rses self-esteem -paper

Using Self-Talk 1

Running head: ACT BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION TO IMPROVE SELF-ESTEEM

Using Self-Talk to Improve Self-Esteem:

An Experiment in Support of ACT Behavior Modification

Nancy N. Frishkorn

California University

Using Self-Talk 2


Abstract

This experiment studied the effect of self-talk on self-esteem when it was combined with positive

reinforcement and acceptance training using behavioral modification practices. Ten young adult

females (ages 18-28) were randomly placed in either a control or an experimental group, and

tested before and after a ten day period to determine if reported explicit self-esteem of the test

group improved due to experiental acceptance homework assignments that encouraged

nonjudgmental descriptions of the participants overt and covert thoughts/behaviors combined

with positive reinforcement daily as compared to the control group. The active participants

shared their experiences and reported increased efficaciousness in self-awareness and confidence

that encouraged them to translate their cogitations into concrete goals and improved personal

relations. Data analysis revealed significant interaction effect size, consistent with predictions,

and potential existential therapeutic treatment indications for several disorders, including but not

limited to addiction, emotional and eating disorders, warrants further discovery from interpretive

findings.

Using Self-Talk 3


Using Self-Talk to Improve Self-Esteem:

An Experiment in Support of ACT Behavior Modification

It is theorized that self-esteem is a determinative factor in the successes and failures of young

adult women and men within the western culture. Self-esteem is an integral part of everyone's

lives; it is not only how we see ourselves, but also how important we believe we are to others.

Statements that we make not only to others, but to ourselves, are taken literally by the brain.

Saying "I'm just going to DIE!" before giving a presentation in class can cause the sympathetic

nervous system to react in obvious physical ways, such as elevated heart rate, perspiration,

queasy stomach and desire to escape or flee the immediate situation. This absolute processing of

our brain can lead to catastrophic thinking, overgeneralization and ultimately stress, anxiety, and

low self-esteem; this process is known as dichotomous thinking.

Recent studies have focused on stress and anxiety factors of college students as a potential

factor in self-esteem and have used music therapy as a positive variable for increasing student's

perceptions of themselves (Sharma & Jagdev, 2012). Although this study produced significant

results, it may have been culturally biased and also was extremely time-consuming and distracted

students from their normal or routine schedule. Other studies are specifically targeting inpatient

mental health settings and the significant effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

on low self-esteem and its relationship to psychiatric disorders (Waite, McManus & Shafran,

2012). This in-depth process requires hours of psychotherapy in addition to numerous homework

Using Self-Talk 4


assignments; it has statistical significance for improving thought disorders short-term, but the

follow-up tests revealed a gradual decline in effectiveness that, if discontinued for any extended

period of time, could result in spontaneous recovery of the self-defeating cognitions and

behaviors.

Another more aggressive approach to dichotomous thinking was developed by Albert Ellis in

1962 and theorized that self-defeating statements could be replaced with positive statements

through coaching. This cognitive therapy technique is known as Rational Emotive Behavior

Therapy (REBT) and has gained acceptance over time; it has recently been released in print form

as a tool for enhancing performance, alleviating procrastination and stress issues while

improving self-esteem and motivation techniques (Cognitive Behavioural Coaching, 2012). The

fast paced acceptance and implication of such therapy without the supervision of a professionally

trained individual can be more damaging to the individual than one might expect. Although these

types of therapies suffice for controlled or group environment settings under the direction of a

trained professional, they are not applicable for the general population in either cost or

availability to the average or "normal" population.

A recent theory has been proposed based upon the initial ideas of CBT and REBT; it is a

more acceptance based approach and employs constructive action and behavior therapy rather

than the ruled-based cognitive approach employed by Beck and Ellis. This revised theory, called

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), views irrational or maladaptive ideas and

cognitions as mere precursors to the responsive thoughts and emotions that cause emotional and

behavioral disorders, and attempts to control these thoughts are "experiential avoidance" (Biglan,

Hayes, Pistorello 2008). Hayes employs a technique first observed in Buddhist's religion that

Using Self-Talk 5


teaches a person to focus on their actions and behaviors and consciously perceive them as but a

reflection of a moment in time--and learn to accept to one's self by not judging the whole person

based upon those sensations. This acceptance is part of what is known as "mindfulness" training

and has been studied in many several self-control domains such as obesity, impulse-control and

anxiety disorders (Lillis et al., 2009). Although many view ACT as an existentialist approach to

therapeutic application, the impact of this three step outline may very well be the necessary

construct for "cognitive specificity" implicated in certain maladaptive cerebrations (Beck, Haaga,

1992).

To become self-assured one has to be accepting of not only themselves, but of those around

them. Self-esteem is a factor in relationships, trust, personal strengths and limitations,

confidence, cooperation and problem solving and just about every other area of a person's life.

Low self-esteem can lead to anxiety, depression and a plethora of other emotional and health

issues that can directly affect the person's ability to function at their fullest potential. Studies

have shown that there is no difference between men and women in the projected development of

self-esteem during young adulthood (Erol & Orth, 2011). To that end, this experiment will focus

solely on young single adult women, ages 18-28; the choice not to include individuals in a

relationship or married, as well as specifying the specific gender, will assist in extraneous

variable control.

Single, adult women face many decisions and challenges in our society; the choice between

either career or family no longer applies, and many are managing as professional businesswomen

while simultaneously caring for and supporting their families. Women that perceive themselves

as valuable not only in the home, but also in the work force may have an advantage in securing

Using Self-Talk 6


stable employment and relationships, furthering their success and broadening their views and

goals. Perceptions that are not positive can become not only hindering, but sometimes

detrimental, and block one's ability to reach their fullest potential. This maladaptive thinking can

be addressed using behavior modification techniques known as cognitive restructuring; self-

esteem is no exception.

As a social cognition, self-esteem expresses in two ways: implicit, or affective, unconscious,

reactive evaluation, and explicit, propositional, evaluative, reasoning judgments (Dentale et al.,

2011). It is hypothesized that implicit self-esteem is non-conscious, but there is "no definitive

evidence" that this assumption is true or correct (Shimizu, Pelham 2011). Information

processing, both conscious and unconscious, has been studied since the 1950's, and is now

considered a dual-process, with affect of implicit upon explicit expression (Epstein, 1994).

Explicit self-esteem is only weakly correlated to implicit self-esteem, and some studies suggest

that explicit self-esteem changes more readily due to social adaptive necessity and response

(Shimizu, Pelham 2011).

Self-Talk is a sub-vocal speech that leads to respondent emotion; as children we vocalize

readily but very quickly we learn to keep these thoughts more private or covert in nature. For this

experiment we will encourage (selected) participants to engage in auditory self-talk, but the

positive reinforcement will remain the same should the individual chose not to do so. The

purpose of this experiment is to determine if self-talk, used as a reinforcer, will have an indirect

effect on improving self-esteem when paired with the conditioned reinforcer of hand washing

before any meal (unconditioned consumable reinforcer). Although this experiment is designed to

be self-directed, it will serve to support the theory of ACT as proposed by Hayes in 1999 in that

Using Self-Talk 7


it will encourage mindfulness and acceptance of the self on a non-conscious level and express

consciously though explicit self-esteem scoring.

Method

Participants

This experiment was conducted in two different settings; the campus of California University

of Pa, specifically Morgan hall, and at a boarding barn facility located at 168 Manor drive

Zelienople, Pa., 16063. Only single female adults of Caucasian and African American descent

were selected from the average population within the eastern United States; enrollment in

secondary education was not a prerequisite. All participants were selected and randomly placed

in either a control group or an experiment group after signing a consent form; no participant

received any compensation for participation. Participants from the young adult age range (18-28)

were specifically solicited for this experiment with a mode and median of 20 years of age, the

mean was 20.9. Initial data was collected from a total of 13 participants; 7 were placed in a

control group and 6 in the experiment group. Three of the participants did not follow-up with the

researcher for completion of the second testing required to fulfill the requirements of data

collection; two of the participants in the experiment group admitted that they did not follow the

directions for daily hand washing as directed for the self-talk exercise. A total of 5 participants

completed the experiment with this exception and provided all the required data necessary for

computations from the experiment group, and a total of 5 control group participants also

completed both series of required testing protocols. The result was an equal number of

participants for each group (N=10) which provided equivalence for data compilations. A total of

5 control group and 5 experiment group participant's data was collected and computed for effect

Using Self-Talk 8


size of self-talk on self-esteem variables. All participants who completed the experiment

indicated their relationship status was single (not married) and 8 were students in some capacity

with only one in each group as non-student working full time and non-student working part time.

Of the 8 students, three attended school full time without employment; 4 attended school full

time and worked part time and 1 attended school part time and worked part time. Every

participant was born an American citizen, and 20% of each group was African American; all

participants were from the Eastern United States.

Measures

Explicit self-esteem was measured using a self-reports; the most commonly used test for this

purpose is the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), so this testing instrument was selected to

provide data for this experiment. This psychometric report measure's the individual's overall

sense of self-worth (Rosenberg, 1989) and consists of ten questions, five positively worded, and

five negatively worded (see appendix A). The RSES is in Likert scale and can be completed

within approximately two minutes; it is reverse scored; items 1,2,4,6 and 7 strongly agree as 3

down to strongly disagree as 0, and items 3,5 8,9 and 10 the opposite (University of Maryland,

2013). This test has high test-retest reliability (.82-.88) and revealed high internal consistency

across cultures (.81) according to Schmitt and Allik (2005). This high value should result in

participant's scores that are consistent over time; this test provided a fair evaluation of the effect

size of the dependent variable in this experiment of behavior modification. This test was scored

by hand as well as online using confidential reporting methods, unless otherwise indicated by

participants in the informed consent, to ensure proper scoring of test results and contribute to the

collection process ongoing for the RSES.

Using Self-Talk 9


Procedure

Participants were selected and volunteered to be randomly placed in one of two sample

groups; the first group was a control group that only took the RSES at the beginning of the

experiment, and then again after ten days (one the 11th day) from the date of their first test; the

second group took the RSES and then once a day for the next ten days they were instructed to

write down three positive statements about themselves ( either a positive deed/ action or self-

compliment/appraisal) once daily and read those three items (preferably aloud), before washing

their hands in preparation for any meal of their choosing. In behavior terms as set forth by

Skinner and Watson, this would be expressed as: Written statements=Operant discriminative

stimulus ( SD), Self-Talk=R, hand-washing=CR, meal=UR, food in mouth=US. In addition to

reading the three positive statements the participants had written, they also read silently a quote

that was included on the paper they were provided to record the thirty (total) statements; this

quote said: "You, yourself, as much as anyone in the entire universe, deserve your love and

affection. Buddha." A total of thirty statements was documented and returned to the researcher

upon completion of the ten day period at which time (on the 11th day) they took the RSES again.

Both groups experienced the repeated measures testing and were equally susceptible to the

Hawthorn Effect.

Group assignment was determined at random by having the participants choose a chip out of a

brown bag; black chips were placed in the control group, red chips were placed in the experiment

group. Informed consent was collected prior to any participation, and each individual received

the same instruction for their assigned group which was read to the participant by the

experimenter prior to any testing. A debriefing was also provided to each participant upon

Using Self-Talk 10


completion of the second testing procedure which provided behavioral modification

counterbalancing protocol for the experiment group. The following excerpt is from the

instruction that was provided in the debriefing to the experimental participants:

This experiment had very minimal risk associated with its participation…If you found that this

task made you uncomfortable in any way, or that you now feel a desire to eat every time you

think something positive about yourself, there are several steps you can take to return to your

normal behavior as it was before participation took place.

First, should you feel you need to speak with someone regarding your self-esteem or impulse

control due to participation in this experiment , it is recommended that you seek free counseling

at the health center located on the campus of California University. If you are not currently a

student at California University, there is a free clinic locator near Zelienople where you met with

me to volunteer; please contact The Center for Community Resources at 121 Sunnyview Circle

Butler, Pa. (724) 431-0095.

Secondly, should you feel you do not need or want services, but would prefer to "extinguish" this

connection yourself, you can use a method called "counter-conditioning" which would involve

simply reading your positive statements before exercising instead of before a meal; this should

alleviate any desires to eat or feelings of hunger that may have resulted from pairing your self-

talk with hand washing and eating rituals.

Lastly, just do nothing. If you stop self-talk practices altogether you will eventually feel just as

you did beforehand.

Using Self-Talk 11


Results

Data collection was computed using a 2 (independent sample of participants randomly placed

in groups) X 2 (related sample repeated measures testing) mixed factorial analysis of variance

(ANOVA) in a complete factorial design to measure their self- esteem as indicated by the self -

test index (RSES). Data analysis revealed significant interaction, F(1,8) =11.538, p < .05, which

was consistent with prediction but requires further interpretation. The main effect over the ten

day period (factor 1= time) was F(1,8)=3.282 ,p >.05; the effect of each level indicates that self-

esteem is relatively stable over a short time period; it is also important to note that no marginal

significance was observed for any level. The main effect of group difference (level = control or

experimental) was F(1,8)=1.032, p >.05; this indicating no significant difference between

experimental and control groups. A post hoc Wilks' Lambda was used to obtain the significant

effect (.009) of interaction which is contradictory to the both main effects conclusion. This

unconfounded comparison allows us to draw some inferences about the significant interaction;

rejection would constitute an alpha (Type I) error because the results are compromised most

likely due to good participant effect. It should be noted that the results would have indicated

significance even if the experiment-wise error rate was set at 99% (p<.01) despite no change

occurring in one experimental participants (20%) pre and post test scores. The personality scale

has high validity and reliability so I am confident that it is not the determining factor, but rather

the expectations of the researchers influence upon the selected participants, diffusion of

treatments and interactions with selection.

Using Self-Talk 12


Table 1Effects of Self-Talk on Self-Esteem Using Behavioral Modification Technique for Ten Days

RSES Scores

Group Pre-Test Post-Test

Experimental M 18.4 23 SD 1.35 2.12

Control M 22.8 21.4 SD 2.08 1.83

Note: RSES ratings are on a scale from 1 to 30 with a score of 15 or below indicating low self-esteem.

*These means (averages) indicate that, although explicit self-esteem may differ, there is no significant difference

either improving or reducing levels of measurement when practicing self-talk exercises.

Discussion

This experiment found no significant increase of explicit self-esteem after a ten day period,

but there are many considerations that need be mentioned. First, this was a very small sample

that consisted of a normal population, therefore, the implications for its findings may differ if

another sample consisting of individuals with identifiable disorders or recognized low self-

esteem are tested; the sample size additionally decreased the overall power of this results. Of the

five individuals who participated in the ACT/behavior modification practices, four reported

significant differences with their overall sense of wellbeing, confidence and improve self-

efficacy. One in particular told this researcher that she was able to stop using a controlled

substance and intended to continue the experimental practices daily and had found a social

support system to attend daily to help her overcome her addiction. Another, who was near the

Using Self-Talk 13


score required for low self-esteem on the RSES, reported that she had been in an abusive

relationship and had been inspired to seek the assistance necessary to terminate the relationship

since she had "found a new sense of self-worth." A third began an exercise program and was

inspired to lose weight because she realized that, although it was difficult at first, she was able to

look herself in the mirror daily and realize that she had "some good qualities" as well. This

person stated that she could not remember the last time she had actually just looked at herself

without thinking negative thoughts, and that by learning to recognize the good things she did

daily, she was able to see herself in a more positive and accepting way. The fourth person

reported that it was really hard for her to complete three items a day for the first two days, but by

the end of the ten day period she was able to say many positive things about herself and was

getting more classwork done and "actually getting dressed for class instead of coming in my

pajamas." These statements indicate a personal change that may not have been elucidated by the

RSES, but may on another, more comprehensive test.

Secondly, this experiment was limited in duration and the full effects of ACT behavior

practices should be evaluated over an extended period of time. According to a recent study in

The European Journal of Social Psychology, it takes 66 days for habit formation to integrate into

one's daily living (Lally, van Jaarsveld, Potts, Wardle, 2010). Given the limited duration for

project completion, the present study could be extended had appropriate time and application

procedures been implemented.

Third, this experiment could not be conducted in a controlled facility, therefore there is no

way of knowing for sure not only if the practices were completed fully, but also if they were

performed in the subsequent required order. This experiment was designed to utilize a natural

Using Self-Talk 14


reinforcer (food) after the self-talk exercise was performed, and if the participants did not 1)

wash their hands as a reinforcer or 2) eat a healthy meal after the practice, the full effects of the

behavior modification would be moot. Future studies could incorporate conduction in a facility

that encourages acceptance and mindfulness training while the person is under supervision to

control for extraneous and other variables, as well as inclusion of participants varying in age and

ethnicity. In that regard, there are several other questions as to the construct and constancy of this

design that need brought to mention.

Due to the nature of this experiment and the various locations required for collection of data,

the question of constancy must be addressed. Despite the randomization used to establish

equivalence, the selection of available participants coupled with the gender and age limitations

also contributes to a lack of constancy overall. Unavoidable carryover and testing effects may

also have been influenced by the good participant effect, subsequently a noticeable bias appears

in the participants responses; this appears most evident on one particular participant whose score

increased 9 points in only eleven days. The internal validity has also been subject to history

influence, as we don't know the environmental contingencies of each participant, as well as

mortality due to nearly 8% (7.69) of the participants dropping out of the experiment. Extension

to a more diverse sample and supervision of participants for extended periods could offer much

needed support for ACT CBT (combined with behavior modification) as a cognitive specificity

for a diversity of maladaptive cognitive dysfunctions and psychological predispositions.

Using Self-Talk 15


References

Biglan, A., Hayes, S., & Pistorello, J. (2008). Acceptance and commitment: implications for

prevention science. Prevention Science: The Official Journal Of The Society For

Prevention Research, 9(3), 139-152. doi:10.1007/s11121-008-0099-4

Beck, A. T., & Haaga, D. F. (1992). The future of cognitive therapy. Psychotherapy: Theory,

Research, Practice, Training, 29(1), 34-38. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.29.1.34

Cognitive behavioural coaching in practice: An evidence based approach (paperback) -

Routledge Mental Health. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.routledgementalhealth.

com/cognitive-behavioural-coaching-in-practice-9780415472630

Dentale, F., Vecchione, M., De Coro, A., & Barbaranelli, C. (2012). On the relationship between

implicit and explicit self-esteem: The moderating role of dismissing attachment.

Personality And Individual Differences, 52(2), 173-177. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.009

Epstein, S. (1994). An integration of the cognitive and psychodynamic unconscious. The

American Psychologist, 49, 709–724.

Erol, R. Y., & Orth, U. (2011). Self-esteem development from age 14 to 30 years: A longitudinal

study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(3), 606-619. doi:

10.1037/a0024299

Using Self-Talk 16


Lally, P., van Jaarsveld, C. H. M., Potts, H. W. W. and Wardle, J. (2010). How are habits

formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world. European Journal of Social

Psychology, 40: 998–1009. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.674

Lillis, J., Hayes, S., Bunting, K., & Masuda, A. (2009). Teaching acceptance and mindfulness to

improve the lives of the obese: a preliminary test of a theoretical model. Annals Of

Behavioral Medicine: A Publication Of The Society Of Behavioral Medicine, 37(1), 58-

69. doi:10.1007/s12160-009-9083-x

Rosenberg, M. (1989). Society and the adolescent self-image (rev ed.). Middletown, CT,

England: Wesleyan University Press.

Schmitt, D. P., & Allik, J. (2005). Simultaneous administration of the Rosenberg self-esteem

scale in 53 nations: Exploring the universal and culture-specific features of global self-

esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 623-642.

Sharma, M., & Jagdev, T. (2012). Use of music therapy for enhancing self-esteem among

academically stressed adolescents . Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 27(1),

53-64. Retrieved from http://ehis.ebscohost.com.navigator-cup.passhe.edu/eds/results.

Shimizu, M., & Pelham, B. W. (2011). Liking for positive words and icons moderates the

association between implicit and explicit self-esteem. Journal of Experimental Social

Psychology, 47(5). Retrieved from http:// www. e lsevier.com/locate/jesp

Using Self-Talk 17


University of Maryland Department of Sociology. (2013). College of Behavioral and Social

Sciences. Retrieved from http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/research/rosenberg.htm

Waite, P., McManus, F., & Shafran, R. (2012). Cognitive behavior therapy for low self-esteem:

A preliminary randomized. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychology,

43, 1049-1057. Retrieved from http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jbtep

Appendix A.

This is a free version of the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale.

Using Self-Talk 18


ValidityThis scale is the most widely used measure of self- esteem for research purposes but it is NOT a diagnostic aid for any for any psychological issues of states. If you are worried that your self- esteem may reflect poor mental health please consult your doctor. The scale has been used in more than one hundred research projects.

Because the concept of self- esteem is one most people should be familiar with, this test will probably not tell you anything you do not already know. You should have a pretty good grasp of your results just by asking yourself the question, "do I have low self -esteem?" The scale can however give you a better picture of your state in relation to other people. Your results will also include a little bit more about the relationship between self- esteem and life outcomes.

ProcedureThe scale consists of ten statements that you could possibly apply to you that you must rate on how much you agree with each. The items should be answered quickly without overthinking, your first inclination is what you should put down.

ParticipationIn addition to being offered for public education purposes, this survey is being used as part of a research project and your answers will be recorded. By starting this test you are agreeing to have any data you enter used for research.

Your scores will be entered manually and anonymously into the free online data base to ensure potential scoring errors and contribute said scores into the database for research purposes. Your name will never be used, but if you chose NOT to contribute to the data collection for the RSES, please initial this paragraph so that the researcher will know to ONLY score your results manually for the purpose of the school project experiment which you have agreed to participate in by signing the consent form.

The school project has been approved by the California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board effective January 28, 2013 to May 17, 2013; by initialing this paragraph you agree that you have been asked to complete this test during these dates and that you are a single woman between the ages of 19-29.

Strongly disagree

Disagree Agree Strongly agree

Using Self-Talk 19


I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.

I feel that I have a number of good qualities.

All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.

I am able to do things as well as most other people.

I feel I do not have much to be proud of.

I take a positive attitude toward myself.

On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.

I wish I could have more respect for myself.

I certainly feel useless at times.

At times I think I am no good at all.

rses self-esteem -paper

Documents