REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

3.1 Facilities for teaching science 3.2 Methods of science teaching 3.3 Comparison among different methods of science

teaching 3.4 Attitude of pupils towards science 3.5 Different curriculum innovation programmes and their

impact on traditional science teaching. 3 -6 Development of process skills.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of related literature implies locating, studying and

evaluating reports of researches relevant to the topic under investigation, This will

enable the investigator to have a clear picture of the problem area. It also performs

certain other functions such as to avoid the risk of duplication and to contribute to the

general scholarship of the investigator. According to Mouly (1963)' , 'It is a crucial

step which invariably minimize the risk of dead ends, rejected topics, wasted effort,

trial-and-error activity oriented towards approaches already discarded by previous

investigators and even more important erroneous findings based on a faulty research

design'.

The topic for the present study being 'on a critical study of theory-

practical integration in the teaching of high school physical science in Kerala

State', the review of related literature is primarily concerned with the area 'Science

Education'. The following are the related research studies and literature relevant to

this study.

3.1 Facilities for Teaching Science.

Science teaching in schools becomes effective only if there is adequate

1. George J. Mouly. (1963). The Science of Education Research, New York: American Book Company, p. 1 12.

teaching include equipment, materials, laboratories, text books, laboratory manuals

and the like. The following research studies throw light on the existing facilities for

teaching science in the schools in Kerala as well as outside Kerala State. The studies

reveal that the reason for poor quality of science teaching is due to the lack of even

minimum facilities in most of the schools.

Patole (1967)~ explored the existing weakness of teaching science in

rural primary schools of Kolhapur district, and some of the weaknesses identified

being lack of science apparatus, lack of science room, lack of funds to prepare aids

and even lack of reference books in the school library to get more scientific

information, etc. and he concluded that 'science teaching in rural primary schools was

dull and dry'. Patole found that activity based method of teaching the subject, was

superior to traditional one.

Veerappa ( 1 9 5 8 ) ~ conducted a study on trends in science education

from primary to the degree course level with a purpose to study the existing position

of science education in India; and found that due to want of proper laboratories, well-

trained science teachers and effective teaching methods, science education in India is

not on a proper footing.

2. W.K. Patole. (1967). A Study of Science in Rural Primary Schools, (Standrds I to VII) Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pune.

3. N.S. Veerappa. (1 958). Trends in Science Education. Unpublished M.Ed dissertation, University of Mysore.

Rao and Gupta (1990)~ surveyed the science laboratories in the states

of Maharastra and Rajasthan. The overall situation in this regard is quite favourable,

in urban and rural schools in both States. It is only in Rajasthan that the majority of

the students perform their experiments individually and that the Government schools

have facilities for improvising and repairing equipment.

Malhotra (1 9 ~ 8 ) ~ evaluated critically the existing facilities for different

types of schools in Delhi, The b e e types of schools (Public, Government and

Central) differed significantly in respect of existing facilities for science based

curricular and co-curricular activities, supervision of theory classes as well as faculty

meeting I conferences and welfare programmes for teachers and students,

A study of physical facilities for teaching science in Upper Primary

schools of Malapuram district in Kerala was conducted by Bijulal (1 988j6. It was

revealed that there is no significant difference in physical facilities between

Government and private schools, rural and urban schools. It was found that 80 percent

of the sample schools do not have a science room, 75 percent of sample schools do

4. K.N. Rao and M.K. Gupta. (1990). Study of Science laboratories in Secondary Schools in selected States. Unpublished M.Ed dissertation, University of Mysore.

5. V.K. Malhotra. (1 988). A critical study of the existing facilities of science teaching and construction of evaluation instruments for its supervision in different type of secondary schools in Delhi. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Delhi.

6 K. Bijula1.(1985). A study of the physical facilities for teaching science in Upper Primay Schools of Malappuram District. M.Ed Dissertation,RIE, Mysore.

not have a demonstration table, 55 percent do not have a laboratory, 65 percent of the

sample schools do not have an overhead projector, 95 percent do not have a television

and 65 percent of the sample schools do not have radio and recording systems.

The major findings of the study conducted by Ravi (1998)' on the

relationship between school facilities and achievement in science were that, there is

significant relationship between physical facilities, academic facilities and student

achievement in science. There is significant association between schools with high

and low physical facilities and student achievement in science.

Savithri (1981)~ conducted an enquiry into the adequacy of the use of

equipment available for teaching of science in selected high schools in Mysore city.

The study revealed that nearly 50 percent of the institution under investigation do not

have a separate laboratory for subjects like chemistry, biology and physics. Nearly 60

percent of the sample have no opportunity for doing practical work in the laboratory.

Nearly 80 percent of students of the selected high schools conducted learning activity

like science exhibition.

7. G.K. Ravi.(1998). A study on the relationship between school facilities and achievement in science at elementary level. M.Ed Dissertation,RIE, Mysore.

8. G.R. Savithri. (1 98 1). An enquiry into the adequacy and use of equipment available for teaching; of scinece in selected hi& schools of Mysore City. Unpublised M.Ed dissertation, ME, Mysore.

The study by Surendranath (19881~ disclosed that majority of rural

schools in Andhra Pradesh do not have adequate laboratory facilities for practical

work. In most of the rural high schools there are no teachers guide, practical manuals

and science magazines, There were no resource persons for teaching science in rural

areas. They do not have adequate facilities or grant-in-aid from Government, but there

is no difference in the adequacy of grant-in-aid from government on rural and urban

schools. There are very few science club activities. There is significant difference in

the adequacy of material, audio visual facilities for teaching science in rural and urban

areas.

Avtar (2000)'~ analysed the difficulties faced by teachers in conducting

practical work in schools. According to him, the difficulties are mainly due to the

following reasons; (1) Non-availability of proper laboratory facilities in schools,(2)

Non-availability of science equipment/apparatus/materials,(3) Lack of improvisation

of apparatus and (4) Unwillingness on the part of teachers.

A research survey on elementary teachers was conducted by Morey

(1987)" to find out the status of science education in Illinois elementary school.

9. Babu Surendranath. (1988). A study of existing facilities for teaching science in high schools for East Godavari District in Andhra Pradesh. Unpublished M.Ed dissertation,RIE, Mysore.

1 0. Ram Avtar. (2000). New approach to science teachng. School Science, 39.p.29. 1 I . Stanley Morey. (1 987). Status of science education in Illinois elementary school.

Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27,6 1-64.

This study indicates that many school districts are neither providing sufficient

consumable and non consumable supplies for teachers attempting to develop

effective 'hands-on' teaching strategies; nor are there sufficient and safe facilities for

science laboratories or equipment storage.

Lombardo (2000) l 2 explored certain factors and skills that have effect

on laboratory-centred, inquiry-focussed science instruction. Results indicate that

science teachers agree that access to laboratory facilities, safety equipment and

laboratory instruments are most important to be able to effectively carry out

instruction that is laboratory centered and inquiry focussed.

According to CBSE (1 99 1)13, physics investigatory project is a

problem based act carried to completion in its natural setting to achieve the intended

objective: independent study or mini research or open-ended work. Unfortunately to

most teachers, a physics project means building a gadget or displaying an instrument

of physics. The reason for this state of affairs is the lack of preparation on the part of

teachers and non-availability of enough resource material on physics investigatory

projects at the school level.

1 2. Anthony S. Lombardo. (2000). Factors and skills impacting effective laboratory - centered, inquiry - focussed science instruction. Unpublished doctoral Dissertation. Dissertation Abstracts International, 6 1, p.85.

13. CBSE (1991). Improving science practical. New Delhi: Central Board of Secondary Educati0n.p. 90.

The major conclusions arrived at Sreekala's (1995)'~ study on an

investigation into the extent of availability and utilization of resources in chemistry

education in the secondary schools of Kerala are:

1. Aided schools had better classroom facilities than govemment schools.

2. Only 5 percent of the schools had separate laboratory, while majority of the

schools were found to have common laboratories. In majority of the schools,

teachers were demonstrating the experiments.

3. The extent of availability and utilization of teaching aids were found to be not

satisfactory in both government and private schools.

4. The extent of availability of certain types of environmental resources such as

science fairs and exhibitions, colleges, human resources and hospitals were found

to be satisfactory but resources such as chemical factories, cotton mills and

printing press were found to be inadequate. The extent of utilization of

environmental resources were found to be unsatisfactory in both government and

aided schools.

All the research studies mentioned above reveals that science

instruction is not carried out properly due to lack of minimum facilities, and it also

shows that where there are proper facilities, it is not used adequately.

14. C.S. Sreekala. (1995) An Investigation into the extent of availability and utilization of resources in chemistry education in the Secondary Schools of Kerala. Unpublished M.Ed, Dissertation, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala.

3.2 Methods of Science Teaching

Science teachers adopt different methods for teaching science in

classrooms. The choice of the method depends on the topic, Fdcilities available and

the group of pupils to be taught. Each method has got its merits and defects, since

science is a practical oriented subject, it wiii be beneficial for the students to teach

through participatory learning with lots of activities. Prior to the latter part of the lgth

century, science instruction was typically by lecture-demonstration method. Students

watched teachers demonstrating experiments in the laboratory but did not conduct

experiments themselves. However, with an increasing desire for a greater emphasis on

science process and less emphasis on the learning of scientific knowledge, student

laboratory work assumed greater importance. The following studies reveal the

different methods of science teaching adopted in different schools and its impact on

student learning,

A study was conducted by Pillai (1967) '~ on the methods adopted by

reachers of the physical science teaching in standard VIII. The findings were that, for

the experimental part of the lesson, demonstration experiments were usually shown to

pupils. In almost 90 percent of the cases experiments were set up during the course of

15. Radhakrishnan Pillai. (1967). A study of the methods adopted by teachers in girls' schools in Trivandrum city to impart instruction in Physical Science in standard VTII. Unpublished M.Ed thesis. University of Kerala. -

developing the lesson. The demonstration experiments shown were of the verification

type, without even a single exception. The study also brings to light the reasons for

the subnormal performance of experiments as; ( I ) The inadequate laboratory

facilities, (2) Lack of practical skills of teachers and (3) Lack of facilities in the

ordinary classroom to conduct demonstration experiments.

The study made by Mathew (1967)'"as conducted with a view to

reveal the status of the methods and procedures adopted by teachers to impart

instruction in physical science in standard X. The following are the findings: 1)

Modern dynamic methods are very seldom used. 2) Lecture-demonstration method is

the most frequently used method. 3) Methods such as project method, individual

laboratory method and heuristic plan are never used. Methods used are purely teacher

assertive in character and they do not give adequate opportunity for pupil activity. The

reasons cited are; lack of facilities, unsuitable present system of examinations and

unwieldy syllabus and lack of adequate time.

The findings of the study conducted on the methods adopted by

teachers in girls schools in Trivandrum city to impart instruction in Physical Science

16 P.I. Mathew. (1967). A study of the methods adopted by teachers in girls' schools in Trivandrum city to impart instruction in Physical Science in standard X. Unpublihsed M.Ed. Thesis. University of Kerala.

by Santhakumari Amma (1967)17 were that lecture-demonstration method is widely

accepted to impart instruction in physical science followed by lecture method,

Methods such as problem method, project method, heuristic plan and individual

laboratory method were not used due to overcrowded classroom, unwieldy syllabus,

workload of the teacher and lack of facilities. Laboratories are ill equipped due to

insufficiency of chemicals, non-availability of apparatus, lack of enough space and

disproportion of laboratory equipment and strength of school.

Chauhan (1992)" in his study on helping the underachievers in

science, suggested that teachers should adopt appropriate methods to help

underachievers in science and science teachers need to provide activities and

experiences which are purposeful, interesting to the level and that are reflective in

nature.

Webb, et.al (1986)'~ discuss a novel approach to fisherman chemistry

experiments, describing the idea of the mini laboratory, involving much shorter

experiments than the traditional three hour experiments used in most college

17. T.Santhakumari Amma . (1967). A study of the methods adopted by teachers in girls schools in Trivandrum city to impart instruction in Physical Science in standard IX. Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis. University of Kerala.

18. Poonam Chauhan. (1992). Helping the under achievers in science. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. Aligarh Muslim University.

19. M. J. Webb, et.al. (1986). 'A novel approach to freshman chemistry experiments. In Journal of College science Teaching, 1 5,448-453.

courses. Lecture demonstrations are particularly important if students are to see

chemistry as a practical, relevant and interesting subject, where theoretical principles

are used primarily to explain observations and reactions. Using demonstrations,

reactions, which cannot be carried out personally by the students, can be at least seen.

Misra (1979)'' compared the science teaching in urban and ma1 junior

high schools and found that lecture method is more popular in rural schools whereas

problem solving method is followed in urban schools, laboratory organisation is better

in urban schools , co-curricular activities in science are more organised in urban

schools rather than in rural schools.

All the above studies reveal that teachers adopt different methods of

science teaching and these differ in terms of the locality, facilities available,

experience and willingness from the part of teachers, etc. Since science is an activity

oriented subject it is the duty of the teacher to adopt methods where there is maximum

student participation and with full of activities. Whichever method the teacher

follows, teaching should be made effective and interesting to students.

20. B.D. Misra. (1 979). A comparative study of science teaching in Rural and Urban Junior High School. Unpublished M.Ed. Dissertation. Garhwai University.

Comparison among different methods of science teaching

Teachers adopt different methods to teach science in schools. Methods

are mainly divided into two, teacher centred method and the pupil centred method.

Teacher centred method is the traditional method where importance is given to the

teacher and pupils are made passive listeners. Lecture method, lecture-demonstration

method, reading method, historical method, etc. are some of the examples of the

traditional method. In pupil centred method the entire teaching- learning process is

centred around the learner and the role of the teacher takes a different shape. Some

examples of the pupil-centred approach are, laboratory approach, guided open ended

approach, assignment method, discussion method, field trip, etc. The following

studies throw light on the comparison among different methods of science teaching.

A study was conducted by Joe (1990)~' with a sample of 210 class two

(grade 8) students from six randomly selected classes from six Nigerian schools,

dividing into experimental and control groups. The experimental group was taught by

the laboratory method while the control group was taught by the lecture method. The

study showed that high achievers of both groups had identical achievement but the

low achievers in the experimental group performed better than their counterparts in

2 1. K. Joe. (1 990). The effect of laboratory and lecture teaching method on cognitive achievement in integrated science. In Journal of Research in Science Teaching,28.p, 97?

the control group, and males preferred laboratory method when compared with their

female counterparts.

The primary objective of the study of Gangoli (1 9 8 ~ ) ~ ~ w a s to compare

the effectiveness of doing experiments in physics at the higher secondary stage by the

open-ended approach vis-A-vis the traditional approach. The finding of the study was

that the students of the guided open-ended group showed better performance in the

achievement test and in the skill test than those of the trahtional laboratory group. It

was superior to the traditional laboratory approach in developing the content matter

and practical skills in physics.

The purpose of the study conducted by McCain (1992)'~ was to

investigate the effects of different approaches such as process approach and text book

approach in science instruction upon the content achievement and attitude of students.

One treatment group received process approach and the other the text book approach.

In regard to attitude, the process science group performed significantly higher than the

text book science group and it was suggested that science process may be the most

desired instructional approach to achieve the overall objectives of a student's science

education.

22. S.G. Gangoli. (1985). A comparative study of the effectiveness of open ended approach of doing physics experiments versus traditional Approach at Higher Secondary Stage. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, ME, Mysore.

23. Don E. McCain. (1992). Examining two science instructional approaches: Process Approach and Text Book. Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis, University of Missouri. In Dissertation Abstract International, 53 .pp .82-8 5 .

Wolpert ( 1 9 9 3 ) ~ ~ made an attempt to study the importance of

experiences in scientific enterprise. He is of the opinion that students do not develop

an understanding about the nature of scientific enterprise without repeated exposure

and experiences to scientific investigation.

The study made by Pereira (2000)~~ intends to find out the effect of

audio-laboratory instruction in deformalising the teaching of science in primary

schools of Kerala. The major objective of the study was the preparation of audio-

instructional lessons in science and testing its effectiveness. Hence experimental

method was found to be the most appropriate one. The study revealed that the audio

laboratory instruction could be effectively used for improving the achievement of

students in science at primary level.

The study of Agnihotri (1987)~' to find out any difference between the

mean achievement in physics using different teaching methods viz., lecture-cum-

demonstration method, laboratory method, programmed instruction and assignment-

cum-discussion method, and brought out the following results.

24. L. Wolpert. (1993). The unnatural nature of science. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p.26.

25. Celine Peraira.(2000). 'Effectiveness of Audio Laboratory Instruction in deformalising the Teaching of Science in Primary SchooIs of Kerala'. In Pedagogics, 2. p. 14.

26. S.K. Agnihotri. (1987). Study of some influences of some of the methods of teaching physics on the achievement in physics of class X students in Delhi. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. University of Delhi.

I . The relative effectiveness of all the four methods with respect to the achievement

in physics was the same, not only for all the schools but also for all levels of

students.

2. I f all the four methods were ranked with respect to the achievement in physics, it

was found that the method of teaching physics systematically designed by the

investigator was in the first, the programmed instruction modified by the

investigator for the teaching of physics was in the second, the traditional method

or the lecture-demonstration method followed by the verification type of

laboratory work was in the third and the assignment cum discussion method was

in the fourth position.

The study of Louwerse (1982)~~ was concerned with the place of

individual student laboratory experiments in school science instruction. This study

compared specific outcomes of instruction between a) individual student

inquiry/laboratory experiments and b) teacher demonstration of inquiry/laboratory

experiments. The major findings were that students in elective science courses when

instructed by individual student inquiry/laboratory experiments of teacher

demonstrations did not achieve the assessed outcomes to a significantly different

degree. Therefore, the major conclusion was that, given the same conditions, there is a

27. Francis Louwerse.(l982). A comparison of the effects of individual student experiments and teachers demonstration of experiments on selected learning outcomes in secondary school science. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Florida Institute of Technology. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43 p.47.

place for both individual student laboratory experiments and/or teacher

demonstrations of experiments in secondary school science instruction.

The study made by Glasson (19861'~ compared the effect of 'hands-on'

versus teacher demonstration instructional methods on science achievement in

relation to student cognitive reasoning ability. The result indicated that students in

the 'hands-on group' achieved significantly better on the computational word

problem than in the teacher demonstration group.

In the study made by Toms ( 1 9 9 2 1 ~ ~ ~ two approaches viz., traditional

laboratory approach and guided open-ended approach were used. Analysis of the

result revealed that for the sample in this study, guided open-ended approach was

superior to traditional laboratory approach in developing cognitive abilities and

laboratory skills.

Gardner (1972)~' in his study measured the attitudes of Grade 11

students towards different instructional methods in science. Favourable items

28.George Eddins Glasson.(l986). The effect on hands-on versus teacher demonstration instructional methods on science achievements in relation to cognitive reasoning ability. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of North Carolina. In Dissertation abstracts international, 47. p.52.

29.M. Toms. (1992). A study of effectiveness of guided open-ended approach to physics experiments. Unpublished Ph. D Thesis, Pennsylvania University. In Tntemational Journal of Science Education, 17. pp. 87-90.

30. P.L. Gardener.(l972). Attitudes to Physics. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Monash University. In Science Education, 59. pp. 72-75.

referred to laboratory work, open-ended problems and personal involvement while

unfavourable items reflected a preference for teacher centred or text book based

instruction and rote learning.

In Israel, Hofstein, Ben Zvi and Samuel (1 9761~' gathered data on over

500 Chemistry students in Grades 10,ll and 12 and reported highly favourable

attitude towards laboratory work. Comparative studies indicated that laboratory work

was regarded as more interesting than teacher demonstrations, lectures or filmed

experiments.

Zieleniecova (1984)~' cited several studies which indicate that

experimental work carried out by students themselves as well as demonstrations

performed by the teacher are the methods which are most fiequentIy mentioned by

students as the most interesting methods to learn science.

The result derived from ~odson's(1996)~~ study was that constructivist

students seemed to conceptualize properly the purposes of practical work and

laboratory activities, that is, they believe that laboratory experiences help them

3 1. Hofstein, et.al. (1976). The measurement of interest and attitude to laboratory work among Israeli High School chemistry students. In Science Education, 60. pp.63-65.

32. P. Zeilenicova.(l984). Interest in Science and technology. In Czechoslovakia National Report to the 1 zth IPN symposium. University of Kiel.

33. D. Hodson. (1996). Practical work in school science: Exploring some directions for change. In International Journal of Science Education, 18. pp.28-3 1 .

understand the scientific concepts in a concrete manner and also help them understand

the processes of science and where scientific knowledge come from.

Seymour and Hewitt (1997)j4 reported that pwr science teaching was

the most common complaint cited by all under graduate students. They also found that

the most effective way to retain students from under represented ethnic groups is to

improve the quality of the learning experience. The approach that teachers use to help

students learn is an important factor that affects students interest level. Traditional

methods of instruction which often include lecturers, note taking and 'cook-book'

science may not be as effective as hands-on, inquiry based methods.

The above studies exposed the fact that when compared with

traditional method of science teaching the most effective method is the modern

participatory approach where importance is given to activity with maximum pupil

participation.

3.4 Attitude of Pupils towards science

Science is a very interesting subject if taught in an interesting way with

34. E. Seymour and N.M, Hewitt. (1997). Talking about learning: Why Undergraduates leave the sciences. New York: Boulder, Co: West View Press. p.85.

maximum pupil participation. The attitude of pupils towards science tempts to

negative since science is becoming more theoretical and isolated and very little time is

spent on the experimental work. The following studies show that pupils show positive

attitude towards science when they are taught using practical experiments.

Charen ( 1 8 6 3 ) ~ ~ conducted a study to see the effect of open ended

experiments in chemistry on the achievement level of pupils. The findings revealed

that majority of the students showed a positive attitude towards open-ended

experiments and felt that they were not too difficult but challenging, stimulating and

thought provoking.

Lowery (1967)~~ tried to find out whether the new curriculum material

(the Animal Colouration Unit developed by the Elementary School Science Project at

the University of California) developed a better positive attitude towards science as

compared to the traditional curriculum material. The experimental-control group

design was followed and he found that the experimental group cuwiculum material

significantly increased their positive attitude towards science, while the control group

did not.

35. G. Charen. (1963). The effects of open-ended experiments in chemistry on the achievement of certain objectives of science teaching. In Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 1, 184- 189.

36. L.F. Lowery. (1967). An experimental investigation into the attitudes of 5" grade students towards science. In School Science and Mathematics, 67, 569-579.

The study conducted by Freedman (19951~~ was to examine the

relationship between laboratory instruction, attitude towards science and achievement

in science. The findings concluded that laboratory instruction influenced pupils'

attitude towards science and their achievement in science knowledge in a positive

direction.

The study made by Jeske (1990)~~ was an examination of the nature of

science laboratory at the junior high school level and the learning outcomes attributed

to it by students and teachers. It was found in the study that student attitude towards

science and laboratory work become more positive with an increase in student's

experience with laboratory exercises.

Yousef ( 1 9 8 3 ) ~ ~ conducted a study to assess the attitude of science

teachers and students towards science laboratory work in the middle schools of

Kuwait. The result of the analysis indicated that middle school students in Kuwait

find laboratory work to be necessary, interesting and helpful to them in learning

37, Michael Paul Freedman. (1 995). The relationship between laboratory instruction, attitude towards science achievement among diverse 9 I h grade students. Unpublished M.Ed Dissertation, Temple University. In Dissertation Abstracts International, 56.p.85.

38. Gerhead E. Jeske. (1990). Laboratory activity in the junior high school science classroom. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Alberta. In Dissertation Abstracts. International, 53.p.64.

39. Yacoub Yousef. (1983). Attitudes of students and science teachers towards science laboratory work in the middle schools of Kuwait. Unpublished M.Ed. Dissertation, Boston University School of Education. In Dissertation Abstracts International, 43.p.87.

science and both boys and girls living in the city and residential area around it,

indicated positive attitude towards laboratory work.

Kyle, Bonstetter and Gadsden (1985j40 compared the scientific

attitudes of elementary students and teachers involved in their first year of a new K-6

science through discovery curriculum in Richardson Independent School District in

Texas, with counterparts who experienced a text book oriented curricuIum. Findings

revealed that students who experienced the discovery oriented, process approach

curriculum held more positive attitude towards science than did their counterparts.

0kebukola(1986)~~ has studied some factors affecting students attitude

towards laboratory chemistry. He concluded that although there are large number of

factors that influence student attitudes, a greater degree of participation in laboratory

work produces a more positive attitude towards experimental chemistry in particular,

and a more positive attitude towards science in general.

A study was conducted by Rao ( 1 9 % ) ~ ~ to compare the scientific

40. Kyle, et.al. (1985). Comparison on text book based and process oriented curricula. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Texas. In Science Education Journal, 74, 208-2 10.

4 1. P.A. Okebukola. (1986). An investigation of some factors affecting students attitudes towards laboratory chemistry. In Journal of Chemical Education,63 .pp.67-69.

42. Digumarti Bhaskara Rao. (1996). Scientific attitude vis-a-vis scientific aptitude. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing Wouse.p.90.

attitude and scientific aptitude of pupils studying in residential and non-residential

secondary schools of Andhra Pradesh. The outcome of the study was that the pupils of

residential schools are having positively high scientific attitude and scientific aptitude

than those of non-residential schools since facilities such as library and laboratory

available in residential schools helped them in increasing interest towards science. So

these facilities may be extended to other types of schools also.

The purpose of Leon ( 1 9 9 3 1 ~ ~ study was to assess and evaluate the

appropriateness of hands-on activity based science of middle school students as

related to their attitude towards science and achievement in science. The result

showed that student attitude toward science improved greatly with a hands-on

approach and they described hands-on approach as 'fun'.

Helen and Christopher (2000)~~ examined the long term impact of the

Summer Science Exploration Programme (SSEP), which used an inquiry based

approach conducted at Hampshire College. The interviews and surveys suggested that

SSEP students maintained a more positive attitude towards science and a higher

interest in science carriers than students who applied to the programme but were not

selected.

43. Harlie Leon. (1993). An assessment of hands-on activity based science for summer school remadiation. Unpublished M.Ed Thesis, University of North Carolina. In Dissertation Abstracts International, 54.p.56.

44. L. Helen and Chase Christopher. (2000). Longitudinal impact of an inquiry based Science programme on middle school students attitude towards science. Science Education, 86(5), 693-704.

The duty of a science teacher is to develop among students a positive

attitude towards science. From the above studies it is found that positive attitude is

developed only if science is taught using experiments and activities. Thus science can

be made easy, interesting and effective.

3.5 Different Curriculum Innovation Programmes and

their impact on traditional science teaching

Curriculum innovation programmes in Physics such as Physical

Science Study Committee Physics, Project Physics Course, Nufield Physics and in

Chemistry such as CHEM Study, Chemical Bond Approach, Nuffield Chemistry,etc.,

effectively modified the science curriculum approaches in the schools and improved

the quality of science education world wide since all these programmes were intended

to create and develop interest in the respective subjects and stress was given to

activity based science teaching so that all the objectives of science education were

attained. The following studies bring out the impact of these curriculum development

programmes and their impact on traditional science teaching.

Meyer (1970)~~ conducted a study to compare the effects of materials

produced by the Nuffield Science Teaching Project and the traditional programme in

45. R.R. Meyer. (1970). Reactions of pupil to Nuffield Science Teaching Project trail materials in England at the ordinary level of the General Certificate of Education. In Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 7,283-302.

terms of the development of attitude and interest of children towards science, The

result showed that the Nuffield programme attained only a limited success in

improving attitudes and interests among boys, but a marked success was found among

girls in developing attitude and interest in science. Nufield students were intended to

downgrade the importance of non-science subjects such as literature and fine arts and

who had little or no respect for solving problems through consulting authorities such

as books and teachers.

In a study conducted by John (19711~~ , on the comparison of cognitive

performance of PSSC and Non PSSC students, PSSC students showed significantly

higher performance than non-PSSC students in the process skills of application and

analysis and he concluded that the new curriculum instructional materials were most

effective in developing higher cognitive process skills.

According to Arnold (1 9 6 0 ) ~ ~ , the PSSC course is associated with a

significant improvement in the ability of the student to learn £ram laboratory work in

a college physics course.

A comparative study by Gregor and Robert (1969)~~ shows that PSSC

46. Wasik L. John. (1971). A comparison of Cognitive performance of PSSC and Non PSSC students, In Journal of Research in Science Teachinp 8, 85-90

47. Arons h o l d . (1960). The New High School Physics. In Physics Today, 13.p.63. 48. Ramsey Gregor and House Robert. (1969) An Analysis of Research on

Instructional Procedures in Secondary school science. In The Science Testcher,36.p.89.

students seem to learn more than students did in traditional classes.

In a suwey made by Frank (1970)~~, on teaching of chemistry in

secondary schools the most widely used chemistry text book in secondary schools in

Washington were that of CHEM Study and CBA respectively. In a report by Iris

(1977j50, it was estimated that fewer than 25 percentage of chemistry teachers were

using either CHEM Study, CBA or a combination of the two for teaching chemistry.

Kyle, et.al (1985)" compared the attitude towards science of Science

Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS) students with that of the students in non-SCIS

classes and the findings revealed preference for SCES process approach science.

All these studies show that curriculum innovation programmes in

physics and chemistry give importance to pupil participatory learning with more

emphasis to practical work. Science teachers and pupils are very much interested in

following the new programmes and as a result more interest is developed among them

i ~ z pursuing science studies.

49. Fornoff J. Frank. (1970). Survey of Teaching of Chemistry in Secondary Schools. In School and Society, 98.pp.87-90.

50. Weiss Iris. (1977). Report of the 1977 National Survey of Science, Mathematics and Social Studies Education. Washington D.C: US Government Printing Office.p.75.

5 1. Kyle ,et.al. (1985). Science through discovery: Students love it. In Science and Children, 23 .pp. 39-4 1.

3.6 Development of process skills,

The major emphasis of science teaching is on the subject matter to be

learned and memorised. The objective that children must understand and appreciate

the processes of science or develop the process skills on science, is often neglected.

Process skills are the way in which the products of science were formulated, it is the

means by which the body of scientific knowledge is acquired. It can give the pupil a

valid understanding of the nature of science. Through this the child can experience the

excitement and frustration that are the part of science and so can earn better

understanding of its product. The following studies exposes how process skills among

students are being developed through different methods of teaching.

The study made by Krystyniak (2001)~~ explored the effect of

participation in an extended inquiry project on general chemistry students on

laboratory interactions, confidence and process skills. Research results indicate that

participation through open inquiry laboratory increases student confidence and for

some students the development of ability to use science process skills.

52. Rebecca A. Krystyniak. (2001). 'The effect of participation in and extended inquiry project on general chemistry students, laboratory interactions, confidence and process skills'. Unpublished PbD Thesis, University of Northern Colarado. - In Dissertation Abstracts International, 62.p.34,

The study by Roth and Roy ( 1 9 9 3 ) ~ ~ was intended to examine the

development of integrated science process skills in the context of open inquiry

laboratory sessions. Finding fiom the study indicate that students develop higher order

process skills through non traditional laboratory experiences that provided the

students with freedom to perform experiments of personal relevance in authentic

contexts.

The study made by Steve (1 99 revealed that pupils enjoyed the

learning process in which they were required to solve problems by making hypothesis

and testing these by experiments. In evaluating their own learning, the pupils focused

on knowledge, rather than process or skills they had acquired.

Widen (1975)~~ made a comparative study between the students

outcomes of Science-A Process Approach (SAPA) and traditional science teaching.

Both groups were taught with respective methods and results indicated that students

exposed to SAPA did better on cogmtive, process oriented tasks than that from

providing traditional classroom tasks.

53. W.M. Roth and C.A. Roy.(1993). The development of science process skills in authentic context. In Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30, 1 27- 1 52.

54. L. Steve. (1991). 'Learning science by practical work in Finnish Primary Schools using materials familiar fiom the environment: A pilot study. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Finland. In International Journal of Science Education, 15, pp.48-5 1.

5 5 . C.Widen. (1975). A comparative study of the students out come of science - A Process Approach and traditional Science Teaching. School Science, 39(4).p.67.

Howe and Miernva ( 1 9 7 7 ) ~ ~ ernphasies that shift from content

acquisition to use of science process indicates the level of logical thinking.

Menon ~ 1 9 8 6 ) ~ ~ conducted a study of a system of science education in

the perspective of the process of science in inquiry, and he found that the overall

proficiency in the process skill steadily increased as students went up from one class

to the other.

Lakshminarayana and Sreekala ( 2 0 0 l ) ~ ~ conducted a study on the

factors, process skills in science and understanding of science. The study exposed

that there is a relation between science application ability and science understanding

and the science application ability is related to science process and high process skill

groups are showing higher ability to apply science in daily life.

All these studies reveal that process skills are to be given due

importance because it is through the exercise of these process skills that products of

learning a particular subject are generated like definition, meaning and explanation of

56. C. Howe and Janice Miernva.(l977). Promoting the development of logical thinking in the classroom. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 89.pp.35-3 8:

57. S.B. Menon.(l986). A study of a system of Science education in the perspective of the Process of Science in Inquiry. School Science,39(4). pp.72-75.

58. U. Lakshminarayana and E. Sreekala. (2001). A study of class VII students' Understanding of scinence and their process skills in relation to ability to apply science in daily life. School Science, 39(4) pp. 20-22.

terms, concepts, principles, procedures, laws, theories, etc. in the domain of that

subject. As far as the revision in science textbooks is concerned, emphasis is to be

given on the development of process skills through lots of activities in which

maximum pupil participation is sought.

The review of related literature in general, explains some of the studies

conducted so far in science education. The important factors that affect the

development of m y country are that the level of scientific and technological

knowledge attained by its citizens including the latest trends as well as the ability to

adopt them in daily life situations. Due stress should be given to create needed interest

in science among pupils from school days since it is the level of scientific

advancement that shapes the destiny of a country. Curriculum innovation

programmes, which give stress on maximum pupil participation, were developed with

a view to improve the quality of science education and to develop among pupils a

positive attitude towards science. Therefore it is the duty of the science teacher to

evaluate the different methods of teaching adopted by them and to appraise the

availability of the facilities in schools to adopt such methods. With the available

facilities and the relevant methods adopted, they can make science teaching effective

so that more pupils will be attracted to learn science.