Rome

Chapter 4

Mechikoff, R.A., A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fifth Edition © 2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Etruscans

Etruscan rule: approximately 600 B.C. to 509 B.C.

EtruscansLived in North Central Italy

Scholars don’t agree on where they originated

Archeology uncovered burial tombs

The Etruscans

1958: discovery of tomb containing elaborate paintings depicting various sporting scenes

Known as the Tomb of the Olympic GamesOther tombs were discovered later

Depict footraces, jumping contests, discus, chariot racing, vaulting over wooden hurdles, swimming, gymnastics, armed combat

The Etruscans

Statues depict men and women wrestlers competing against each other.

Suggests that Etruscan men and women were both active and competed against each other

Employed sports and athletic festivals for entertainment

Etruscan SportTendency for violence:

Used prisoners as sacrifices to honor the dead Later used prisoners as “performers” who entertained by fighting to the deathEtruscan cities often centered around arenas which served as sporting venuesRomans adopted various Etruscan customs and practices after conquering them in 509 B.C.

Ancient RomeRoman Republic (established following victory over Etruscans in 509 B.C.)

Roman Empire (established in 27 B.C.)

Empire divided in fourth century A.D.Western Empire, centered in Rome, lasted until A.D. 476

Eastern Empire, centered in Constantinople (now Istanbul), lasted until A.D. 1453

Roman Emperor Nero

Heavily influenced by Greek culture

Believed Greeks alone worthy of his genius

Demanded a special Olympic Games be held in his honor

Competed in chariot race but fell

Declared winner anyway

Victory revoked by Greeks after his death

Romans and Greeks: Cultural Analysis

Romans valued intellect and culture much less than Greeks

Focused on practical versus aesthetic

Romans did not contribute much to philosophic and scientific advancement compared to GreeksMost Romans did not share the Greek belief in the “holistic” development of man (arete)

Romans and Greeks

Romans were focused on the practical and purposeful—very utilitarian

Great civil engineers, many Roman roads still in useVery effective administrators

Developed Roman lawIncorporated aspects of conquered nations’ cultures if they bettered Roman practices

Greeks very reluctant to do this

Roman Architecture

Romans weregreat builders and engineers

Pantheon, Rome

Romans and Greeks

Romans were polytheistic (like the Greeks)

Roman gods were essentially Greek gods with Roman names

During the Empire, some Romans rejected the mythology and started to embrace Christianity

Roman Beliefs

Military training took precedence over intellectual achievementReligion: relatively spirit-less

lacked ceremony, mystery, and awePhilosophers provided code of conduct

Character formation: critical to development of citizens and survival of the Republic

Romans were much more inclusive of other cultures than Greeks

Philosophic Orientation: the Cynics

A group devoted to the teaching of SocratesBelieved in the importance of character, and the indifference to circumstance

influenced the Stoics and, later, some ascetic Christians

Believed Socratic maxim, “no harm can come to a good man”Suffering, pain, poverty should be ignoredPolitical relationships are pointless and should be ignored

Philosophic Orientation: the Stoics

Zeno established his own school of philosophy—stoicism Broke with the Cynics since Zeno was concerned with political life

Influenced by Plato and Aristotle regarding politics Unlike Plato and Socrates, the Stoics trusted the body

Sense perceptions used to acquire knowledgeBody was significant

The Stoics

Rejected metaphysics and religious claims on morality

Emphasized attainment of personal happiness through positive personal conduct no matter what life dealt

Stoics and Roman SocietyStoicism appealed to Roman society:

Individualism—master of your own fate

Personal conduct, character development

Acceptance of fate

Reflected lack of emotion and strict disciplineRecent “Gladiator” movie displays this ethos

Essential for Roman rule and organization

EpicureansRejected metaphysical or religious claims on one’s behavior (similar to Stoicism)Argued against idealism

Body was important for knowing, discovering reality

Promoted the development of cultured individuals who found happiness through the joys of the mind

Sought happiness in good conduct, friendship, and aesthetic enjoyments

Epicurean Thinkers

Marcus Tullius Cicero: great orator and philosopher

Challenged unethical politics of Julius Caesar

Banished from Rome due to criticisms

Became social critic of arena sports as representative of larger Roman social problems

Influenced by Greek philosopher AntiochusConcerned with ethics and optimum development of mind and body

Roman Sport: Change Over Time

Early Republic: people kept physically fit and engaged in athletic contests but were not interested in Greek-style formal athletic competition

Upper class developed ball games, massage, thermae (bathing pools) Some wealthy Romans accepted the Greek concept of health gymnasticsHonored their gods through physical activities

Foot races, ball playing, equestrian displays, and wrestling

Roman Sport: Change Over Time

Late Republic/Empire era: Less interested in personal physical fitnessGreek athleticism not valued militarily by utilitarian RomansRome became a nation of spectators

Mass entertainment, spectacle, and carnage

Games and sport did not facilitate physical education as they did in Greece

Roman Sport and the Military

Military extremely importantAffected views of physical trainingYouth were trained to make obedient, disciplined soldiersPrestigious professionLegions were feared throughout ancient worldStoic philosophy supported military system

Roman Science: Claudius Galen

Sometimes called father of sports medicine

studied medicine at seventeen

Practiced on gladiators

First to apply medicine and biomechanics to exercise.

Opposed to professional athlete

Agreed with Greeks about “moderation in all things”

Women and Sport

Women’s role not nearly as documented as men’s role

for entertainment value; not taken seriouslySocial and political system was based on patriarchy and class stratificationAthletic competition was the domain of Roman men Women participated in swimming, dancing, ball games, and thermae

Women and Sport

“Romanized” Olympic Games had wrestling and running contests for womenArchaeological evidence that women competed as gladiators

Roman officials outlawed participation at certain times

Games and Spectacles

Religious holidays became elaborate festivals53 public holidays in 173 B.C.; nearly 200 by 300 A.D.

Politicians often funded spectacles to get voter support

Spectacles took place frequently to pacify the people Government believed bored citizens would revolt

Included gladiatorial fights, horse and chariot races, and various other forms of combat

Games and Spectacles: Arenas

Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum)Engineering marvel: scented water cooled spectatorsFood and presents thrown to poorSpace for 50,000 spectators

Typical agenda:Animal fights Men and women thrown to the animalsGladiator fights last and most popular

Mass combats also held Emperor Claudius (A.D. 52) flooded Colosseum and ordered 19,000 slaves onto ships

Flavian Amphitheater

Financing:Vespasian looted Temple of Jerusalem

Construction:Brought 12,000 Jewish slaves back to Rome to help construct

Flavian Amphitheater

Games and Spectacles

Circus Maximus: premier hippodrome in Rome

Chariot races, gladiator combats in front of 250 thousand spectators

More Christians were killed in the Circus Maximus than in the Flavian Amphitheater

Chariot Races

Games and Spectacles: Gladiators

Mostly criminals and slaves trained to fight

Utilitarian approach of pacifying the peopleSystem dealt with “criminals,” political enemiesSome free men volunteered: auctorati

Gladiators

Four major classes: Thracian, Samnite, Retiarius, MurmilloDressed as Roman enemies who fought to the deathMost popular events in the amphitheater

Gladiators

Took an oath to be “burnt with fire, shackled with chains, whipped with rods, and killed with steel” (p. 87)Pompeii: best-preserved gladiator training schools

Sport and Christianity

Christianity’s growth profoundly impacted sportRoman “sport” was condemned by Christians writers

Christians were often victims of the spectaclesChristians urged to avoid sport and games—but they did attend and gamble on events

Extent of Christian participation in sport and games is debated

Sport and Christianity

Christian Empire adopted popular chariot racing from the Romans

Greek athletic festivals and Roman spectacles ended with destruction of Rome in 410 A.D.

Greek Reaction to Roman Sport

Many Greeks opposed the introduction of Roman sport

Gladiatorial contests were staged in Greece by first century A.D.

Some emperors liked the Olympic Games and spent money to restore Greek athletic venues like Olympia