figures on adult participation in sport, Oct 2011/12-Oct 2015/16

Sessions of at least moderate intensity for at least 30 minutes in the previous 28 days

APS6 (Oct 2011 - Oct 2012) %

APS7 (Oct 2012 - Oct 2013) %

APS8 (Oct 2013 - Oct 2014) %

APS9 (Oct 2014 - Sep 2015) %

APS10 (Oct 2015 - Sep 2016) %


Zero sessions 55.35 55.85 56.67 57.35 57.04 1.69

Less than one session a week (1 to 3 sessions) 7.75 7.58 7.23 6.83 6.88 -0.87

One session a week (4 to 7 sessions) 11.14 10.83 10.57 10.46 10.68 -0.46

Two sessions a week (8 to 11 sessions) 8.01 7.81 7.75 7.73 7.89 -0.12

3 sessions a week (at least 12 sessions) 17.73 17.89 17.76 17.6 17.48 -0.25

*IDR calculation. Source: Active People Survey, Sport England.


of 168

However, the survey also provides data on the type of participation, albeit with some measures,

over a broader time period than the 28-day window for regular participation above. The measures

relate to the percentage of adults who have done at least one of the following: voluntarily

participated in sport over the past 28 days, been a member of a club to play sport in the last 28

days, received tuition in the last 12 months, taken part in competitive or organised sport in the

last 12 months. These measures again indicate a broadly stable picture over recent years.

Table 113 Adult participation in sport by type of activity, Oct 2011/12-Oct 2015/16

Voluntary (past 28 days)

Club membership (past 28 days)

Receiving tuition (past 12 months)

Competition (past 12 months)

Organised sport (past 12 months)

Oct 2011 - Oct 2012 % 14.0 22.8 16.8 14.4 35.4

Oct 2012 - Oct 2013 % 12.0 21.0 15.8 11.2 32.2

Oct 2013 - Oct 2014 % 12.5 21.6 16.4 13.3 33.9

Apr 2014 - Mar 2015

% 12.9 21.9 15.7 13.6 33.9

Oct 2014 - Sep 2015 % 12.7 21.8 15.6 13.3 33.6

Apr 2015 - Mar 2016

% 12.6 22.0 15.8 13.3 33.8

Oct 2015 - Sep2016 % 12.8 22.2 15.6 13.3 33.9

Source: Active People Survey.


of 168

11. Promotion and early responsibility

Definition: Career development is a clear goal of Armed Forces’ personnel. Promotion is the

endorsement of an individual’s ability in the form of an elevation in both status and responsibility.

This could be demonstrated in a variety of forms, including: a) responsibility for teams/manpower;

b) responsibility for assets; c) responsibility for strategy and planning.

Service careers provide earlier opportunities for promotion, and thus increased responsibility, than

are experienced by those of similar ages in civilian occupations.

Conclusion: Evidence in this area presents to a relatively stable picture over the last five

years with few indications that there have been any significant shifts one way or another.

Looking at the indicators in turn:

• While employee perceptions regarding career aspirations have improved the

improvement is only marginal and this may be related to the tightening labour market

which is a cyclical factor and could easily worsen in the future.

• With regard to opportunities for early responsibility, the proportion of staff in

managerial and supervisory positions has remained stable throughout the period

implying these have not changed either. This is true even when the data is analysed

by age group. On balance, therefore, this is an area that has been unchanged over

the period in question.

In this chapter we examine data on promotion and progression, mainly using survey material

from the CIPD, the organisation for HR/personnel managers in the UK, but also from official

surveys such as the Labour Force Survey (LFS).

11.1. Promotion opportunities

Previous research for the Office for Manpower Economics into the period prior to 2012 showed

only small changes in promotion opportunities and instances of staff taking on early

responsibility. We might ask why the current period might be any different because, on the face

of it, there have been no major structural changes to the UK’s working environment in the last

few years.

Despite this, some new factors may have provided the environment for greater career

development opportunities for civilian staff. For instance, the UK labour market has gradually


of 168

tightened with unemployment currently at its lowest level since 1975 while, inevitably, Brexit is

a new factor that could also impact on workplace opportunities so any answers may not be quite

so predictable.

Information on promotion opportunities is scarce because a number of the traditional sources of

data no longer include questions on this area in their surveys. One exception, however, is the

Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development’s (CIPD) Employee Outlook survey that asks

employees whether they feel able to fulfil their career aspirations in their current organisation.

Table 114 How likely do employees feel they will be able to fulfil their career aspirations in their current organisation, 2014-2017

Likelihood Autumn 2014 Autumn 2015 Autumn 2016 Spring 2017

Proportion of employees (%)

Very likely or likely 30 33 36 36

Very unlikely or unlikely 37 32 33 30

Note: Biennial survey but autumn 2017 not available at time of writing. Question not asked in 2013. Source: CIPD Employee Outlook Survey 2014-2017.


of 168

The CIPD results illustrate that staff have become slightly more optimistic about their job

prospects in the last two years. For example, in autumn 2016 and spring 2017, 36% of those

surveyed believed it is very or at least likely that they will be able to fulfil their career aspirations

in their current organisations. This compares to just a third of staff in autumn 2015 and 30%,12

months prior to this illustrating a slight improvement.

The CIPD and British Household Panel results, while not based on identical questions, provide

a similar message – that just over 35% of staff are optimistic about their career prospects. In

addition, the British Household Panel Survey shows that younger employees are more optimistic

regarding their chances for advancement although this might be expected given that they are at

the start of their working lives and presumably in lower level roles with more potential to rise.

11.2. Progression and promotion opportunities

A career in the armed forces is generally characterised by earlier opportunities for promotion

and thus increased responsibilities compared to those of similar ages in civilian occupations.

But what are the proportions of staff in non-civilian roles that operate in management or

supervisory roles and how has this changed over the period?

The Labour Force survey includes a question on managerial status and finds that the proportion

of staff describing themselves as managers or as foreman or supervisors has been quite

consistent over the period 2012 to 2016.

For example, the proportion of managers has been unchanged at around 30% while supervisors

made up around 12% throughout the same period. These figures mask the pattern by age,

however, which is important because our interest is in early responsibility levels.

An analysis of the Labour Force Survey figures by age is shown in the chart overleaf (and table

115) illustrate the proportion of staff under 30 who classify themselves in management or

supervisory roles.


of 168

Table 115 Number and proportion of under 30s describing themselves as managers of foreman/supervisors

Manager

Foreman or supervisor Count % Count %

2012 679,806 13.6 614,378 12.3

2013 672,055 13.8 581,178 11.9

2014 641,840 13.6 590,115 12.5

2015 646,013 14.3 552,582 12.2

2016 629,833 14.1 554,537 12.4

Notes: Those surveyed aged under 30. Source: Labour Force Survey 2012-2016.

It highlights that for those in the early parts of their careers, the two proportions, managers and

foreman/supervisors have stayed broadly consistent throughout the period, although there is

some indication of a modest increase in the proportion of under 30s describing themselves as

managers.


of 168

12. Autonomy, management control and flexibility

Definition: This factor is defined as the degree of management control exercised over the

individual. It assesses the scope allowed to the jobholder to exercise initiative and take

independent actions and considers the degree of latitude and discretion allowed in making

decisions. This factor also takes into account the amount of control that individuals have over their

immediate working environment.

Due to the unique nature of their work, Armed Forces’ personnel operate within a tightly controlled

structure (i.e. the Command Structure). In general, civilians have significantly more freedom and

flexibility in making decisions which impact upon their immediate working environment.

Conclusion: Data examined in this chapter covers a broad range of areas and, as a result, the

lessons that emerge are not entirely straightforward. In fact, conclusions differ depending on

what parts of the economy are scrutinised. The main contrast is between the findings from

official surveys on the one hand, that indicate slight improvements in employee autonomy, and

on the other hand, the rising prevalence of zero-hours and minimum hours contracts,

particularly in lower-paid areas, which probably indicate a reduction in autonomy. We would

conclude, tentatively, that there has been a slight deterioration in autonomy for lower-paid (and

perhaps younger) workers. If we put this together with the survey finding (see below) indicating

that autonomy appears to have risen slightly, then we might conclude that overall, there has

been no change. Looking at the statistics in detail:

• Overall, the degree of autonomy that employees across the economy believe they

have has risen slightly in the last few years as shown by the Understanding Society

survey. In all the areas that the study covered – job tasks, work pace, work manner,

task order and working hours – the proportions of staff saying they have some or a lot

of autonomy had increased modestly.

• The findings also illustrated that older employees were much more likely to feel greater

autonomy over all areas of work. Despite this, while each age group had different

starting points with regard to the levels of autonomy they felt, the pattern of change

across all age groups mirrored that found in the whole sample.

• With the growth in less traditional forms of work, this section also looked at the

prevalence of the small but growing group of employees on zero-hours and casual

contracts where the trends with regard to autonomy are in the opposite direction.


of 168

Numbers of staff employed on such contracts has risen substantially in recent years

and one estimate indicates that it may have exceeded 900,000 in 2016. These staff

have little or, more likely, no autonomy over their hours, although given the casual

nature of the contract type, they are also unlikely to be given a great deal of control

over other aspects of their work. Despite this, the proportion of staff employed on zero-

hours contracts is still below 3% of the total number of those employed in the UK so it

is still only a small part of the economy.

Most of the data in this chapter, particularly that on autonomy over job tasks, the pace of work,

the manner of work, task order and working hours, is taken from Understanding Society. We

also look at data on the prevalence of zero-hours contracts.

12.1. Autonomy and flexibility at work

Whether someone reports to a line manager or supervisor does provide an indication of an

individual’s level of autonomy but worker-manager dynamics can vary a great deal with degrees

of freedom varying greatly. In other words, the existence of a reporting line does not necessarily

provide a clear understanding of levels of autonomy or flexibility in the workplace.

This is probably why the Understanding Society survey asks respondents directly about the

degree of autonomy they have over certain aspects of their work. More specifically, the survey

focuses on five areas:

• Autonomy over job tasks.

• Autonomy over work pace.

• Autonomy over work manner.

• Autonomy over task order.

• Autonomy over work hours.

While the survey is conducted annually, these particular questions are only asked in alternative

years but the results help shed light on the degree of both autonomy and flexibility felt by UK

employees. The sections below present the findings for the last three available years.


of 168

Autonomy over job tasks

Having autonomy over the way tasks are performed at work is a good indication of the degree

of flexibility someone has in how they do their job. A large proportion of staff report that they

have either a lot or some degree of autonomy over their own job tasks. In fact, in all three years,

more than 70% of those surveyed reported these levels of autonomy with regard to this area. In

2010-11, for instance, those reporting at least some autonomy over the way tasks are performed

stood at 72.4% of the sample. In the two subsequent years, there was a slight improvement with

2014-15 in particular standing out with 76.8% of staff reporting some or a little autonomy over

their job tasks. Looking at the other side of the coin, 14.4% said they had no autonomy over the

way work tasks are performed in the earliest period with this figure falling to 10.7% in the latest

year.

Table 116 Degree of autonomy over job tasks

Year A lot Some A little None Total

2010-11 % 42.8 29.6 13.3 14.4 100.0

Number 11,387 7,870 3,535 3,834 26,627

2012-13 % 45.6 29.2 12.9 12.3 100.0

Number 9,665 6,200 2,746 2,607 21,219

2014-15 % 46.4 30.4 12.5 10.7 100.0

Number 8,296 5,429 2,229 1,913 17,867

Notes: Question only asked in alternate years. Source: Understanding Society 2010-2015.

Autonomy over job tasks by age

With all types of autonomy, it might be expected that younger employees have less influence

over matters in the workplace than their older colleagues who may have greater seniority and

experience. For this reason, we examined the responses of individuals of different ages across

the three years.

The table shows the results for those at the two extremes of the autonomy scale, those that

believe they have a lot of autonomy over their work tasks and those that say they have none. As

it illustrates, in all three years, a higher proportion of older staff did tend to believe they had a lot

of autonomy over their job tasks than was the case for their younger colleagues. Similarly, a

higher proportion of younger staff said they had no autonomy over job tasks compared to their

older co-workers.


of 168

Table 117 Degree of autonomy over job tasks by respondents’ age

Year Degree of autonomy

10-19 years old

20-29 years old

30-39 years old

40-49 years old

50-59 years old

60-69 years old

70 years or older

Total

2010-11

A lot No. 129 1,650 2,645 3,235 2,604 1,000 124 11,387

% 20.1 33.9 44.1 44.6 46.3 49.4 54.6 42.8

None No. 155 709 720 1,004 880 329 39 3,836

% 24.1 14.6 12.0 13.8 15.6 16.2 17.2 14.4

2012-13

A lot No. 124 1,295 2,269 2,701 2276 880 121 9,666

% 23.9 36.4 47.8 47.9 46.9 52.1 58.2 45.6

None No. 88 442 487 657 638 271 24 2,607

% 17.0 12.4 10.3 11.6 13.1 16.0 11.5 12.3

2014-15

A lot No. 108 1,125 1,791 2,288 2,035 825 125 8,297

% 23.7 35.8 48.4 49.7 48.0 54.6 57.6 46.4

None No. 75 381 281 457 479 207 32 1,912

% 16.4 12.1 7.6 9.9 11.3 13.7 14.7 10.7


Examining the figures more closely, the proportion believing they had a lot of autonomy over

work tasks rose steadily with age in all three years. For example, in 2014-15 just fewer than 36%

of under 30 year olds believed they have a lot of autonomy over their work tasks which compared

to more than 48% of those over 30.

Another question to pose though is whether the pattern when analysed by age across the three

years is significantly different from that for the whole sample. For example, while the picture for

the whole sample appears to show a slight improvement in autonomy levels over the period,

were there any different patterns within particular age bands?

In fact, while each age band had a different starting point, there were similar improvements in

perceptions of autonomy for each age band to that found in the whole sample. Moreover, at all

age ranges, the proportion reporting having no autonomy over job tasks fell, which was also in

line with the whole sample. So age appears not to have skewed the results here to any great

extent.

Autonomy over work pace


of 168

Controlling your pace of work can be a valuable characteristic for any job because the

alternative, having little or no control could result in stress possibly leading to more serious

consequences. Encouragingly, therefore, the proportion of those reporting that they have a lot

or some autonomy over the pace at which they work was quite high at just over 75% in all three

years that data was available. More specifically, those believing they have a lot of autonomy

over their work pace increased from 47.6% in 2010-11 up to 49.7% in 2014-15 although the

proportion reporting some autonomy over this area of work was unchanged at 27.6%.

Table 118 Degree of autonomy over work pace


2010-11 % 47.6 27.6 13.0 11.8 100.0

Number 12,681 7,361 3,449 3,134 26,625

2012-13 % 49.6 27.1 12.5 10.8 100.0

Number 10,512 5,757 2,649 2,291 21,210

2014-15 % 49.7 27.6 11.8 10.9 100.0

Number 8,878 4,927 2,107 1,938 17,851


Turning to those perceiving they have less autonomy, the proportions believing they had either

a little or no autonomy fell from 13% and 11.8% in 2010-11 to 11.8% and 10.9% in 2014-15.

Autonomy over work pace by age

When the results on work pace were further analysed by age they again showed that older staff

believed that they have greater levels of autonomy than their younger colleagues.

The results also show that fewer older staff also said they had no autonomy over work pace

than was the case for their younger co-workers.

Looking at the pattern within age bands across the three years there were similar improvements

in perceptions of autonomy for all age bands as in the whole sample. As a result, the effect of

age does not appear to have made a significant difference to the overall trend of an improvement

in autonomy over the pace of work found for the whole sample.


of 168

Table 119 Degree of autonomy over work pace by respondents’ age


10-19 years old

20-29 years old

30-39 years old

40-49 years old

50-59 years old

60-69 years old

70 years or older

Total

2010-11

A lot No. 188 1,990 2,966 3,554 2,733 1,110 140 12,681

% 29.3 40.9 49.5 49.0 48.6 54.9 61.9 47.6

None No. 116 620 587 813 716 254 29 3,135

% 18.1 12.7 9.8 11.2 12.7 12.6 12.8 11.8

2012-13

A lot No. 163 1,546 2,388 2,927 2395 954 139 10,512

% 31.4 43.5 50.3 51.9 49.3 56.4 66.8 49.6

None No. 82 394 457 585 557 200 16 2,291

% 15.8 11.1 9.6 10.4 11.5 11.8 7.7 10.8

2014-15

A lot No. 141 1,281 1,895 2,384 2,165 871 142 8,879

% 30.9 40.9 51.1 51.9 51.1 57.7 65.4 49.7

None No. 68 397 372 447 441 182 31 1,938

% 14.9 12.7 10.0 9.7 10.4 12.1 14.3 10.9


Autonomy over work manner

Controlling the way that your work is performed could be considered very different to typical jobs

in the military where the methods in which many roles are carried out is tightly controlled. The

proportion of respondents from the Understanding Society survey reporting a lot or some

autonomy over the manner in which they work was higher than for the previous two types of

autonomy examined. For instance, in all three years the proportions were all just over 80%.

In contrast, the pattern of change was very similar to that exhibited by the results relating to

autonomy levels over work pace with only slight improvements in levels of autonomy. For

example, while 57.8% of those surveyed in 2010-11 believed they had a lot of autonomy over

their work manner, the proportion in 2014-15 was only slightly higher at 59.3%.

Similarly, the proportion reporting some autonomy increased slightly while those believing they

had no influence over the manner in which they do their work fell slightly from 7.5% to 5.5%.


of 168

Table 120 Degree of autonomy over work manner


2010-11 % 57.8 25.5 9.2 7.5 100.0

Number 15,391 6,797 2,439 1,990 26,618

2012-13 % 58.8 25.3 9.4 6.5 100.0

Number 12,469 5,374 1,998 1,378 21,219

2014-15 % 59.3 26.3 9.0 5.5 100.0

Number 10,583 4,697 1,604 975 17,858


Autonomy over work manner by age

A further analysis of the results on the pace of work by age showed that, in general, older

employees again believe that they have greater levels of autonomy than their younger

colleagues. For the two extreme levels of autonomy – a lot and no autonomy – there were

greater proportions of older staff saying they had high levels of autonomy and fewer reporting

none.

Turning to the pattern of autonomy over work manner within age bands across the three years

there were similar improvements in autonomy levels within almost all bands as exhibited by the

whole sample. Consequently, improvements or deteriorations in autonomy within different age

brackets are not being masked by the overall trend. All ages, while starting from different levels

of autonomy, all experienced slight improvements.


of 168

Table 121 Degree of autonomy over work manner by respondents’ age


10-19 years old

20-29 years old

30-39 years old

40-49 years old

50-59 years old

60-69 years old

70 years or older

Total

2010-11

A lot No. 231 2,476 3,524 4,372 3,394 1,240 154 15,391

% 36.0 50.9 58.8 60.3 60.4 61.3 68.1 57.8

None No. 97 419 348 473 439 189 26 1,991

% 15.1 8.6 5.8 6.5 7.8 9.3 11.5 7.5

2012-13

A lot No. 187 1,868 2,844 3,428 2895 1097 151 12,470

% 36.0 52.5 59.9 60.8 59.6 64.9 72.6 58.8

None No. 61 263 254 334 323 130 13 1,378

% 11.7 7.4 5.4 5.9 6.7 7.7 6.3 6.5

2014-15

A lot No. 174 1,531 2,296 2,855 2,591 988 147 10,582

% 38.5 48.8 61.9 62.2 61.1 65.5 67.7 59.3

None No. 40 200 169 228 227 91 20 975

% 8.8 6.4 4.6 5.0 5.4 6.0 9.2 5.5


Autonomy over task order

Having control over the order in which tasks are performed is another indicator of autonomy and

flexibility in the workplace unlikely to be seen in the military. Just over 80% of survey

respondents reported that they have a lot or some autonomy over the order in which they

complete tasks in all three years. Again, there was a very slight upward trend in the direction of

more autonomy as with the previous work characteristics.

In 2010-11, for example, 56.6% of those surveyed reported that they had a lot of autonomy which

compared to a slightly higher amount in 2014-15 of 57.9%. In contrast, the proportion of those

believing that they have some autonomy was unchanged at just under 26%. In contrast, the

proportion reporting no autonomy decreased slightly from 8.8% to 7.1%.


of 168

Table 122 Degree of autonomy over task order


2010-11 % 56.6 25.8 8.8 8.8 100.0

Number 15,066 6,874 2,351 2,334 26,624

2012-13 % 57.2 25.0 9.6 8.2 100.0

Number 12,136 5,303 2,033 1,748 21,220

2014-15 % 57.9 25.9 9.1 7.1 100.0

Number 10,340 4,631 1,618 1,261 17,850


Autonomy over task order by age

More detailed analysis of levels of autonomy over task order showed that, in general, older

employees believe that they have greater levels of autonomy than their younger colleagues. The

findings differed from the types of autonomy already examined, however, in that this was only

true for a comparison between over- and under-30 year olds. After a respondent reaches 30,

those believing they have a lot of autonomy did not change a great deal as they got older while

those reporting no autonomy did not exhibit any clear pattern according to differences in age.

An analysis of the trend in levels of autonomy in this area according to age across the three

years did not show any significant difference from that exhibited by the whole sample. The

proportions reporting a lot or no autonomy over task order were relatively stable for all age bands

for all years as was the case for the whole sample. Therefore, differences in age are significantly

different from the overall trend in levels of autonomy for the whole sample across the period.


of 168

Table 123 Degree of autonomy over task order by respondents’ age


10-19 years old

20-29 years old

30-39 years old

40-49 years old

50-59 years old

60-69 years old

70 years or older

Total

2010-11

A lot No. 203 2,433 3,534 4,260 3,274 1,219 141 15,064

% 31.7 50.0 59.0 58.8 58.2 60.3 62.4 56.6

None No. 118 451 433 579 502 223 28 2,334

% 18.4 9.3 7.2 8.0 8.9 11.0 12.4 8.8

2012-13

A lot No. 155 1,827 2,813 3,370 2787 1038 145 12,135

% 29.8 51.4 59.3 59.7 57.3 61.4 69.4 57.2

None No. 86 343 322 395 411 173 18 1,748

% 16.5 9.7 6.8 7.0 8.5 10.2 8.6 8.2

2014-15

A lot No. 165 1,562 2,233 2,776 2,521 945 139 10,341

% 36.2 49.8 60.2 60.5 59.5 62.7 64.1 57.9

None No. 59 266 214 292 285 120 25 1,261

% 12.9 8.5 5.8 6.4 6.7 8.0 11.5 7.1


Autonomy over working hours

Of the five work characteristics surveyed by the Understanding Society report, perhaps the best

gauge of true autonomy and flexibility is the degree of control over working hours. Given this, it

is perhaps unsurprising that the numbers of staff reporting that they have at least some

autonomy over the number of hours that they work was significantly lower than the proportions

found for the other work characteristics. For example, the proportion of survey respondents with

at least some degree of autonomy over their work hours was around 50% in all three years.

As with the other work characteristics, however, the trend was once more for a slight

improvement in the degree of autonomy felt by respondents. For instance, while 28.9% of those

surveys believed they had a lot of autonomy over their working hours in 2010-11, the figure was

up slightly in 2014-15, at 30.1%. Likewise, the equivalent figures relating to those purporting to

have some autonomy were 20.9% in 2010-11 rising to 22% in 2014-15. At the same time, the

figures for those reporting no autonomy decreased slightly from 33.8% to 31.6%.


of 168

Table 124 Degree of autonomy over working hours


2010-11 % 28.9 20.9 16.4 33.8 100

Number 7,709 5,566 4,368 8,994 26,637

2012-13 % 28.4 20.5 16.1 35 100

Number 6,021 4,356 3,427 7,419 21,224

2014-15 % 30.1 22 16.3 31.6 100

Number 5,370 3,933 2,906 5,653 17,862


Autonomy over working hours by age

An examination of the levels of autonomy perceived by respondents by age showed that older

staff again believed that they have greater levels of autonomy than their younger colleagues.

Our research also shows that there were fewer older staff reporting no autonomy over their

working hours.

Examining the overall sample trend across the period there was a slight rise in the proportion of

those reporting high levels of autonomy in this area while the numbers saying they had no

autonomy fell marginally. This trend was generally mirrored in each of the age bands too,

showing that differences in age mirrored the overall trend in levels of autonomy for the whole

sample with regard to working hours.


of 168

Table 125 Degree of autonomy over work manner by respondents’ age


10-19 years old

20-29 years old

30-39 years old

40-49 years old

50-59 years old

60-69 years old

70 years or older

Total

2010-11

A lot No. 61 861 1,719 2,344 1,842 779 103 7,709

% 9.5 17.7 28.7 32.3 32.7 38.5 45.6 28.9

None No. 339 1,960 1,770 2,226 1,948 692 60 8,995

% 52.9 40.3 29.5 30.7 34.6 34.2 26.5 33.8

2012-13

A lot No. 52 600 1,299 1,776 1518 677 98 6,020

% 10.0 16.9 27.4 31.5 31.2 40.0 47.3 28.4

None No. 277 1,521 1,534 1,734 1744 544 66 7,420

% 53.3 42.8 32.3 30.7 35.9 32.2 31.9 35.0

2014-15

A lot No. 48 530 1,104 1,532 1,442 603 110 5,369

% 10.6 16.9 29.8 33.3 34.0 39.9 50.9 30.1

None No. 208 1,212 1,062 1,296 1,360 458 56 5,652

% 45.8 38.6 28.6 28.2 32.1 30.3 25.9 31.6


Autonomy over working hours by number of hours worked

Aggregate figures may be masking other relationships affecting the degree of autonomy that

staff have over their working hours. In particular, it could be expected that full-time and

employees working more hours might have a greater degree of control over their hours than

their part-time colleagues and staff that work fewer hours.

For this reason, we give a breakdown of the degree of autonomy over working hours that survey

respondents felt they have according to the number of hours they work. The number of hours

worked have been split into two broad groups and it is clear across all three years that those

working the greatest number of hours were more likely to report having a higher degree of

autonomy than those working fewer.

For example, looking at the two extreme cases in 2014-15, those reporting a lot of autonomy

over the hours they work and those saying they have none, there are marked differences. While

just 18% of those working fewer than 30 hours said they had a lot of autonomy, 25.6% of those

working 30 hours or more reported the same finding. At the other end of the spectrum, 44.6%

of those working 30 or fewer hours in 2014-15 said they had no autonomy over their working


of 168

hours which compared to 32.9% and 35.5% in the two other working time categories. This

pattern was the same in 2010-11 and 2012-3.

Table 126 Degree of autonomy over working hours by number of hours worked, 2010/11 – 2014/15

2010/11 2012/13 2014/15

Under 30 hours

30 hours or more

Under 30 hours

30 hours or more

Under 30 hours

30 hours or more

A lot % 18.3 24.8 17.3 23.7 18.0 25.6

Number 1,101 4,242 802 3,239 687 2,811

Some % 17.5 22.4 18.1 22.0 19.3 23.7

Number 1,051 3,816 843 3,003 735 2,599

A little % 17.8 17.9 16.7 17.8 18.1 17.8

Number 1,070 3,055 775 2,424 691 1,950

None % 46.5 34.9 47.9 36.5 44.6 32.9

Number 2,795 5,960 2,226 4,974 1,699 3,602


12.2. Lack of autonomy

In recent years, new forms of working have emerged which arguably have taken autonomy away

from certain groups of staff over parts of their working environment. One of the most prominent

has been zero-hours contracts, sometimes known as casual contracts. Such contracts are

usually for on-call work meaning that staff must be available to work when needed but, at the

same time, neither the employer is obliged to give them work nor the employee has to do the

work when asked. As a result, employees of this sort have virtually no autonomy over their

working hours.

Examining the prevalence of such contracts provides an indication of the number of individuals

in the UK that have such low levels of autonomy over their working hours. The Labour Force

Survey collects figures on the number of these contracts being used in the economy and it has

shown that while the proportion of staff employed on a contract of this type is small, it has

increased significantly in the last decade. For example, back in 2007 just 0.6% of UK staff were

employed on zero-hours contracts which compares to 2.8% in 2017. In terms of numbers of

staff, this meant a rise from 166,000 people to nearly 900,000 so it is a significant shift. It has

since dropped back a little. This may be due to the negative publicity associated with these types

of contracts, and research currently being conducted for the Low Pay Commission on the

experience of workers on non-standard employment contracts indicates a shift from zero-hours


of 168

contracts to ‘minimum hours’ contracts.21 These are where a minimum number of hours are

guaranteed. Often the minimum number of hours is specified, but the actual number of hours

can vary according to business needs. Therefore, such contracts are akin to zero-hours

contracts in that the flexibility inherent in them is geared more towards the employer than the

employee. The same research also cites the rise of what might be called ‘contested self-

employment’ [IDR’s phrase], under which workers are not eligible for holiday pay or the National

Minimum Wage.

Such contracts have however been challenged by those subject to them, notably in the case of

a number of drivers working for Uber, the company that uses a web app to provide a mini-cab

service. It is important to note, however, that in many cases, while such workers wish to gain

more extensive employment rights, such as holiday pay or the NMW, they value other aspects

of their ‘self-employment’. To some extent, then, this chimes with the data we presented earlier

on attitudes to self-employment. However, we think that more research is needed in this area,

particularly in respect of issues around autonomy, as the legal cases have highlighted ways in

which Uber drivers, for example, are directed by the company in a variety of important ways,

especially with regard to when and where they work.

Table 127 Level and rate of people on zero-hours contracts

UK, not seasonally adjusted

In employment on a zero-hours contract (thousands)

Percentage of people in employment on a zero-hours contract








2014 April - June 624 2.0

October - December 699 2.3

2015 April - June 747 2.4


2016 April - June 903 2.9


2017 April - June 883 2.8

21 This is being conducted by Sian Moore of the University of Greenwich’s Workplace Employment Relations Unit.


of 168

Source: Labour Force Survey 2007-2017

As with the findings from the Understanding Society survey, the Labour Force Survey shows that

it is those working between 20 and 25 hours a week that are most likely to be employed on zero

hours contracts. For example, in the latest period that data is available for, April to June 2017,

while the economy average usual weekly hours was 36.4, the figure for those working on zero-

hours contracts was 25.7 hours.


of 168

13. Individual, trade union and collective rights

Individual legal rights are enjoyed by UK citizens and by those with a right to remain and work in

the UK. The European Union, to which the UK still belongs, also affords its residents additional

rights, though it is unclear what will happen to these rights once the UK leaves the EU.

These rights include:

a) Human Rights legislation;

b) Equal Opportunities legislation;

c) Age Discrimination legislation;

d) Minimum Wage legislation;

e) Working Time legislation, and;

f) Trade Union membership.

Armed Forces are not subject to all these pieces of legislation.

Residents of the United Kingdom may belong to a trade union and may actively participate in

Union activity, including the right to strike. Armed Forces’ personnel are not permitted to join any

Trade Union and are not permitted to participate in collective bargaining. Armed Forces’ personnel

are, therefore, unable to benefit from worker representation through a collective body such as a

trade union or staff association.

In addition to Civil and Criminal Law, Armed Forces’ personnel are subject at all times to military

discipline, as set out in the Service Discipline Acts. There are also other restrictions that are

imposed on Armed Forces’ personnel by their employment conditions.

The notice periods for Armed Forces’ personnel are fixed by reference to laid down procedures.

The inability to leave the Services at will means that Service personnel are prevented from

securing a job and then handing in their notice – the norm in civilian life for those in employment.

Other Ranks are eligible, once they have completed an initial (and variable) return of service, to

give notice to leave but, other than in exceptional (e.g. compassionate) circumstances, can be

required to serve out a standard 12-month period of notice. Earlier release is sometimes permitted

depending on the manning requirements of the individual’s branch/trade.


of 168

Officers have no automatic right to resign their commission but might normally expect to be

released after six to 12 months.

Service personnel can also be prevented from leaving for operational reasons and may also be

required to give a ‘Return of Service’ on completion of their particular career courses, (for example

36 months for a full-time degree course). On leaving Service personnel remain liable for call out

or re-call for periods which vary depending on their engagement/commission.

Conclusion: Our overall conclusion is that the employment rights of civilians have considerably

reduced in the last five years. This is on the following basis:

• There has been a continued decline in trade union density, presence in the workplace

and coverage of collective agreements in the period between 2012 and 2016.

• The period between 2012 and 2016 has also seen spikes in the number of days lost

due to labour disputes in the public sector, with a peak at 788,000 in 2014.

• The wage premium for union members also shows a mixed picture, with the gap

widening in the private sector, but narrowing in the public sector.

• The introduction of employment tribunal fees in 2013 had a severe impact on the

number of cases being brought forward, limiting access to justice for some civilians.

Tribunal fees have subsequently been abolished and so this issue is no longer in play,

however there had been a deterioration for civilians during that period.

• According to IDS, employment rights particular to trade union members have not

changed meaningfully since 2012, but collective rights of trade unions have been

reduced, with the result that lawful industrial action is now more difficult and expensive

for trade unions to organise.

• As for individual employment rights, there has been some improvement and some

deterioration, with the result that the changes are a case of ‘swings and roundabouts’.

• We would have concluded that the changes to individual employment rights for civilians

were static but for the fact that significant changes were made to the right not to be

unfairly dismissed (from which members of the Armed Forces are excluded). This key

employment right is now subject to a longer qualification period of two years, and

compensation is now capped at the lower end of one year’s salary or a specified amount

which increases annually with inflation (currently £80,541).


of 168

• These changes to the right not to be unfairly dismissed – in particular the two-year

qualifying period – have narrowed the difference between the individual employment

rights of civilians and members of the Armed Forces since 2012.

This chapter looks at changes in collective and individual employment rights, which covers trade

union membership and key developments in employment law since the last X-factor review.

13.1. Trade union membership

According to statistics published by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy

(BEIS) and reported in the LFS, trade union membership has continued to decline in the period

between 2012 and 2016 and is now at its lowest rate recorded since 1995. The proportion of

employees who are trade union members in the UK fell to 23.5% in 2016, from 26.1% in 2012.

This has led to a continued decline in trade union membership, alongside a similar fall in the

number of employees that have a trade union present in their workplace and have their pay

affected by collective agreement.

Table 128 Trade Union membership, presence in workplace and collective agreement coverage (% of employees), 2012-2016

Year Trade union membership

Trade unions present in the workplace

Pay affected by collective agreement

2012 26.1 44.7 29.3

2013 25.6 44.2 29.5

2014 25.0 43.4 27.5

2015 24.7 42.7 27.9

2016 23.5 41.1 26.3

Source: LFS (statistics published by Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy). Table 129 Number of trade unions and trade union membership in the UK, 2012/13-2016/17

Year Number of unions Membership

2012-13 166 7,197,415

2013-14 166 7,086,116

2014-15 160 7,010,527

2015-16 160 6,948,725

2016-17 151 6,865,056

Source: Annual Report of the Certification Officer for Trade Unions and Employers' Associations.


of 168

The number of trade unions has decreased from 166 in 2012 to 151 in 2016 according to reports

published by the Certification Officer. Similarly, trade union membership has also steadily

declined over the period, falling by 332,359 since 2012-13 to just over 6.8 million in 2016-17.

13.2. Private and public sectors

Trade union membership density is far higher in the public sector than the private sector; 57.7%

in the public sector, compared to 13.4% in the private sector. Trade union density in the public

sector fell by 3.7 percentage points between 2012 and 2016, falling from 56.4% in 2012 to 52.7%

in 2016. Trade union membership density has fallen by a similar percentage in both sectors since

2012 (around 7%).

Table 130 Trade union membership density (% of employees), 2012-2016

Year All Private sector Public sector

2012 26.1 14.4 56.4

2013 25.6 14.4 55.5

2014 25.0 14.2 54.3

2015 24.7 13.9 54.9

2016 23.5 13.4 52.7

Source: LFS (statistics published by Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy).

Private sector trade union membership has grown by 100,000 overall between 2012 and 2016.

But membership levels in the sector decreased sharply by 66,000 in 2016, following consecutive

years of growth since 2011. Meanwhile, there has been a falling trend in trade union numbers in

the public sector between 2011 and 2016 with an overall decline in membership levels of 332,000

between 2012 and 2016. Despite a brief rise in membership levels in 2015 levels have since fallen

sharply, by 209,000 in 2016.

Table 131 Trade union membership levels by sector (000s), 2011-2016

Year Private sector Public sector

2011 2,525 3,923

2012 2,589 3,918

2013 2,645 3,845

2014 2,686 3,772

2015 2,691 3,800

2016 2,625 3,591



of 168

Table 132 Trade union presence and collective agreement coverage (% of employees), 2012-2016

Trade union presence in the workplace Employees' pay affected by collective agreement

Year All Private sector Public sector All Private sector Public sector

2012 44.7 28.5 86.4 29.3 16.1 63.7

2013 44.2 28.7 85.4 29.5 16.6 63.7

2014 43.4 28.1 84.9 27.5 15.4 60.7

2015 42.7 28.0 84.0 27.9 16.1 60.7

2016 41.1 26.7 83.0 26.3 14.9 59.0


Employees in the public sector are far more likely to have a trade union present in their workplace

compared to their counterparts in the private sector. The proportion of employees in the private

sector with a trade union present has declined more significantly over the last four-year period,

by 6.7%, compared to a 4% decline in the public sector.

13.3. Trade union membership – wage premium

The trade union wage gap, defined as the percentage difference in average gross hourly earnings

of union members compared with non-members, is 14.5% in 2016 in the public sector, down

overall from 16.8% in 2012. Despite a narrowing gap overall, the wage premium had widened in

both 2013 and 2014. The private sector trade union wage gap is 7.6% in 2016, down by 1.5

percentage points since 2012. As in the public sector, the gap in wages between members and

non-members in the private sector had also widened in 2013 and 2014 before falling in 2015.

Table 133 Trade union wage premium (%), 2012-2016

Year All Private sector Public sector

2012 15.9 6.1 16.8

2013 16.6 7.1 19.9

2014 16.7 8.2 21.6

2015 14.1 7.7 16.1

2016 13.7 7.6 14.5



of 168

Table 134 Industrial action working days lost and stoppages, 2012-2016

Number of working days lost (thousands) Number of stoppages

Year All Public sector Private sector All Public sector Private sector

2012 249 198 51 131 62 69

2013 444 363 81 114 50 64

2014 788 716 72 155 68 87

2015 169 90 79 106 53 53

2016 322 243 79 101 41 60

Source: ONS.

In 2016 a total of 322,000 working days were lost due to strike action. While the figure on the

number of days lost reported in 2012 is up (from 249,000), the number of days lost because of

labour disputes tends to vary greatly from year to year, particularly in the public sector. 2014

recorded the highest number of working days lost due to labour disputes in the five-year snap-

shot window (recorded at 788,000 days).

According to the ONS, the increase in working days lost in 2014 was mainly attributable to a

number of large scale public sector strikes with pay the principal cause of labour disputes. Pay

has been the main cause of labour disputes for over the last 10 years, except for 2009 and 2010,

when the main cause was redundancy. In 2014, public administration, defence and the education

industries saw the largest number of working days lost, while the majority of individual strikes

occurred in the education industry. There has also been a significant rise in the number of working

days lost in the public sector in 2016 (243,000 days) compared to 2015 (90,000 days), this

increase was partly attributable to a dispute involving junior doctors in the NHS in England, which

accounted for 129,000 working days lost (around 40% of the total working days lost for 2016).

Table 135 Proportion (%) of employees with pay and conditions affected by union agreements, by age, 2012-2016

Age 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

16-24 14 14.5 14.2 15.2 13.5

25-34 25 25.5 23.5 23.6 22.9

35-44 31 31.1 28.4 28.8 27.3

45-54 36 36.4 34.1 34.1 31.5

55+ 33 32.8 30.7 31.9 30.7

Source: LFS/Annual Population Survey.


of 168

The percentage of employees whose pay is affected by trade union agreements tends to rise with

age. The percentage whose pay is covered by a collective agreement typically peaks for those in

the 45-54 age bracket, however it is employees in this age category that have seen one of the

greatest decreases in pay covered by collective agreement (by 4.5 percentage points or 12%

between 2012 to 2016). Meanwhile, those aged 16 to 24 (the age category least likely to have

their pay covered by collective agreement compared to other age groups), have seen only a small

percentage change in pay covered by collective agreement, from 14% in 2012 to 13.5% in 2016.

Table 136 Trade union membership by workplace size (% of employees in workforce that are members of a trade union or staff association), 2012-2016

Workplace size 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

1-10 9.8 10.0 9.2 9.2 8.3

11-19 16.4 17.0 14.6 15.6 15.0

20-24 20.0 20.8 18.8 19.0 17.6

Don’t know but under 25 10.1 11.6 14.2 11.6 12.5

25-49 26.1 24.3 24.4 24.3 22.5

50-249 32.0 30.8 29.8 30.0 28.0

250-499 33.1 34.0 32.5 27.9 30.7

Don’t know but between 50 and 499 25.4 24.0 23.6 24.6 23.3

500 or more 40.2 39.0 39.6 38.7 37.1


Table 137 Trade union presence by workplace size (% of employees with trade union at workplace), 2012-2016

Workplace size 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

1-10 8.0 7.3 7.5 7.1 7.2

11-19 14.1 15.2 14.1 13.1 13.6

20-24 19.8 17.8 17.1 17.1 15.3

Don’t know but under 25 13.0 14.4 10.7 12.3 10.0

25-49 26.6 25.4 26.4 26.7 24.0

50-249 40.1 39.2 38.2 37.2 36.5

250-499 51.6 54.6 48.9 48.4 47.0

Don’t know but between 50 and 499 42.1 40.3 36.9 40.4 31.6

500 or more 61.5 63.1 63.5 60.5 58.0


Trade union membership and presence in the workplace typically rises with increases in

workforce size. Data for the LFS Annual Population Survey show that the proportion of employees


of 168

with a trade union present in their workplace is usually at or less than 25% for workplaces with up

to 50 employees, rising to around 60% at organisations with a workforce size of 500 or more.

Similarly, the incidence of trade union membership tends to increase along with the size of the

organisation. Trade union membership in organisations with up to less than 50 employees is

typically no greater than a quarter of the workforce, whereas for organisations with 500 or more

employees, union membership increases to cover up to two-fifths of the workforce.

Table 138 Employees or self-employed workers that are members of trade unions - How well run are the trade unions, 2012 and 2014

Year Very well run

Well run Not very well run Not at all well run Can't choose

2012 3.3% 46.3% 33.1% 6.6% 10.7%

2014 2.5% 54.0% 24.7% 7.1% 11.1%

Source: British Social Attitudes Survey.

Findings from the British Attitudes Survey show that, for employees who are members of trade

unions or staff associations, the level of satisfaction that trade unions are well run has remained

relatively constant between 2012 and 2014.

13.4. Employment law changes

Information from Incomes Data Services (IDS) considers whether employment rights for civilians

have improved, deteriorated or remained static since January 2012. The rights in question cover

union membership, industrial action and key individual rights.

The Armed Forces are excluded from trade union membership. The last five years have seen no

legal changes in terms of who is able to join, or continue to belong to, a trade union, although

there has been a continual pattern of declining union membership as the public sector workforce

shrinks. In Great Britain, no new employment rights or protections have been extended to union

members – in Northern Ireland the one addition has been protection from detriment, dismissal

and refusal of employment due to entry on a trade union blacklist, which came into force in 2014

(equivalent provisions came into force in Great Britain in 2010).

Some rights relating to collective redundancy consultation and trade unions have, however, been

reduced. In April 2013, the minimum consultation period in the case of collective redundancies

affecting 100 or more employees was cut from 90 days to 45 days, at the same time as the expiry


of 168

of fixed-term contracts was expressly excluded from collective redundancy consultation

obligations. The cut to the minimum consultation period was made as a result of amendments to

S.188(1A) of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 so that it stated:

“The consultation shall begin in good time and in any event (a) where the employer is proposing

to dismiss 100 or more employees as mentioned in subsection (1), at least [45 days], and (b)

otherwise, at least 30 days, before the first of the dismissals takes effect.” The words ‘45 days’

were substituted by Article 3(2) of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992

(Amendment) Order 2013 SI 2013/763 with effect from April 6, 2013. (The substitution applies to

proposals to dismiss as redundant 100 or more employees at one establishment within a period

of 90 days or less which are made on or after April 6, 2013.)

S.282 of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 was also amended with

effect from 6 April 2012 to exclude the expiry of fixed-term contracts from the collective

consultation obligations. S.282(2) now provides that termination of fixed-term contracts is

expressly excluded from the collective consultation rules set out in Ss.188–198 TULR(C)A unless

the fixed-term employment in question is terminated by reason of redundancy before the expiry

of the term, the completion of the task or the occurrence or non-occurrence of the event specified

in the contract. Previously, only fixed-term contracts of three months or less were specifically

exempted from the collective consultation obligations.

In March 2017 the Trade Union Act 2016 introduced new rules relating to industrial action ballots

which make it more difficult for unions to organise lawful industrial action. All industrial action must

have the support of a ballot in which at least 50% of those entitled to vote actually voted. Ballots

for industrial action in ‘important public services’ (emergency healthcare, fire and rescue, schools,

trains and some bus services) need to pass an additional threshold – 40% of all those entitled to

vote must support the action. Thus, where there is 50% turnout for a ballot in important public

services, there must be a vote of at least four to one in favour of industrial action. Ballots now

expire after six months and any further action will require either the agreement of the employer to

extend the period for taking action by three months, or the support of a fresh ballot, making

prolonged industrial action a more expensive proposition for unions. The Act also imposed new

restrictions on picketing, trade union political funds, and the deduction of trade union subscriptions

by public sector employers.


of 168

Trade unions have attempted to water down some provisions of pre-existing law through reliance

on the right to freedom of association in Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights.

However, the UK’s ban on secondary industrial action was held to be lawful by the European

Court of Human Rights (National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers v United Kingdom

2014 IRLR 467), and the Court of Appeal held that the ability of an employer to defeat an

application for compulsory trade union recognition by way of a limited collective agreement with

a non-independent ‘sweetheart’ union was not a breach of Article 11 (Pharmacists’ Defence

Association Union v Boots Management Services Ltd 2017 IRLR 355).

Changes to individual rights since 2012

Deterioration in rights for civilians

The right not to be unfairly dismissed (from which members of the Armed Forces are excluded)

is now subject to a longer qualification period of two years (since 201222), and, since 2013,

compensation has been capped at the lower of one year’s salary or a specified amount which

increases annually with inflation (currently £80,541).23 The right to claim unfair dismissal is a key

civilian right and the changes represent a deterioration in the employment rights of civilians since

2012. If the qualification period is reduced again in the future (as has happened in the past), then

this will represent an improvement.

Compared to the previous two five-year periods, 2012-2017 has been relatively quiet when it

comes to the creation of new employment rights for individuals. By far the most significant

measure introduced during that time was the Employment Tribunals and the Employment Appeal

Tribunal Fees Order 2013 SI 2013/1893, which had a major effect on the enforcement of

employment rights but has since been ruled unlawful and quashed (in July 2017). The introduction

of tribunal fees in July 2013 severely impacted on the ability of civilians (who have more

employment rights than members of the Armed Forces) to bring claims during this four-year

period, leading to a drop in employment claims of around 70%.24 The considerable reduction in

22 The Unfair Dismissal and Statement of Reasons for Dismissal (Variation of Qualifying Period) Order 2012 increased the

qualifying period for the right to claim unfair dismissal to two years for employees whose employment commenced on or after 6 April 2012. Before this, section 108 of the Employment Rights Act 1996 provided that employees had to have been continuously employed by their employer for at least one year to claim protection against unfair dismissal. 23 The cap on compensation is normally increased each year. It is linked to changes in the Retail Prices Index (RPI), using the

September index in each year as the reference point — see S.34 Employment Relations Act 1999. Since 2014 the effective date has been 6 April each year. See, for example, the Employment Rights (Increase of limits ) Order 2017 SI 2017 No.175

24 There are various figures circulating, but the Supreme Court (which had the benefit of all of them) identified the drop as being in

the order of 66% to 70% - see R (on the application of UNISON) v Lord Chancellor at paragraph 39 http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html See also https://workingflex.wordpress.com/2014/03/13/et-fees/ Ministry of

http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html

https://workingflex.wordpress.com/2014/03/13/et-fees/


of 168

civilian rights was only marginally offset by the fact that the exclusion of the Armed Forces from

joining unions would have meant that military personnel would not have had the benefit of a union

offering to pay the relevant fee. Overall, civilians have become worse off since July 2013, though

now that fees have been abolished this issue is no longer in play.

The Collective Redundancies and Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment)

(Amendment) Regulations 2014 SI 2014/16 came into effect on 31 January 2014. This measure

reduced some TUPE rights of civilians (making it easier to change terms and conditions after a

business transfer), as well as making the process of transferring businesses easier for

transferees/purchasers. The relevant rights do not apply to the Armed Forces. The changes

amounted to a reduction in protection for civilians caught up in business transfers.

Improvement in civilian rights

Changes introduced to the Employment Rights Act 1996 in 2013 mean that, to attract protection

for whistleblowing, workers must have a reasonable belief that the disclosure is in the public

interest. This change means a protected disclosure (and the accompanying rights not to be

subjected to a detriment or dismissed for having made one) will rarely arise when a worker

complains about a breach of his or her own contract of employment. The same raft of changes

included new protection from being subjected to a detriment by a colleague or agent of the

employer, and the removal of the requirement that disclosures must be made in good faith.

(Armed Forces’ personnel are excluded from the whistleblowing provisions by S.192 of the

Employment Rights Act 1996, when read with para 16 of Sch 2). The introduction of the public

interest test means that fewer disclosures will attract protection, as a lot of the claims prior to 2013

were really about private employment disputes, and few were ruled out for a lack of good faith.

However, where a disclosure does fall within the scope of the legislation, the addition of protection

from detriment at the hands of colleagues is a significant change for the better from a worker’s

perspective. Pre-2013, many claimants with private employment disputes were exploiting a

loophole in the legislation that has now been closed. For genuine whistleblowers the changes are

an improvement.25

Justice statistics for the period October to December 2013 revealed a 79% drop in employment tribunal claims compared to the equivalent period in 2012.

25 The public interest test means that fewer disclosures will attract protection, as a lot of the claims prior to

2013 were really about private employment disputes, and few were ruled out for a lack of good faith.

However, where a disclosure does fall within the scope of the legislation, the addition of protection from

detriment at the hands of colleagues is a significant change for the better from a worker’s perspective.


of 168

The statutory right to request flexible working was extended to all employees in June 2014. Before

2014, the right only allowed employees to request a contractual change in their working

arrangements to care for a child or adult dependant. The Armed Forces have never had the

statutory right to request flexible working. However, the situation covering flexible working is set

to change: The Armed Forces (Flexible Working) Bill 2017–2019 will enable members of the

Armed Forces to request to work part-time for a temporary period and to temporarily limit

‘geographical separation’ from their home base. The details of how requests for flexible working

will operate will be set out in Regulations, with the new rights expected to be implemented by April

2019. (Because the Armed Forces do not currently have this protection at the moment they are

still at a disadvantage compared to civilians.)

There have been some important legal rulings in the realm of working time rights which enhance

the pay rights of civilians. These establish that overtime pay and commission have to be taken

into account in calculating workers’ holiday pay in respect of the four weeks’ annual leave provided

by Reg 13 of Working Time Regulations 1998 SI 1998/1833 where such payments correspond to

'normal remuneration' and that Reg 13 leave can be carried over into another year if a worker is

prevented by sickness from taking the leave. However, because the Armed Forces do not benefit

from the relevant rights they do not benefit in turn from the legal rulings. (As such this represents

a relative improvement in the rights of civilians).

Neutral changes

Gender pay gap information regulations came into force in April 2017. Large employers are now

required by law to publish their gender pay gap annually, the first pay gap report having to be

published by 4 April 2018. The Armed Forces are not covered by this but are covered by a similar

requirement that applies in the public sector, (see Schedule 2 to the Equality Act 2010 (Specific

Duties and Public Authorities) Regulations 2017). So, no effect either way on Armed Forces.

National Minimum Wage (Amendment) Regulations 2016 SI 2016/68 established a new ‘national

living wage’ of £7.20 per hour (now £7.50, as of April 2017) for workers aged 25 and over on 1

April 2016. All grades in the Armed Forces earn this rate or above. So, no effect either way on

Armed Forces.


of 168

Right to shared parental leave introduced in 2014 (Armed Forces do not have this statutory right

– but similar provision is made in the Armed Forces Occupational Shared Parental Leave

Scheme). So, no effect either way on Armed Forces.

The Exclusivity Terms in Zero Hours Contracts (Redress) Regulations 2015 SI 2015/2021, which

came into force in January 2016, introduced a right for an employee working under a zero-hours

contract not to be unfairly dismissed for the sole or principal reason that he or she has failed to

comply with an exclusivity clause – i.e. a clause which prevents an employee working for another

employer. This right is not subject to the two-year service requirement. The Regulations also

created a new protection from detriment for workers and employees who fail to comply with an

exclusivity clause. The Armed Forces do not have this protection but are not affected by zero-

hours working. So, no effect either way on Armed Forces.

Employees are entitled to take up to 18 weeks’ unpaid parental leave to care for a child under the

age of 18 (not to be confused with shared parental leave which is something different). Unpaid

parental leave increased in March 2013 from 13 to 18 weeks. Two years later, the age limit on

parental leave was raised from five to 18 years (April 2015), providing each parent with the right

to up to 18 weeks’ unpaid leave for each child under 18. Armed Forces do not have this statutory

right. However, Armed Forces terms of employment should provide similar/same provision in an

equivalent scheme for each service. So, no effect either way on Armed Forces.

The statutory questionnaire procedure in respect of discrimination claims was abolished with

effect in April 2014 when S.138 of the Equality Act 2010 was repealed – this affected civilians and

Armed Forces (who can bring discrimination claims) in the same way. So, no effect either way on

the Armed Forces.

Recent negative changes to public sector pensions have also been applied to Armed Forces. So,

no effect either way on Armed Forces.

The automatic pension enrolment scheme came into force in October 2012. Under the scheme,

employers are required to automatically enrol qualifying workers in a workplace pension scheme

and make mandatory contributions, unless they are already members of a qualifying occupational

pension scheme. Initially, the scheme only applied to the UK’s largest employers (i.e. those with

120,000 or more members in their PAYE schemes) but will cover all qualifying workers by


of 168

February 2018. (www.thepensionsregulator.gov.uk/en/employers/employing-staff-for-the-first-

time.aspx). The Armed Forces are excluded from the civilian auto enrolment provisions. However,

members of the Armed Forces are automatically enrolled into the Armed Forces Pension Scheme

2015 (the new pension scheme that applies to the Armed Forces). So, limited or no effect either

way on Armed Forces.

13.5. Employment tribunal fees

The Coalition Government introduced employment tribunal (ET) fees in July 2013 as part of its

strategy to ‘modernise and streamline the employment dispute resolution system’ and against the

backdrop of a 23% budget reduction at the Ministry of Justice. In doing so, it had several

objectives: to transfer some of the cost burden from taxpayers to those causing the system to be

used; to incentivise earlier settlements and the use of alternative dispute resolution services, such

as Acas; and to discourage vexatious claims. However, critics raised concerns that such a move

would restrict lower-paid workers’ access to justice and indeed this Fees Order was eventually

quashed by the Supreme Court in July 2017, which declared that it ‘effectively prevents access

to justice and is therefore unlawful.’

With the introduction of ET fees, individual claimants became liable for ‘issue fees’ to lodge

tribunal claims or appeals and ‘hearing fees’ to have these claims heard. Claims were classified

as ‘Type A’ or ‘Type B’ according to their relative complexity. Fees for individual employees

bringing claims are outlined in the table below; these could rise to as much as £1,500 and £5,700

respectively for cases involving multiple claimants. Additional fees could also apply in some

circumstances.

Table 139 Employment tribunal fees – single claimants

Type A Type B

Issue fee £160 £250

Hearing fee £230 £950

On this basis, taking a relatively straightforward single claim to ET would cost an individual a

minimum of £390. To address concerns regarding the potential restriction on access to justice,

the Government put in place a means-based system of fee remission, whereby claimants could

qualify for a full or partial fee waiver according to their gross monthly income. The ET could also

order the respondent to reimburse fees if it found in the claimant’s favour.


of 168

Impact on the number of claims brought

According to a parliamentary briefing paper on employment tribunal fees26, the introduction of

fees coincided with a steep decline in the number of cases received by employment tribunals (the

Government itself, in its January 2017 post-implementation review of the introduction of

employment tribunal fees27, describes this as a ‘very stark and substantial fall’ that was ‘much

greater than originally estimated’). As the below chart from that briefing paper illustrates, in the

year to June 2013, ie before the introduction of fees, just under 13,500 single cases were brought

per quarter on average. From October 2013 onwards, this number has averaged around 4,400

per quarter – a decrease of 67%. The proportion of multiple cases, meanwhile, has declined

further still, from just under 1,500 per quarter in the year to June 2013 to an average of around

400 since October 2013 (a decrease of 73%).

Looking at monthly figures, the briefing paper also points to a spike in the number of single and

multiple new cases received in July 2013, which it says is probably owing to people choosing to

submit claims before the introduction of tribunal fees, and a sharp fall in new cases in the two

months thereafter.

Since 6 May 2014, it has been mandatory for one of the parties to contact Acas to initiate early

conciliation before an ET claim can be submitted. It is possible that this development also

26 http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN07081/SN07081.pdf 27 https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/587649/Review-of-

introduction-of-fees-in-employment-tribunals.pdf

http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN07081/SN07081.pdf

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/587649/Review-of-introduction-of-fees-in-employment-tribunals.pdf

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/587649/Review-of-introduction-of-fees-in-employment-tribunals.pdf


of 168

influenced the number of claims: there was a temporary dip in Q2 2014, which may have arisen

because cases were now taking longer to reach tribunal, the first effects of which would have

been observed in those months. However, the briefing paper says it is hard to determine the

extent to which early conciliation has had a lasting impact on the number of cases brought.

The Government review of ET fees found that conciliation was effective in helping just under a

half (48%) of people who refer disputes to them avoid the need to go to the ETs, while up to a

further 34% went on to issue proceedings. However, the same review found that between 3,000

and 8,000 people per year who were unable to resolve their dispute did not issue a claim because

they said they were unable to pay. To address this, the Government increased the gross monthly

remission threshold from £1,085 to £1,250, which was more aligned with the earnings of a full-

time employee earning the National Living Wage.

In its judgment abolishing ET fees, the Supreme Court observed that the Fees Order had in

practice particularly deterred people from bringing ET claims of low monetary value (for example,

relating to unpaid wages; notice pay; redundancy pay; or unpaid holiday pay). This would appear

to be borne out by various other sources. For example, the proportion of awards involving

relatively small amounts decreased during the Fees Order period and the average value of

awards increased, suggesting a greater number of higher-value claims. The above briefing paper,

meanwhile, says that following the introduction of fees there was a larger decline in the number

of Type A complaints than Type B (71% vs 63%) over the period between October 2013 and

March 2016 but points out that in practice a claim can involve both types of complaint. And in its

2016 report on courts and tribunals fees28 the House of Commons Justice Committee found that

the regime of ET fees had had a significant adverse impact on access to justice for meritorious

claims. For example, the Tribunals Judiciary and Council of Employment Judges noted a marked

decline in low-value money claims and observed that, before the introduction of fees, such claims

were often brought by low-paid workers in sectors such as care, security, hospitality or cleaning;

that the sums involved were small but significant to those involved; and that such claims often

succeeded.

Various submissions to the Justice Committee’s inquiry into courts and tribunal fees stated that

they saw no evidence that fees had helped discourage vexatious claims, while the Government’s

28 https://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/justice-

committee/news-parliament-20151/courts-and-tribunals-fees-report-published-16-17/

https://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/justice-committee/news-parliament-20151/courts-and-tribunals-fees-report-published-16-17/

https://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/justice-committee/news-parliament-20151/courts-and-tribunals-fees-report-published-16-17/


of 168

review also found that there had been little change to the outcome of cases that had progressed

to ETs.

Following the Supreme Court judgment, the Government launched a phased ET fee refund

scheme that reimburses claimants’ original fee plus interest of 0.5%. However, the authors of the

parliamentary briefing paper observe that the quashing of the Fees Order raises a number of

questions as to how claimants should be treated if they had been deterred from bringing a case

when fees were in place or had had their claims rejected due to non-payment of fees. They also

suggest that the Government may look to reintroduce ET fees at a lower rate or alongside an

amended remission system.


of 168

14. Travel to work

Travel to work is divided into:

a) time taken to travel to work;

b) the method of travelling to work, and;

c) the cost of travelling to work incurred by the employee.

This varies for the Armed Forces depending upon the nature of their current job and deployment,

if any.

Conclusion: Overall, the results presented in this chapter suggest no overall change to this

component. The headlines from the data are:

• No changes in methods of travel to work;

• No changes in time taken to get to work;

• No changes in distance travelled to work;

• A mixed picture on travel costs.

In this chapter we explore changes in methods, distances and costs associated with travel to

work.

14.1. Method of travelling to work

Both the Labour Force (LFS) and Understanding Society surveys include questions related to

modes of travel to work and their findings are quite similar. While each survey asks the question

in a slightly different way, both illustrate that the dominant mode of transport is the car or van,

for example, around 70% of those surveyed in the LFS survey travelled to work by either, a car,

van, minibus or works van.

The next most common mode of travel was walking, mentioned by around 8% of respondents

in each of the last five LFS surveys. Travel by car and walking were followed trains,

buses/coaches and bicycles with proportions ranging between 3.5% and around 8% in the last

half decade.

Examining the pattern over the full five years illustrates that there have been few changes. One

exception was the increase in those travelling to work by cars and vans between 2012 and 2013


of 168

while another was the slight fall in the use of trains in the same period. Overall, however, the

picture is relatively stable.

Table 140 Usual method of travel to work, 2012-2016

Mode of transport 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Car, van, minibus, works van % 66.9 70.4 70.4 70.3 69.4

Number 5,537,165 12,498,990 12,676,073 12,911,016 12,416,676

Motorbike, moped, scooter % 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.8

Number 87,775 153,563 149,861 156,197 151,043

Bicycle % 4.1 3.3 3.5 3.5 3.6

Number 340,110 583,582 628,265 635,017 648,534

Bus, coach, private bus % 5.4 6.0 6.1 5.9 5.8

Number 444,134 1,069,874 1,098,150 1,074,936 1,044,188

Taxi % 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3

Number 19,766 39,244 42,293 53,334 48,748

Railway train % 8.2 6.3 6.3 6.8 6.8

Number 682,433 1,117,742 1,141,458 1,243,421 1,210,620

Underground train, light railway, tram

% 5.9 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.4

Number 487,913 733,417 753,335 764,405 790,351

Walk % 7.6 8.2 7.7 7.8 8.2

Number 630,774 1,450,800 1,394,273 1,436,686 1,462,987

Other method % 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6

Number 51,147 105,350 109,610 99,890 109,707

Source: Labour Force Survey 2007-2017, Q4.

Turning to the findings from the Understanding Society survey, around 62% of those surveyed

reported that they drive themselves to work by car or van. The proportion was lower than the

figure found in the Labour Force Survey but this is explained by the fact that those receiving a

lift from someone else are included separately. Once these are counted, the overall proportion

stood at around 68% – very similar to the LFS figure.

The findings further parallel those of the LFS in that walking, buses/coaches and rail were the

next three most popular modes of transport. Similarly, the Understanding Society results

exhibited no significant changes in the prevalence of the different modes of transport used over

the last five years mirroring the stable picture portrayed by the LFS data.


of 168

Table 141 Mode of transport to work, 2012-2016

Mode of transport 2010-11

2011-12

2012-13

2013-14

2014-15

Drive myself by car or van % 62.4 62.4 62.4 62.0 62.5

Number 14,090 12,139 11,130 10,316 9,019

Get a lift with someone from household % 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.4 2.9

Number 775 673 618 560 426

Get a lift with someone outside the household % 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 2.1

Number 516 431 378 331 302

Motorcycle/moped/scooter % 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8

Number 174 176 145 112 121

Taxi/minicab % 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

Number 88 62 53 49 48

Bus/coach % 6.8 6.8 7.0 6.9 6.9

Number 1,545 1,325 1,246 1,148 1,000

Train % 5.0 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.4

Number 1,121 991 916 848 785

Underground/metro/tram/light railway % 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.7

Number 506 464 434 429 386

Cycle % 3.4 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.2

Number 774 743 686 680 603

Walk % 12.4 11.9 11.6 12.3 11.5

Number 2,800 2,312 2,069 2,056 1,657

Other % 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.7

Number 194 127 148 118 96

Source: Understanding Society 2010-2015.

14.2. Time and distance to work

The Labour Force Survey, Understanding Society and the National Travel Survey (NTS) surveys

all include questions concerned with the amount of time taken to travel to work. While the

surveys use different definitions, they show that the average times taken to get to work have

stayed remarkably stable over the last five years.


of 168

Table 142 Usual home to work travel time (minutes), 2012-2016

No. Minimum Lower quartile

Median Average Upper quartile

Maximum

2012 7,171,845 0.0 15.0 25.0 31.7 45.0 180.0

2013 15,941,031 0.0 15.0 25.0 30.5 40.0 180.0

2014 16,234,591 0.0 15.0 25.0 30.4 40.0 180.0

2015 16,608,665 0.0 15.0 25.0 30.9 40.0 180.0

2016 16,200,673 0.0 15.0 25.0 31.4 40.0 180.0

Source: Labour Force Survey, Q4.

The results from the Understanding Society survey showed slightly quicker journey times with

the median standing at 20 minutes and the average at 26 minutes. Despite this, as with the LFS,

there was little or no variation in journey times over the last five years.

Table 143 Minutes spent travelling to work, 2012-2016

Year No. Minimum Lower quartile


Maximum

2010/11 22,485 0.0 10.0 20.0 26.1 35.0 870.0

2011/12 19,350 0.0 10.0 20.0 26.0 30.0 833.0

2012/13 17,728 0.0 10.0 20.0 26.3 35.0 700.0

2013/14 16,586 0.0 10.0 20.0 26.5 35.0 660.0

2014/15 14,084 0.0 10.0 20.0 26.0 30.0 800.0


The Understanding Society survey also asked its respondents a question concerned with the

distance travelled to work although this was only posed in alternate years. On average, journeys

were just over 10 miles in all three years. Similarly, there was no change in the median journey

distance which was significantly shorter at five miles but was also unchanged.

Table 144 Distance from work in miles, 2010/11-2014/15

Year No. Minimum Lower quartile


Maximum

2010/11 24,504 0.0 2.0 5.0 10.4 12.0 800.0

2012/13 19,472 0.0 2.0 5.0 10.6 12.0 500.0

2014/15 15,537 0.0 2.0 5.0 10.6 12.0 720.0



of 168

A similar stable picture is presented by the National Travel Survey which looks at the trips of

various types made by UK citizens throughout the year. Two of the categories of trip are

commuting and business journeys and the survey shows that both the number and duration of

such trips have been relatively stable over the past five years. For example, average commuting

trip lengths have been constant at around nine miles while business trips have also been

unchanged at around 20 miles in all five years.

The average number of commuting trips per year has stood at around 145 throughout the period

while the mean number of miles was around nine while the average duration was half an hour.

Similarly, the average number of business trips, defined as those made in the course of work,

was stable at around 30 for each of the five years while the average number of miles covered

was equally constant at around 20.

Table 145 Commuting and business trip numbers, distances and duration, 2012-2016

Purpose 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Average number of commuting trips per year 142 145 147 142 144

Average commuting miles per trip 9.0 8.8 8.8 9.2 9.0

Average minutes spent commuting - 29 29 31 30

Average number of business trips per year 28 30 32 31 33

Average business miles per trip 19.4 20.9 20.1 20.1 19.3

No. of individuals surveyed 16,670 16,192 16,491 15,525 15,840

Source: National Travel Survey.

14.3. Transport costs

Another consideration that potential commuters need to ponder is the costs associated with

travel to work. We have drawn on detailed consumer prices data from ONS to examine changes

in the costs of commuting. Our analysis shows that bus and coach fares, in particular, have risen

sharply in the last five years, and at a significantly higher rate than wider inflation In fact, they

have risen by 28% since January 2013. In contrast, motoring costs have only increased by 5%

and rail fares by 10%. The all items RPI increased by 12% over the same period.


of 168

Table 146 Rise in transport costs, January 2013-September 2017

Jan-2013 Jan-2014 Jan-2015 Jan-2016 Jan-2017 Sep-2017

Motoring expenditure 100 101 95 95 102 105

Rail fares 100 103 106 107 109 110

Bus and coach 100 101 104 110 121 128

RPI inflation 100 103 104 105 108 112

Source: ONS.

The Office for Rail and Road also collects annual data on rail costs and the findings for the last

five years are presented alongside those for the retail prices index (RPI). It illustrates that with

the exception of long distance advanced tickets, the prices of all other categories of ticket have

risen faster than the rate of inflation. Perhaps more pertinent to commuters, however, is the

finding that season tickets in London and the South East rose by over four percentage points

above inflation between 2012 and 2017 illustrating that costs for rail users, at least have risen

in real terms over the period.

Table 147 Index measuring the change in rail fares at 1 January each year by sector and ticket type, GB, 2012-2017

Operators Ticket type 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

London & South East

Advance 100.0 108.0 108.9 112.4 115.1 114.7

Season 100.0 104.1 107.3 110.2 110.6 112.3

All tickets 100.0 104.5 107.4 109.9 110.6 112.2

Long distance

Advance 100.0 104.3 106.7 110.0 109.9 106.1

All tickets 100.0 104.1 106.7 108.8 109.5 110.0

All operators All tickets 100.0 104.2 107.0 109.3 110.1 111.4

RPI (all items) 100.0 96.3 103.3 106.2 107.4 108.8

Source: Office for Rail and Road, January 2012=100.

14.4. Employer assistance with travel costs

For the vast majority of employees, only journeys carried out in the course of working duties are

eligible for expenses or financial assistance, with the home to usual place of work journey

excluded. This is mirrored in HMRC rules29 for allowable expenses for self-employed people, who

cannot offset expenses for travel between home and work.

29 HMRC, Expenses if you’re self-employed, at https://www.gov.uk/expenses-if-youre-self-employed/travel.


of 168

There appear to be some exceptions to this, but usually where the home-to-work journey is to a

temporarily different or varying location. A common rule then applied is that the employee can

claim expenses for the part of the journey to a different location that is further than their usual

workplace. For example, the NHS Agenda for Change agreement, which covers pay and

conditions for non-clinical NHS staff, sets out arrangements to pay expenses for the first journey

from home to a first patient call which exclude the first 15 miles (or the last 15 miles where the

journey is from the last patient call back to home).30 There are also complex rules around the

expenses that doctors can claim for travel, for example where junior doctors are required to

commute to a new workplace due to the rotational nature of their training programme and can

usually claim expenses for the part of their journey to the new place of work that is further away

from the previous old location. Some agreements in the performing arts sector31 compensate

performers and stage managers for commuting to a different workplace, setting maximum weekly

commuting costs.

Some employees undertake regular unsocial hours or late-notice working where journeys to and

from work may be problematic or expensive. As far as can be established, most employees still

have to pay for and arrange their journey, but there are some exceptions, again in the media

sector. An agreement between Bectu and the Society of London Theatre, for example, sets out

cash rates for late night transport. The BBC’s expenses policy provides that in some situations

the BBC will assist with home-to-work travel when there is a work start or finish time prior to

6.30am or after 10.45pm32.

While direct compensation for the normal home-to-work commute appears to be rare, there are a

variety of ways in which employers offer employees assistance with travel costs. These can be

found across all sectors of the economy and include:

• Cycle-to-work schemes. These are tax-efficient benefits that enable the employer to loan

bikes to employees.

30 NHS staff council, NHS terms and conditions of service handbook, 2017. 31 For example see the rates set out on ITC’s website for performers and stage managers: https://www.itc-

arts.org/rates-of-pay. 32 See BBC, Summary of the expenses policy for senior managers, updated 2016, available at

http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/foi/classes/policies_procedures/bbc_expenses_policy_sm.pdf.


of 168

• Interest-free season ticket loans. XpertHR’s 2017 survey of benefits and allowances33

found that 48% of employers offered these as part of their benefits package.

• Subsidised travel by public transport. For example, Nottingham City Council34 offers

employee discounts on tram, bus and train travel, offered in the form of a loan that

employees pay back over a 12-month period.

• Company car schemes and company car allowances. Staff with a work need to travel

regularly may be allocated a company car. While they cannot claim mileage expenses for

commuting costs, the employer will generally be covering the running costs of the car. A

very small number of organisations may provide free fuel for private use (including

commuting) as a benefit, usually to senior staff, but this is rare.

• Free or subsidised car parking. While not directly contributing to the costs of the journey

this is a very common employee benefit, which XpertHR reports35 is provided by 65% of

employers.

Some employers have introduced workplace travel plans or other initiatives designed to cut down

on travel by car and improve their environmental footprint. These may also lead to travel cost

savings for employees by encouraging car-sharing schemes or offering free or subsidised travel

in a work bus service, but on the other hand they might increase travel costs for employees

continuing to travel by car if free or subsidised car parking is cut, for example.

33 XpertHR, Benefits and allowances survey 2017: Long-service, childcare and travel benefits, 2017. 34 Katie Scott, “Nottingham City Council amends staff travel schemes in response to salary sacrifice changes”,

Employee Benefits, 2 August 2017. 35 XpertHR, Benefits and allowances survey 2017: Long-service, childcare and travel benefits, 2017.


of 168

Appendix 1 X-factor component revisions following the 2013 review

IDS recommended 13 components2012 X-factor components

•TurbulenceTurbulence

•Spouse/partner employmentfomerly covered by Turbulence

•Danger to physical and mental healthDanger

•Separation from family and homeSeparation from family and home

removed as a component Job satisfaction

•Job securityJob security

•Hours of workHours of work

•Stress, personal relationships and impact of the job

Stress at work

•LeaveLeave

•see Stress, personal relationships and impact of the job

Support to personnel and families

•Training, adventure training and personal development

Training

•Promotion and early responsibilityPromotion and early responsibility

•Autonomy, management control and flexibilityAutonomy, management control and flexibility

•see Stress, personal relationships and impact of the job

Divorce

•see TurbulenceHealth and education

•Individual and collective rightsIndividual rights

•see Training, adventure training and personal development

Adventure and travel

•see Individual and collective rightsTU membership and industrial action

•Travel to workTravel to work


of 168

Appendix 2 Data sources used in the 2017 X-factor review

Author Years Source

Bank of England 2000-2017 Bankstats

BBC 2016 BBC Expenses Policy

Certification Officer 2012/13-2016/17

Annual Report of the Certification Officer for Trade Unions and Employers' Association

Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD)

2012-2016 Absence Management Survey


2014-2017 Employee Outlook Survey


2012-2017 Resourcing and Talent Planning Survey

Civil Aviation Authority 2011-2015 Passenger Survey

Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy

2010/11-2014/15

FE Data Library

Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy

2012-2016 Trade Union Statistics

Department for Education Q1 2010-Q1 2017

NEET Statistics Quarterly Briefing

Department for Education 2013/14-2015/16

School admission appeals statistics

Department for Transport 2012-2016 National Travel Survey

Department for Transport 2011-2015 (Stats19)

Department of Communities and Local Government (DCLG)

2011-2016 Local Authority Housing Statistics

Department of Communities and Local Government (DCLG)

2012-2016 Rough sleeping estimates

Economic and Social Research Council 2010-2015 Understanding Society

Family and Childcare Trust 2012-2017 Childcare Costs Survey

GP Patient Survey 2012-2016 GP Patient Survey

Health and Safety Executive 2011/12-2015/16

Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR)

HMRC 2017 Advice on expenses if you're self-employed


of 168

Home Office 2011-2016 Homicide Index

House of Commons Library 2017 UK Prison Population Statistics Briefing Paper

House of Commons Library 2011-2016 What is affordbable housing?

Incomes Data Research 2012-2016 Unpublished data on hours and holidays

Incomes Data Research 2017 Pay and conditions in retail

Incomes Data Services 2017 Commissioned article on employment law changes between 2012-2017

Incomes Data Services 2012 HR Study: Hours and Holidays Study

Incomes Data Services 2014 Unpublished data on pay settlements

Incomes Data Services 2015 Seven day practices and payments: A research report for the Office of Manpower Economics

Institute for Social and Economic Research (ISER) 2015 British Household Panel Survey

Middlesex University 2017 The Weighted Scales of Economic Justice, Unpaid Britain: an interim report

Ministry of Justice 2014 Statistics on employment tribunal claims

Ministry of Justice 2012-2016 Prison population statistics

NatCen Social Research 2011-2016 British Social Attitudes Survey

NHS Digital 2014 The Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey

NHS Digital 2017 The Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey

NHS Digital 2017 NHS Terms and Conditions of Service Handbook

Office for National Statistics 2011-2017 Annual Population Survey (APS)

Office for National Statistics 2012-2016 Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (ASHE)

Office for National Statistics 2012-2016 International Passenger Survey

Office for National Statistics 2000-2017 Zero hours contracts

Office for National Statistics 2007-2017 Labour Force Survey (LFS)

Office for National Statistics 2011-2016 Suicide statistics

Office for National Statistics 2012-2016 Divorce, marriage, formations and dissolutions statistics

Office for National Statistics 2011-2015 Alcohol -related deaths statistics

Office for Rail and Road 2012-2017 Data on rail fares index

OFSTED 2012-2017 School performance ratings

OFSTED 2012-2017 Childcare providers and inspections statistics


of 168

Sport England 2011/12-2015/16

Active Lives Survey

TNS/Visit England, Visit Scotland and Visit Wales 2011-2015 Great Britain Tourism Survey

UCAS 2012-2016 Data on university applicants and acceptances

XpertHR 2016 Christmas and New Year Working Arrangements

XpertHR 2017 Benefits and Allowances Survey: Long-service, childcare and travel benefits

XpertHR 2017 XpertHR

review of the x-factor: changes in civilian life a report ... · review of the x-factor: changes in...

Documents