roots of human behavior - animal welfare institute...introduction viktor reinhardt mt. shasta,...

V I KTO R R E I N H A R DTAnimal Welfare Institute

Roots of Human Behavior


V I KTO R R E I N H A R DT

Animal Welfare Institute

Animal Welfare Institute900 Pennsylvania Avenue, SEWashington, DC 20003www.awionline.org

Roots of Human BehaviorBy Viktor Reinhardt

Copyright © 2009 by the Animal Welfare InstituteSecond printing 2019 Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 978-0-938414-90-2LCCN 2009904399

Cover photo: Minden Pictures/Cyril RuosoDesign: Ava RinehartCopy editing: Alexandra Kleinkopf, Cathy Liss and Annie Reinhardt

I dedicate this book to

you

who alleviates human-inflicted suffering of animals.

Introduction

C H A PTE R O N E Non-Social Expressions of Emotions

C H A PTE R T W O Social Expressions of Emotions

References

Photo Credits

Table of Contents1

3–27

29–130

132–136

138–140

I NTR O D U CTI O N

Viktor ReinhardtMt. Shasta, California

Exploring the roots of human behavior, I have searched for photographic documentation of behavior patterns that humans share with other mammals, and sorted the behaviors according to their motivations.

A motivation is a buildup of inherent energy that prepares the subject to perform a specific activity. In this book, motivations are categorized as:

1. socially positive—the subject has the urge to get in contact and keep contact with a social partner;

2. socially negative—the subject has the urge to increase the distance from a social partner; and

3. non-social—the subject’s interest is not focused on any social partner.

This book has been inspired by a deep reverence for all living creatures. It is my wish that it will foster a similar fascination in the reader, who is responsible for the well-being of mammals, and encourage us to do our best to make the lives of those in our care free of avoidable distress.

I am grateful to the following colleagues, friends, relatives and Flickr members who generously shared photo material for this book: Hrafnhildur Árnadóttir, Ayyashi, Ellen Baker, Izla Kaya Bardavid, Alex Barnes, Bart, Donna Beane, Damon Billian, Bookhouse Boy, Emily Bradley, Leah Bryant, Brian Burke, Brittney Bush, Jamie Caffrey, Cliff, Steve Collins, Tudor Costache, Daniele Costantini, Doug Cowley, Daniele, Michael Dillingham, Khair-ed Din Husseini, Bob Dodsworth, Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Tim Ellis, Steve Evans, Jennifer Fehr, Jerry Feist, Randy Fish, Mike Fitzgerald, Pete Foley, Holly Garner-Jackson, Garry DC, Mike and Christine Gartner, Holly Garner-Jackson, Paul Genge, Keith Gentry, Brent Geoghegan, Phil Gibbs, Vladimir Gitin, Maria Glowinski, Tamara Godbey, Emily Godlevsky, Su-May Goh, Zaida Gudenus, Eric Haas, Justin Hall, Francis Halliday, Evan HB, Evan Hambrick, Charles W. Hardin, Steve Hardy, Ben Harris-Roxas, Lori Harrison-Smith, Dan Harrod, Peter Hasselbom, Thomas Hawk, Wayne Holt, Tom Hoops, April Huff, Lina Hughes, D. Hutcheson, Jack Hynes, Jess Jackson, Ernst Jansen, Jochen Jansen, Andrew Johnson, Martin Jordan, Tomi Tapio Kärkkäinen, Karen, John Keogh, Goni Ketain-Meiri, Debbie King, In Cherl Kim, Princess Kim, Bryan Koylass, Laura, JD Lasica, Rich Legg, Justin Lenk, Philippe Leroyer, Mick Levanon, Ricardo Liberato, Todd Lindberg, Glenn Loos-Austin, Nicholas Lopez, Lucia, Kenneth MacPherson, Tony Mangan, Alessandra Mariani, Irene Martinelli, Liz McCoy, Chris Metcalf, Mikhail, Nicholas Mitchell, Amir Mukhtar, Jasper Nance, Geoffrey Oddie, Michael Oryl, Nano Paciocco, Richard Padgett, Macorig Paolo, Patrusche, Paul, Tara Pavese, Amanda Peskin, Rob and Ale, Robert Pierce, Frederic Poirot, Michael Poliza, Karen Polyard, Joe Porter, Courtney Powell, Princessrica, Maria Pratt, Shrisha Radhakrishna,

Michael Ramallah, Kurts Ray, Marc Reck, Annie Reinhardt, Catherine Reinhardt-Zacaïr, Richard, Margaret Richardson, Becca Riley, Ava Rinehart, Randy Robertson, Steven Robertson, Oscar Rohena, Gretchen Romanowski, Matt Rossell, Dmitry Rukhlenko, Eric Savage, Thomas Schulz, Egor Sechin, Divyesh Sejpal, Naveen Sharma, Andy Sheng, Akbar Simonse, Raminder pal Singh, Nathan Slinn, Anna Lee Smith, Monica Smoot, Crotch Splay, Laura Starling, Kevin Steele, Mike Suarez, Bev Sykes, Kristine Szabo, Robert Taylor, Hannes Thirion, Rachel Thrum, Tim, Vivek Tiwari, Linda Thurmon Kearney, US Army Korea – IMCOM, K Van Brunt, Kavitha Veeraraghavan, Victoria, Duo de Hale, Frans de Waal, JG Waddell, Liz Walker, Janette Wallis, Alison Warhurst, Leesa White, Sharon White, Wildsau, Lucas Willering, Lewleyn Williams, Beth Wilson, Donna Winton, Marjo Wright, Volker Wurst, Christian Yanchula and Dan Zen.

Almost all donated photos are included in the book. When photos were very similar, I had to make a selection; therefore, some donated photos do not appear. Others were purchased from iStockphoto, Getty Images, Minden Pictures and professional photographers. Photos that were not associated with a name are listed under “Anonymous” in the Photo Credit section.

I am very grateful to Cathy Liss, Alexandra Kleinkopf and Annie Reinhardt who carefully read the draft of this book. The final version greatly benefited from their corrections and constructive comments and suggestions. Many thanks are due to Ava Rinehart for preparing the layout of the first printing in June 2009 and to Alexandra Alberg for exchanging several of the original photos in the second printing in January 2019.

CHAPTER ONENON-SOCIAL EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTIONS

Introduction ... 5

Uneasiness ... 10

Fear ... 14

Distress ... 18

Contentment is

reflected in the absence of

a specific motivation.

CO NTE NTM E NT

5

4

6

3

7

Contentment is an emotional state in which the subject neither wants nor dislikes something.

5

6

Non-Social Expressions of Emotions

Comfort-yawningcan be an expression of contentment.

8

This gesture is shown by humans

and many other species: While taking a

deep breath, the mouth is wide open—

usually as wide as possible—and the neck

stretched; typically the eyes are closed.

Yawning can also serve as a

displacement behavior; in this context,

the eyes are kept open (photos 23 and 24).

As distinct from threatening

(photo 264, page 123), yawning is not

directed toward anybody. A yawning

subject has no aggressive intention.

7

Non-Social Expressions of EmotionsCO NTE NTM E NT ◆

9

10

8


11

12

13

14

9

Non-Social Expressions of EmotionsCO NTE NTM E NT ◆

Since the teeth are usually exposed

during yawning, the gesture can easily

be misinterpreted as an unfriendly

behavior. It is therefore a custom in

humans to place the hand over the open

mouth while yawning (photo 16).

15

16

17

10


U N EA S I N E S S

Displacement-scratching

of the head or other parts of the body is shown not only by people, but also by dogs, monkeys and apes when they are in conflict over how to react in a given situation.1-7

Uneasiness is an emotional

state in response to conflicting

motivations (e.g., attacking

and fleeing).

Uncertain of how to respond

to a specific situation (e.g.,

confrontation by a stranger),

the subject often shows

substitute activities

(displacement behaviors),

such as yawning and self-

scratching, which have no

explicit meaning.

18

11

Non-Social Expressions of EmotionsU N EA S I N E S S ◆

For example, the dog in photo 20 wants

to chase after a rabbit who has just passed by,

but he remains stationary because the person

accompanying him strictly says, “No!” Rather than

doing nothing at all, the dog scratches his body and,

by doing so, gets some relief from his frustration.

19

20

12


21

22

13

Non-Social Expressions of EmotionsU N EA S I N E S S ◆

Displacement-yawning

is always associated with a specific source of disturbance.

In contrast to comfort-yawning,

the eyes are kept open; in

contrast to threatening, the teeth

are not exposed.

The woman in photo 23 feels

harassed and uncertain if she

should go away.

The male rhesus macaque

in photo 24 protectively cradles

an infant; he feels uneasy being

watched and would rather move

out of sight.

23

24

14


The fear face is shared by dogs,

monkeys, apes and humans: The lips are

retracted, thereby exposing the teeth.

F EA RFear is an emotional response to an imminently dangerous situation (e.g., being cornered).

25

26

15

Non-Social Expressions of EmotionsF EA R ◆

The mouth is only slightly opened when the

intensity of fear is moderate (photos 27 and 29); it

is widely opened when the intensity of fear is high

(photos 28 and 30).

29

27

28

30

16


31

32

17

Non-Social Expressions of EmotionsF EA R ◆

The emotion of fear is always mixed

with aggression, which means that a

subject in fear is ready to flee, but if this is

not possible (e.g., the subject is restrained),

she or he will attack in self-defense.

Restraining animals during procedures

puts the handling personnel at a

particularly high risk of being the target

of aggressive reactions (photos 31 and

32). Training them to cooperate rather

than resist is a safe alternative (photo 33).

Animals who cooperate during procedures

show no significant stress reactions;8-18

they are free of fear (photo 33).

33

18


Distress is the inability to

adapt to a condition

(e.g., a barren cage) or to

a situation (e.g., enforced

restraint) that induces a

conspicuous alteration in

the subject’s physiological

equilibrium (e.g., significantly

increased blood pressure)

and/or psychological

equilibrium (e.g., intense

fear, self-directed aggression,

hair-pulling).

Humans share behavior patterns and postures with other

species that are indicative

of a subject in distress.

Compulsive hair-pulling- and-eating is a common behavioral pathology in monkeys and apes kept in research laboratories.

D I STR E S S

This bizarre behavior has not been observed in wild animals, so there is a

consensus that its appearance in the captive environment reflects distress

resulting from species-inadequate living conditions, especially boredom.

Subjects seem to have a persistent urge to pull their hair. Often they

fumble with the removed hair using their lips and finally swallow it.

34

19

Non-Social Expressions of EmotionsD I STR E S S ◆

Self-directed hair-pulling typically results in progressively

increasing patches of baldness

(alopecia; photos 34 and 37).

Attempts to cure individuals from

this compulsive behavior have been

without success.19-23

Dogs and cats who suffer from

extreme boredom and lack of exercise

often develop psychogenic alopecia,

a compulsive licking of the fur in

a specific area and pulling of the

irritated hair.

Environmental enrichment

programs may lead to a temporary

improvement, but recurrence of the

behavior is typical.24-26

35 19

20


The irresistible urge to pull out the hair and often eat it is termed

trichotillomania in human subjects, where it is

classified as a mental disorder. The disturbance

causes clinically significant distress or

impairment in social, occupational or other

important areas of functioning.27 It can have

serious implications resulting in the formation

of hairballs in the stomach.28-31

There is currently no effective cure for

trichotillomania.32-36

36

37

21


Hair loss alone does not justify the conclusion that a subject suffers from compulsive hair-pulling, unless the behavior has actually been witnessed.

38

In nonhuman23, 37-39 and human

primates,40-45 hair loss can also occur

spontaneously when the subject is

exposed to distressing living conditions.

The chimpanzee in photo 38 has lost

much of her hair, not as a result of hair-

pulling, but as a result of permanent

imprisonment. The person in photo 39

has lost much of his hair while grieving

over the death of his wife.

39

22


Compulsive self-biting

has been observed in captive monkeys and apes.20, 46-53

This behavioral pathology typically occurs in socially

deprived individuals in association with boredom

and frustration. Often, self-biting leads to serious

lacerations. When no visible injury is inflicted, self-

biting usually goes unnoticed.

Transferring afflicted animals to compatible social

housing arrangements significantly reduces54-56 or

eliminates this behavioral pathology.57, 58

40

23


Compulsive self-biting also

occurs in dogs and cats,59, 60 as well as in

humans, where it may be triggered by

boredom, depression, anxiety, psychosis,

pain or incarceration.61-64

41

42

24


Depression

is an emotional state of apathy, sadness, helplessness and disinterest.

Many species, including rats, mice, hamsters,

dogs, pigs, monkeys, apes and humans take

a hunched position when they suffer from

depression, resulting for instance from

social deprivation, helplessness and chronic

boredom.

Enforced living conditions that induce this

kind of response in any mammalian species

are not ethically acceptable.

43

25


44 45

26


46

47

27


48

49

50

28

Social creatures like to live with companions, but they also want to have their

own space and will compete over limited resources. These conflicting motivations

are expressed in socially positive and socially negative behavior patterns.

CHAPTER TWO

Socially Positive Behaviors ... 31

F R I E N D LY CO NTACT B E H AV I O R . . . 32

A P P EA S I N G B E H AV I O R . . . 90

Socially Negative Behaviors ... 111

I NTI M I DATI N G B E H AV I O R . . . 112

AG G R E S S I O N . . . 128

SOCIAL EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTIONS

S O C I A L LY P OS ITI V E B E H AV I O R SSocially Positive Behaviors are activities and gestures that bring individuals together and allow them to stay in close proximity.

51

31

Social Expressions of Emotions

32

Contact vocalization probably occurs in all mammals.

FRIENDLY CONTACT BEHAVIOR

Friendly Contact Behavior

reflects the social attraction

of companions.

In a troop of monkeys or apes (photo 54), a group of pigs or guinea

pigs (photo 53), or a gathering of people (photo 52), there is usually a

constant, soft background chatter going on. Companions are probably not

exchanging important information while continuously talking, grunting,

squeaking or chirping back and forth, but they have a strong urge to

keep some kind of contact with each other. When this “small talk” stops,

individuals quickly start to feel uneasiness, perhaps even tension, which is

relieved the moment one individual resumes the “conversation.”

52



33

F R I E N D LY CO NTACT B E H AV I O R ◆

53

54


34

Head-tilting allows individuals to have eye contact with one another without triggering tension.

Mammals quickly get uncomfortable

when someone looks straight into their

eyes, unless it is somebody they can

trust unconditionally. The reason for this

response is probably the fact that being

looked at can be interpreted as a threat.

In order to mitigate the potentially

negative message that goes along with

looking into the eyes of another subject,

many species often tilt their heads while

looking at another partner with whom they

want to have contact. Humans usually smile

while tilting the head, thereby emphasizing

their friendly intention (photo 56).

55


35


56

57


36

Smiling occurs in dogs, monkeys, apes,

and humans: The face is relaxed and

the eyes gently focused on another

partner. The corners of the lips are

slightly raised; this makes the cheeks

more pronounced and can result in a

partial exposure of the teeth.

Smiling is an expression of friendly contact readiness.1

The lady and the dog are both

calmly smiling in photo 59; they are

both smiling more intensively, with the

lips parted, in photo 60.

58

59 60

61


37

A smiling face is

“cute” and “happy” and

elicits affection rather

than antagonism.

62


38

The female macaque in photos 64 and 66 is tickled by

the author. She holds his hand, thereby encouraging him to

continue tickling. Her smile gets more pronounced in the

process, suggesting that she enjoys the interaction.

63

64

65

66


39


Friendly grinning is an unmistakable expression of “I’m glad to see you!”

The corners of the lips are now raised and retracted, thereby

exposing both upper and lower teeth.

67

68

69

70


40

The pricked ears are

a clear indicator that the

grinning horse in photo

71 is not in an aggressive

mood but is greeting the

other horse. Horses share

this friendly greeting

gesture with zebras.2

71


41


Friendly laughing is a facial expression that is shown by a great variety of species, including humans (photo 72), chimpanzees (photo 73), bears (photo 76), dogs (photo 80), lions (photo 79) and macaques (photo 82).

Laughing is associated with playfulness (photos 74-80 and 82).

With the corners of the lips fully retracted—not stretched as when

yawning—the mouth is wide open, exposing both rows of teeth

(photos 72-74). The aperture of the mouth is broad rather than

vertically elongated, as when yawning (photos 15 and 17, page 9).

While laughing with each other, partners maintain eye contact

most of time, reassuring one another with the “play face” that they

have friendly intentions (photos 74-76, 78-80 and 82).

Malicious laughing is probably a human-specific gesture.

72

74

73


42

“It’s fun to play with you, little guy!”

75


43

“You’re my buddy! Let’s wrestle with

each other; I won’t hurt you!”

76


44

You can laugh best with a friend!

77

78

44


45


Laughing together is a sign of mutual affection.

79

80


46

81

82


47


While laughing, the teeth are exposed in a similar

manner to threatening. Both expressions can be

misinterpreted if the context in which they appear is

not known. For example, the laughing face in photo

81 looks very similar to a threatening display of the

teeth in photo 260 on page 122, but it is actually an

expression of the extreme joy of a person who just has

won a tennis tournament.

In order to avoid misunderstanding, humans often

place a hand over the mouth when they laugh in public

(photos 83 and 84); they show a similar hand movement

when yawning in public (photo 16) to make sure that

their exposure of the teeth is not taken as a threat.

83

84


48

Touching a social partner is the basic physical contact behavior that human primates share with nonhuman primates.

86

85


49


87

8892


50

Being touched by a companion is comforting.

89

90


51


91

92


52

It feels good to “be in touch” with a good friend.

93

94


53


Dogs, cats and many other nonhuman mammals like to be touched by people they can trust.

It is not only the dog or cat who gets calm and relaxed

through human touch, but the human who gently touches the

other creature also experiences a mental state of ease.

95

96

97


54

Grooming (social body care) occurs in almost all social animals, with the notable exceptions of bison, sheep,

muskox, pigs and guinea pigs.

98

99


55

100

101


56

102

103

104

105

106 107


57


Grooming is probably the biologically most important social behavior. It

plays a particularly important role in cattle herds, monkey troops and groups

of apes. Here, grooming serves as a kind of social glue; it keeps individuals

together and promotes social harmony. Members of stable communities

develop mutual grooming preferences that last for many years, perhaps even

for a lifetime. These affectionate relationships are not dependent on kinship,

and therefore are comparable with friendships among humans.3-5

108

109

110


58

111


59


It’s very relaxing to be groomed!

112

113

59


60

Mammals give the impression that they like

to be groomed (photos 95-119); individuals may close

their eyes as if they are in deep relaxation (114 and

117), or they stretch the groomed body parts, thereby

encouraging the companion to continue grooming

(photos 115 and 118). Often a grooming session is

initiated by an invitation gesture (photo 116).

In nonhuman primates it has been shown that

being groomed reduces tension, as reflected in a

decrease in displacement activities6, 7 and a lowering

of the heart rate.8, 9 Subjects engage in social

grooming, particularly in situations of potential

social conflicts, for example, at pre-feeding time and

during crowded conditions. Grooming helps them

buffer social tension, thereby reducing the risk of

aggressive conflict.10-12

114


61


115

116

117

118

119


62

The friendly intention of grooming is understood by individuals of different

species who may contrast in their species-

typical behavioral repertoire, such as horses

and cats (photo 120), cats and dogs (photos

121 and 122), dogs and horses (photo 123),

humans and cats (photo 125), humans and

horses (photo 124), monkeys and dogs (photo

126), and monkeys and humans (photo 127).

12062


63


121

122

123


64

124

125


65


The urge to groom somebody seems to be

particularly strong in primates.

126

127


66

In general, nonhuman

mammals like to be

groomed by humans

if they can trust them

(photos 128-131). Even

when living in their

natural habitat, they show

quite clearly that they

enjoy being groomed by

a person they can trust

(photo 130).

128


67


129

130


68

It has been demonstrated

in horses, dogs and nonhuman

primates that individuals

experience a decrease in heart rate

when a friendly person grooms

them.13-15 Such an affectionate

interaction has a calming effect

also on the human subject (photo

131), who may experience a stress

reducing effect, as reflected in

decreased blood pressure.16-19

131


69


132

133


70

Hugging is an affectionate social interaction that is not unique to primates.

134


71

I am so glad to have found you!

135


72

Hugging has a strong reassuring

effect for individuals who are facing a

distressing situation, such as the loss of

one’s mother (photo 136), the loss of a loved

one (photos 137 and 139), or imprisonment

in a barren environment (photo 138).

136

137


73


138

139 73


74

A stuffed toy animal or a favored blanket can serve as a

hugging partner substitute.

14074


75


Individuals who are lonely

or depressed try to derive

some comfort by hugging

themselves.

Hugging and dancing are closely

related behavior patterns.

141

142

144

143


76

Mouth-to-mouth greeting(photos 147 and 151-158) is a ritualized feeding of pre-chewed food to the infant, who touches the mother’s lip corner, (photo 145) thereby inducing her to offer food (photos 146, 148 and 149). Mouth-feeding of infants is practiced by numerous species, including humans20, 21 (photo 148).

145

146

147

148 149


77


150

151

152


78

Mouth-to-mouth greeting is a very common social behavior:

One partner—usually a subordinate

animal—approaches submissively

and gently touches the area around the

corner of the lips of another partner.

153

154

155

156


79


Dogs who mouth-to-mouth greet other dogs (photo 157)—or humans (photo

158)—not only touch, but often also lick the

corner of the lip of the greeted partner. This

gesture expresses submission and affection

at the same time.

158

157


80

In monkeys, apes and humans, mouth-to-mouth greeting has developed into kissing.

159

161

160

80


81


Kissing not only has a bonding effect, but it also fosters social harmony.

It has been shown in chimpanzees that group

members kiss each other particularly often in

situations of potential conflict in order to mitigate

social tension and forestall aggression.22

163

162

164


82

Play-fighting probably occurs in all social animals. It allows partners to develop species-typical fighting techniques and test each other’s physical strength, thereby establishing dominance-subordinance

relationships without hostility.

Play-fighting is a friendly social interaction; it occurs

only in partners who get along well with each other.

Depending on the species, typical invitation

gestures (photos 170 and 173) and play faces (photos

165-171 and 174) serve as unequivocal signals of

non-aggressive intentions. They allow playmates

to engage in vigorous mock fighting and wrestling

without risk of intentionally injuring each other.

They are also an assurance for young animals that

play-fighting with big adult partners is not serious

business (photos 74-76, pages 41-43).

165

166

167

168

169


83


A play-fight, unlike a serious fight,

is initiated by both partners (photos 170

and 171, 173 and 174).

170

171

172

173

174

175


84

176

177

178


85


The subtle expressions of play motivation

can be correctly interpreted by partners of

different sizes (photo 76 on page 43 and photo

179) and members of different species (photos

180 and 181).

The rhesus macaque in photo 180 touches

the author and laughs. The author understands

these two gestures as signs of friendliness and

laughs in return to confirm the playfulness of

this interaction.

The young eland bull in photo 181 (right

animal) approached the young zebu bull (left

animal) with lowered and tilted head. The zebu

bull understood the playful intention, and both

animals started to push each other back and forth

without hurting or intimidating each other.

179

181

180


86

Playful biting

is typically shown by young

individuals in the context of play.

The active partner gently bites or nibbles

the cheeks, ears or other parts of the passive

partner. As with play-fighting, only partners

who get along well with each other engage in

playful biting.

182

183


87


184

185


88

It looks like serious biting, but its intention is friendly, if not even

affectionate.

187

186

188


89


The friendly intention of playful

biting becomes particularly evident

in adult humans, where the “bitten”

partner usually laughs.

189

190

90


Lip-smacking seems to occur only in primates.

The lips are puckered and slightly

opened and closed in frequent

succession with a soft smacking

sound; the eyes are usually focused

on a social partner. This facial

expression is friendly and, in

humans, typically comes along with

a smile or a head-tilt (photo 195).

APPEASING BEHAVIOR

Appeasing Behavior

mitigates aggressive

motivation in social

partners.191

192



91

A P P EA S I N G B E H AV I O R ◆

193

194

195

196 91


92

Fearful grinning is an unequivocal sign that one partner respects the dominant status of the other.

While focusing the gaze on the dominant partner, the corners

of the lips are retracted and the teeth exposed (photo 197). In

contrast to friendly grinning, the facial expression during fearful

grinning is tense. Depending on the immediacy of fear, the

mouth is opened only slightly or broadly (photos 198-200). At

high intensity, the motivation of fear gets overlaid by aggressive

motivation, and the grinning turns into a quasi-open-mouth

threat (photo 201). Fearful grinning can be observed in canines,

foals, and nonhuman and human primates.

197

198 199 200 201


93


In humans, fearful grinning is

often accompanied by the shedding

of tears (photos 202 and 206).

202

203

204 93


94

Normally, fearful grinning averts

aggressive action, but elicits comforting

gestures, such as touching (photo 205)

and hugging (photo 206).

205

206


95


The rhesus macaque mother in photo 208 is fearfully

looking at the approaching big

male; she grins appeasingly and is

therefore allowed to remain seated.

207

208


96

Presenting occurs in humans, dogs, monkeys and apes: The hindquarters are “presented” and the head turned in the direction of the target partner, who either ignores the demonstration, looks with interest (photo 211), or inspects the presented anogenital area (photos 210 and 212).209

210


97


Presenting is probably a ritualized sexual invitation aimed at appeasing a potentially aggressive

male. This assumption is supported by the fact that in

nonhuman primates the presenting gesture is shown not

only by females but also by males, and that it is often a

prelude to grooming (photos 212 and 213); the macaques in

photos 212 and 213 are both males.

211

212

213


98

Looking away

is perhaps the easiest way to interrupt a threat gesture. Monkeys and humans apply this strategy in daily life to

avoid overt aggression.

214

215


99


It is not uncommon that antelopes who

fight, unexpectedly interrupt the sparring

and look away from each other. This perhaps

intentional diversion of attention often

brings the conflict to an end.

216

217


100

Withdrawing

and turning away from a potentially aggressive partner is a commonly used strategy. It reduces the imminent risk

of being physically attacked.

218

219


101


220

221


102

Surrendering is characterized in all mammals by making oneself small in front of a “big,” dominant opponent, who has the power of inflicting pain.

222

223


103


Surrendering is probably the

most effective strategy of appeasement

and conflict resolution.

224

225


104

The dog on the left

in photo 226 submissively

surrenders, thereby inhibiting

overt aggression in the

dominant opponent.

The surrendering macaque in photo 227

was bullied by two group members. The victim fled

to the highest ranking female and submissively

crouched in front her. The alpha female

protectively places her hands on the victim, which

keeps the two harassing females at bay.23

226

227


105


Photo 228 was taken

in a classroom where the

students greet their teacher

by submissively bowing

down. Photos 229 and 230

show devotees submissively

prostrating themselves before

different institutionalized

spiritual powers.

228

229 230


106

Infantile characteristics have an aggression buffering effect.

Adult males of various primate species can sometimes be seen

guarding, holding, carrying and playing with infants without

doing harm to them. This suggests that infantile characteristics

protect the kids from male aggression. The grown-up mandrill in

photo 231 allows the little infant to investigate his fur. He clearly

signals his non-aggressive mood by playfully laughing in a similar

manner to the man in photo 232, who lets the infant pull his nose,

and the male lion in photo 233, who allows the cub to tease him. 232

231


107


233

234

235


108

This adult male rhesus macaque was

visited by an infant (photo 236). A bit consternate,

he picked up the kid gently and walked to the other

side of the pen, where he sat down right next to the

infant’s mother (photos 237 and 238).

236

237 238


109


The aggression buffering effect of infants has been

documented for macaques,24-27 baboons28-30 and chimpanzees.31

Also, in psychologically healthy humans, infants inhibit

adult male aggression.21, 32 In war zones, soldiers can be

merciless with adults, but they usually take care not to harm

or kill infants (photo 240).

239

240


111

S O C I A L LY N E G ATI V E B E H AV I O R SSocially Negative Behaviors aim to increase the spatial distance between individuals or keep individuals spatially apart.

241

111


112

INTIMIDATING BEHAVIOR

Intimidating Behavior

attempts to instill subtle

fear (e.g., respect) or gross

fear (e.g., fear of being

attacked) in others.

242



113

I NTI M I DATI N G B E H AV I O R ◆

Impressing is the antithesis of surrendering: Everything possible is done to give the impression of being big.

243

Lifting and rotating the arms slightly outward

is a trick that is employed both by nonhuman

and human primates to appear bigger, more

“impressive.”


114

Threatening expresses a readiness to aggression; it manifests as staring and displaying of weapons.

During highly aggressive motivation, the muscles at the

base of the hair follicles that pull the hair upright contract

(piloerection). This physiological response is universal in

mammals. It makes the body look bigger in chimpanzees

(photo 242), macaques (photo 245), cats (photo 246), badgers

(photo 247), dogs, bears and many other species with furry

coats. This tactic has little impressive effect in humans,

because they don’t have enough hair (photos 243 and 244).

244

245


115


246

247


116

Since piloerection does not visibly increase their

bodily appearance, humans—especially males—developed

alternative strategies to impress others. They associate

with special objects, such as big cars (photo 248), killed

animals (so-called trophies; photo 249) and big mansions

that they claim as their property. They also have high

structures associated with their persona displayed for

public admiration (photo 251). Note that the people in photo

251 not only stand, but also submissively bow before their

political leader’s monument.

248

249


117


Religious institutions often

impress their followers by having them

build huge temples for worshipping.

Mosques and churches very often are the

highest, most dominating structures in

human communities (photo 250).

250

251


118

Staring is an intense, yet relatively inconsequential threat (photo 252); it is often associated with intimidating gestures, such as impressing (photo 244, page 114).

Probably all social animals use staring as

a threat gesture: The opponent is quasi-

pierced with the eyes (photos 252-254).

Staring serves as an unmistakable warning

to either stay away or leave.

252118


119


253

254


120

As a warning signal, staring helps to

neutralize social tension. If the opponent

shows an appropriate response, such as

looking away or moving away, no overt

aggression will follow.

255

256


121


Monkeys and people often

accentuate the intensity of a stare-

threat by opening the mouth.

257

258

259


122

Displaying weapons is a warning of earnest readiness to attack.

This gesture is always accentuated by staring. Different

species have different social weapons, such as fists (photos

260 and 262), horns (photo 263) and teeth (photos 261

and 264), but their principal usage is the same: avoiding

potentially injurious aggression.

260

261

262


123


Usually, the threatened opponent withdraws or submits and

no fighting ensues (photo 263). Only in

exceptional cases will the threatened

opponent stand his or her ground; overt

conflict then becomes unavoidable.

264

263


124

Human babies instinctively know

how to threaten by displaying their

weapons. Nonhuman infants develop this

skill only later, when they establish their

rank status among adults.

265124


125


266

267

268


126

Abusing another individual by misusing one’s social dominance status is a phenomenon that humans share with nonhuman primates, dogs and probably many other species.

The dominant partner not only intimidates, but also

humiliates, for example by sitting on the subordinate

partner’s body (photos 269 and 270), pulling hair of the

subordinate (photos 274 and 275), beating the subordinate

(photo 276), or stealing food directly from the subordinate

partner’s mouth (photos 271-273).

269

270 271 272 273


127


274

275

276


128

AGGRESSION

Aggression is a physical

attack that aims to

reaffirm dominance or

gain dominance over

an opponent. Unlike

intimidation, aggression

always bears a risk of

injury resulting from

the victim’s self-defense.

Therefore, individuals

usually resort to aggression

only after intimidation

attempts have failed to

avoid an overt conflict.278

279



129

AG G R E S S I O N ◆

Humans are a particularly aggressive species that has turned play-fighting into overt antagonism.

Individuals are protected with specific garments in order to

not injure one another, but the interaction is “deadly” serious:

The typical play face (laughing) is now replaced by a tense,

distorted combat face that signals “I want to hit you!” rather

than “I want to play with you!”

280

281 129


130

Humans have developed sophisticated weapons that make intimidation

attempts superfluous; the opponent does not even have to be seen in order to be

attacked. Independent of dominance, the adversary can now be offended, injured and

killed without undue risk. The worldwide use of these weapons has turned humans into

monsters who, though they share most of their behaviors with nonhuman mammals,

exhibit uncontrolled aggression that sets them apart from any other species.

282


132

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136

115 Ronn aka “Blue” D’Aldaman

116-119 Viktor Reinhardt

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137

153 Jean Paul Ferrero, Minden Pictures

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179 Jerry Feist

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182 Lina Hughes


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189 Lucia

190 Chris Metcalf

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193 Eileen Darby


195 Andrew Johnson

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Viktor Reinhardt is an ethologist and veterinarian who, over a

period of 24 years, has studied the behavior of guinea pigs, dairy

cattle, African Zebu cattle, Scottish Highland cattle, Canadian

bison and muskox, rhesus macaques and stump-tailed macaques.

He made use of his observations to develop refinement

techniques that reduce or eliminate fear, anxiety and behavioral

and social deprivation experienced by animals in captivity.

Reinhardt has lectured on ethology and physiology to veterinary

students and animal technicians for many years. His findings

have been published in 40 different peer-reviewed scientific

journals, numerous professional newsletters and several books.

Animal Welfare Institute

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