russian literature.docx
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russian literature: History
Overview
Russian literature has long been a cultural focus of the entire world. It's not surprising that the
formation of Russia's first literary traditions goes back to the first century. The adoption of
Christianity boosted the development of literacy, philosophy and theological literature. The
earliest literary works were not written in the Russian language but in Old Church lavonicwhich was developed in the !th century by "reek missionaries Cyril and #ethodius.
Old Church lavonic became the liturgical language of the Orthodo$ Church, prompting literary
activity in Russia.
In !%% &ladimir I, "rand uke of (yiv, converted to Christianity and made it Russia's officialreligion. )ventually, religious ties between Russia, the *y+antine )mpire, ncient Rome and
"reece strengthened and began to share common traits. s literacy rapidly developed, so didRussian literature. -istorical chronicles, sacred scriptures, biblical te$ts, sermons, biographies ofsaints and other religious writings and poems were translated from "reek into Old Church
lavonic which remained the literary language of Russia until the /th century. t that time,
books served mainly as a means to foster religious awareness. In the long run, Christianity
marked the character of the Russian literature. Church literature laid the foundation for the ideasof Russian unity and Russian national identity.
First works of Russian literature
*y+antine "reek writings influenced the first te$ts created during the (yiv period. The most
significant sermon, 0lovo O 1akone I *lagodati0 23435 0ermon on 6aw and "race07, is a
detailed oration written by the head of the Orthodo$ Church in Russia at that time, #etropolitan
Illarion. It is believed to be the first original work of Russian literature.
The chronicle 08ovest' &remennykh 6et0 295 0The Tale of *ygone :ears,0 also known as
0The Russian 8rimary Chronicle07, attributed to the monk ;estor, e$plores the history of the )ast
lavic peoples, namely Russians, *elarussians, and <krainians up to the year 3.
-owever, the most prominent work of the period is probably 0lovo O 8olku Igoreve0 2%450The Tale of Igor's Campaign07. It focuses on a 8rince Igor=s failed raid against an army of sian
nomads and is written in lyrical poetic language.
The creation of religious scripts went hand in hand with the creation of folk poetry5 songs, epics
and fairy tales described authentic Russian life and culture. In the late th and early >thcentury, 0Teaching0 by 8rince &ladimir #onomakh and 0?anderings of aniel0 featured a
fusion of religious scripts with folk literature. In >@3 the Tatars invaded (yiv, bringing an early
end to this period in culture.
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Aor the ne$t >33 years the Tatars occupied most of Russia. ?hile )urope was enBoying the
Renaissance, Russian literature was at a standstill. series of upheavals and riots throughout the
th and /th centuries brought political and secular influences to literature.
"Messages of Ivan the Terrible" and the autobiography of Arch Priest Avvakum
were the first literary works written in spoken ussian! These works mied the
church and bookish languages with folk speech!#ne of the most important and
notable literary works of the $%th century was "&omostroi" '"House(#rderer")!
It set the rules for moral behaviour and gave instructions for running a
household!
In the th century folkloric poetry was on the rise as was the popular genre of the secular story
of manners. In the /th century Russian culture was greatly influenced by ?estern )uropeanvalues. Tsar 8eter the "reat�s fascination with )uropean culture was looming large and brought
the first printed books to Russia, almost all of which were religious in content. number of
Russian poets started composing verses imitating ?estern authors. In fiction, the influence of
?estern adventure tales such as 0on Dui$ote0 by #iguel de Cervantes, is obvious in 0The Taleof avva "rudtsyn0 208ovest' o avve "rudtsyne07 and 0The Tale of Arol kobeev0 208ovest' o
Arole kobeeve07. In /%, the first plays written by a Russian author, ymeon 8olotsky,
appeared. tep by step, modern Russian literature started to emerge as more and more writers began to develop their own unconventional styles.
*y the %th century written Russian finally came into wide use, replacing Old Church lavonic.
8eter the "reat and Catherine the "reat were keen to promote literature in Russia. 8erhaps the
most important figure of Russian intellectual life in the %th century was #ikhail 6omonosovwho rose from peasant origins to become a prominent scientist and writer. One of the greatest
poets of the time was "avrila er+havin. Russian author enis Aonvi+in dominated the drama.
-is plays 0*rigadir0 2written /%E/!5 published /!35 0The *rigadier07 and 0;edorosl�
2/%>5 0The #inor07 mocked the manners and morals of the upper classes. One of the most
interesting nonEfiction works of the period was 08uteshestvie i+ 8eterburga v #oskvu0 2/!350Fourney from t. 8etersburg to #oscow07 by leksandr Radishchev. It earned its author a tenE
year e$ile to iberia. ;ikolay (aram+in established a Russian prose style in his travel writings
with his famous 0Istoriia gosudarstva rossiiskogo0 2%%E%>@5 0-istory of the Russian tate07.
Golden Age of Poetry
The !th century was probably the most fruitful period in the history of Russian literature.
This way to images of Medieval *omen + +
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#ikhail 6ermontov Mikhail ,ermontov 4 October%@ G >/ Fuly %@
;ikolai "ogol -ikolai .ogol 9 #arch %3! G @#arch %4>
Ivan Turgenev Ivan Turgenev ! ;ovember %% G 9
eptember %%9
6yev Tolstoy ,yev Tolstoy ! eptember %>% G >3 ;ovember !3
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nton Chekhov Anton /hekhov >! Fanuary %3 G4 Fuly !3@
The first few decades of the !th century came to be known as the "olden ge of 8oetry.
?ithout a doubt, leksandr 8ushkin's renowned novel in verse 0)vgeny Onegin0 2%>9E%97cemented his name in history.
*efore the !th century, drama received very little attention from Russian writers. It continued
until two pillars of Russian drama leksandr "riboedov 20"ore ot <ma0 %995 0The ?oes of?it07 and leksandr Ostrovsky 20"ro+a,0 %35 0The Thunderstorm07 stepped into the spotlight.
*ut by the end of the century, several timeless plays were written by nton Chekhov, fore$ample 0Chaika0 2%!5 The eagull7.
The author of the most famous short story in Russian, 0hinel0 2%@>5 0The Overcoat07, ;ikolay
"ogol, is considered to be the original master of Russian prose of the !th century. -is comic,
grotesHuely humorous collection of short stories 0&echera na khutore bli+ ikanki0 2%9E%9>50)venings on a Aarm near ikanka07 are peppered with the local colour and ambience of
<kraine.
Ayodr ostoyevsky's novels e$amined political and social issues as well as philosophical and
moral problems of Russian society. -is 0Crime and 8unishment0 2%7 is considered to be oneof the best novels of all time.
6eo Tolstoy, like his contemporary ostoyevsky, was not Bust a brilliant novelist but a political
thinker and philosopher as well. -is novel 0&oina i #ir0 2%4E%!5 0?ar and 8eace07 is afamily and a historical novel in one and is said to be one of the greatest literary works in the
history of world literature.
hort fiction and poetry gradually replaced the novel and by the end of the !th century were the
dominant genres of Russian literature.
Silver Age
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le$ander *lok Alexander Blok >% ;ovember %%3 G/ ugust !>
One of the most gifted lyrical poets produced by Russia after le$ander 8ushkin.
Impressionism and symbolism replaced social realism. new breed of Russian poets was
inspired by ?estern )uropean cultures, while Russian culture was gaining in popularity in)urope.
Russian poet and novelist &alery *ryusov introduced symbolism to Russian audiences.
One of the most sophisticated poets of the time was leksandr *lok. -is greatest work,
0venadtsat0 2!%5 0The Twelve,0 !>37, described the mood of 8etrograd 2now aint8etersburg7 in the winter of !% in the wake of the !/ *olshevik Revolution.
ome of the greatest poets of the >3th century who opposed the *olshevik Revolution and oviet
rule were nna khmatova 2ReHuiem, !@7, #arian Tsvetaeva and Osip #andelstam. The last
of these was arrested in the !93s and died in a labour camp.
Socialist realism
mong those who supported the !/ Revolution was a prominent oviet novelist and
playwright, #aksim "orky 20#other,0 !3/7. -e was also a founder of socialist realism.
fter the Revolution, many writers left Russia for )urope and the ?est. 8erhaps one of the mostgifted among them was novelist &ladimir ;abokov who emigrated to the <nited tates in !@3
and began writing in )nglish.
<nder Foseph talin, the oviet regime's enforcement of literary guidelines made many
established writers withdraw from literature. 6ittle literature was created at that time.
?orks by ndrey 8latonov and #ikhail *ulgakov disappeared in the !>3s.
lthough *ulgakov had published several plays and stories, his masterpiece 0#aster and
#argarita,0 completed shortly before his death in !@3, remained unknown until it was published
in !.
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fter the end of ??>, the guidelines of socialist realism were enforced even more strictly than
before, and the period from !@ until the death of talin in !49 was probably the bleakest in
Russian literature of the >3th century.
Russian literature in exile
-owever, the decades after talin's death saw several thaws. Restrictions over literature were
eased. In an effort to cast off talin's legacy, ;ikita (hrushchev e$panded the limits of whatcould be said in public and written in the press. In the !3s a number of works that had
previously been banned were republished and many writers felt relief.
*oris 8asternak finally published his legendary novel 0octor 1hivago,0 although outside theoviet <nion. t first it was accepted by a oviet maga+ine, but then reBected. )ventually it was
published in the ?est in !4/. 8asternak was awarded the ;obel 8ri+e for literature in !4%, but
was forced by the oviet authorities to decline the award.
(hrushchev's campaign against talin also allowed the publication of another masterpiece, 0Odinden' Ivana enisovicha0 20 ay in the 6ife of Ivan enisovich,0 !97 by leksandr
ol+henitsyn. It appeared in the leading oviet literary maga+ine, causing a sensation. It focused
on the realities of life in prison camps to which tens of thousands of people suspected of antiE
oviet views, including ol+henitsyn himself, were sent.
*ut still, novels by ol+henitsyn, such as 0Rakovyi (orpus0 20Cancer ?ard,0 !%7 and 0&
(ruge 8ervom0 20The Airst Circle,0 !%7 could not be published in the oviet <nion. Their
publication abroad eventually led to an official campaign against the writer that resulted in hise$pulsion from the oviet <nion. -e was awarded the ;obel 8ri+e for literature in !/3.
mong other prominent antiEoviet authors was the poet Foseph *rodsky, who left the oviet<nion in !/>. In !%/ *rodsky too was awarded the ;obel 8ri+e. 6ike ol+henitsyn, he moved
to the <nited tates.
New faces
The early !!3s saw the collapse of the oviet <nion and with it the end of /3 years of state
control over literature. Official censorship was over and the government proclaimed freedom ofthe press. This longEawaited independence had profound effects on Russian literature. ?orks by
writers which had previously been banned reappeared in maBor editions.
<pEandEcoming, promising and controversial writers such as 6iudmila 8etrushevskaya, 6udmila<litskaya, &ladimir orokin and &iktor )rofeev, to name a few, appeared on the Russian scene.
?hile Russian prose, poetry and drama e$plore new trends in the world of literature, withRussian authors in the limelight, lovers of Russian literature are hopeful that another "olden ge
is Bust round the corner.
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ussian literature refers to the literature of Russia or its migrs, and to the RussianElanguage
literature of several independent nations once a part of what was historically Russia or the oviet
<nion.
Roots of Russian literature can be traced to #iddle ges, when epics and chronicles in Old
Russian were composed. In the ge of enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, and
from the early %93s, Russian literature underwent an astounding golden age in both poetry,
prose, and drama. fter the Revolution of !/, Russian literature split into oviet and white
migr parts. oviet <nion assured universal literacy and highly developed book printing
industry, but also carried out ideological censorship.
Russian authors significantly contributed almost to all known genres of the literature. Russia had
five ;obel 8ri+e in literature laureates. s of >3, Russia was the fourth largest book producer
in the world in terms of published titles.JK popular folk saying claims Russians are 0the world's
most reading nation0.
Early history
Old Russian literature consists of several masterpieces written in the Old Russian language 2not
to be confused with the contemporaneous Church lavonic7. nonymous works of this nature
include The Tale of Igor's Campaign and Praying of Daniel the Immured . The soEcalled 0lives of
the saints0 2RussianL MNNP QPS, zhitiya svyatykh7 formed a popular genre of the Old Russian
literature. Life of Alexander evsky offers a wellEknown e$ample. Other Russian literary
monuments include !adons"hina, Physiologist , #ynopsis and A $ourney Beyond the Three #eas.
*ylinas G oral folk epics G fused Christian and pagan traditions. #edieval Russian literature had
an overwhelmingly religious character and used an adapted form of the Church lavonic
language with many outh lavic elements. The first work in colloHuial Russian, the
autobiography of the archpriest vvakum, emerged only in the midE/th century.
18th century
fter taking the throne at the end of the /th century, 8eter the "reat's influence on the Russian
culture would e$tend far into the %th century. 8eter's reign during the beginning of the %th
century initiated a series of moderni+ing changes in Russian literature. The reforms he
implemented encouraged Russian artists and scientists to make innovations in their crafts and
fields with the intention of creating an economy and culture comparable. 8eter's e$ample set a precedent for the remainder of the %th century as Russian writers began to form clear ideas
about the proper use and progression of the Russian language. Through their debates regarding
versification of the Russian language and tone of Russian literature, the writers in the first half of
the %th century were able to lay foundation for the more poignant, topical work of the late %th
century.
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atirist ntiokh mitrievich (antemir , /3%G/@@, was one of the earliest Russian writers not
only to praise the ideals of 8eter I's reforms but the ideals of the growing )nlightenment
movement in )urope. (antemir's works regularly e$pressed his admiration for 8eter, most
notably in his epic dedicated to the emperor entitled Petrida. #ore often, however, (antemir
indirectly praised 8eter's influence through his satiric criticism of Russia's Usuperficiality and
obscurantism,V which he saw as manifestations of the backwardness 8eter attempted to correct
through his reforms.J>K (antemir honored this tradition of reform not only through his support for
8eter, but by initiating a decadeElong debate on the proper syllabic versification using the
Russian language.
&asily (irillovich Trediakovsky, a poet, playwright, essayist, translator and contemporary to
ntiokh (antemir, also found himself deeply entrenched in )nlightenment conventions in his
work with the Russian cademy of ciences and his groundbreaking translations of Arench and
classical works to the Russian language. turning point in the course of Russian literature, his
translation of 8aul Tallemant's work %oyage to the Isle of Love, was the first to use the Russianvernacular as opposed the formal and outdated ChurchElavonic.J9K This introduction set a
precedent for secular works to be composed in the vernacular, while sacred te$ts would remain in
ChurchElavonic. -owever, his work was often incredibly theoretical and scholarly, focused on
promoting the versification of the language with which he spoke.
?hile Trediakovsky's approach to writing is often described as highly erudite, the young writer
and scholarly rival to Trediakovsky, le$ander 8etrovich umarokov, //G///, was dedicated
to the styles of Arench classicism. umarokov's interest in the form of Arench literature mirrored
his devotion to the westerni+ing spirit of 8eter the "reat's age. lthough he often disagreed with
Trediakovsky, umarokov also advocated the use of simple, natural language in order todiversify the audience and make more efficient use of the Russian language. 6ike his colleagues
and counterparts, umarokov e$tolled the legacy of 8eter I, writing in his manifesto &pistle on
Poetry, UThe great 8eter hurls his thunder from the *altic shores, the Russian sword glitters in all
corners of the universeV.J@K 8eter the "reat's policies of westerni+ation and displays of military
prowess naturally attracted umarokov and his contemporaries.
#ikhail &asilyevich 6omonosov, in particular, e$pressed his gratitude for and dedication to
8eter's legacy in his unfinished Peter the reat , 6omonosov's works often focused on themes of
the aweEinspiring, grandeur nature, and was therefore drawn to 8eter because of the magnitude of
his military, architectural, and cultural feats. In contrast to umarokov's devotion to simplicity,6omonosov favored a belief in a hierarchy of literary styles divided into high, middle, and low.
This style facilitated 6omonosov's grandiose, high minded writing and use of both vernacular
and ChurchElavonic.J4K
The influence of 8eter I and debates over the function and form of literature as it related to the
Russian language in the first half of the !th century set a stylistic precedent for the writers
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during the reign of Catherine the "reat in the second half of the century. -owever, the themes
and scopes of the works these writers produced were often more poignant, political and
controversial. le$ander ;ikolayevich Radishchev, for e$ample, shocked the Russian public
with his depictions of the socioEeconomic condition of the serfs. This )mpress Catherine II
condemned this portrayal, forcing Radishchev into e$ile in iberia.JK
Others, however, picked topics less offensive to the autocrat. ;ikolay (aram+in, /G%>, for
e$ample, is known for his advocacy of Russian writers adopting traits in the poetry and prose
like a heightened sense of emotion and physical vanity, considered to be feminine at the time as
well as supporting the cause of female Russian writers. (aram+in's call for male writers to write
with femininity was not in accordance with the )nlightenment ideals of reason and theory,
considered masculine attributes. -is works were thus not universally wellEreceived, however
they did reflect in some areas of society a growing respect for, or at least ambivalence toward, a
female ruler in Catherine the "reat. This concept heralded an era of regarding female
characteristics in writing as an abstract concept linked with attributes of frivolity, vanity and pathos.
ome writers, on the other hand, were more direct in their praise for Catherine II. "avrila
Romanovich er+havin, famous for his odes, often dedicated his poems to )mpress Catherine II.
In contrast to most of his contemporaries, er+havin was highly devoted to his state5 he served in
the military, before rising to various roles in Catherine II's government, including secretary to the
)mpress and #inister of Fustice. <nlike those who took after the grand style of #ikhail
6omonosov and le$ander umarokov, er+havin was concerned with the minute details of his
subBects.
enis Aonvi+in, an author primarily of comedy, approached the subBect of the Russian nobility
with an angle of critiHue. Aonvi+in felt the nobility should be held to the standards they were
under the reign of 8eter the "reat, during which the Huality of devotion to the state was
rewarded. -is works critici+ed the current system for rewarding the nobility without holding
them responsible for the duties they once performed. <sing satire and comedy, Aonvi+in
supported a system of nobility in which the elite were rewarded based upon personal merit rather
than the hierarchal favoritism that was rampant during Catherine the "reat's reign.J/
Golden Age
The !th century is traditionally referred to as the 0"olden )ra0 of Russian literature.
Romanticism permitted a flowering of especially poetic talentL the names of &asily 1hukovsky
and later that of his protg le$ander 8ushkin came to the fore. 8ushkin is credited with both
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crystalli+ing the literary Russian language and introducing a new level of artistry to Russian
literature. -is bestEknown work is a novel in verse, &ugene (negin. n entire new generation of
poets including #ikhail 6ermontov, :evgeny *aratynsky, (onstantin *atyushkov, ;ikolay
;ekrasov, leksey (onstantinovich Tolstoy, Ayodor Tyutchev, and fanasy Aet followed in
8ushkin's steps.
8rose was flourishing as well. The first great Russian novelist was ;ikolai "ogol. Then came
;ikolai 6eskov, Ivan Turgenev, #ikhail altykovEhchedrin, all mastering both short stories and
novels, and novelist Ivan "oncharov. 6eo Tolstoy and Ayodor ostoyevsky soon became
internationally renowned to the point that many scholars such as A. R. 6eavis have described one
or the other as the greatest novelist ever. In the second half of the century nton Chekhov
e$celled in writing short stories and became perhaps the leading dramatist internationally of his
period.
Other important !thEcentury developments included the fabulist Ivan (rylov5 nonEfiction
writers such as &issarion *elinsky and le$ander -er+en5 playwrights such as leksandr
"riboyedov, leksandr Ostrovsky and the satirist (o+ma 8rutkov 2a collective pen name7.
;ineteenth century Russian literature perpetuated disparate ideas of suicide5 it became another
facet of culture and society in which men and women were regarded and treated differently.
woman could not commit the noble, heroic suicide that a man could5 she would not be regarded
highly or as a martyr , but as a simple human who, overcome with feelings of love gone
unfulfilled and having no one to protect her from being victimi+ed by society, surrendered
herself.J%K #any of the !th century Russian heroines were victims of suicide as well as victims
of the lifestyle of t. 8etersburg, which was long argued to have imported the very idea of and Bustifications for suicide into Russia. t. 8etersburg, which was built as a ?estern rather than a
Russian city was long accused by supporters of traditional Russian lifestyles as importing
?estern ideasWthe ideas of achieving nobility, committing suicide and, the synthesis of these
two ideas, the nobility of suicide being among them. J!K
;ovels set in #oscow in particular, such as Anna )arenina, and Bednaia Liza 28oor 6i+a7,J3K
follow a trend of female suicides which suggest a weakness in character which e$ists only
because they are women5 they are said by readers to be driven by their emotions into situations
from which suicide seems to be the only escape. These instances of selfEmurder have no deeper
meaning than that and, in the case of Bednaia Liza* the setting of #oscow serves only to providea familiarity which will draw the reader to it, and away from ?estern novels.J3K
Contrastingly, many novels set in t. 8etersburg viewed suicide primarily through the lens of a
male protagonist 2as in Ayodor ostoyevskyXs Crime and 8unishment7 as opposed to the females
who held the spotlight in the aforementioned titles. *eyond that, instead of the few females who
commit suicide in these 8etersburg te$tsJ3K being propelled to such lengths by a love so powerful
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and inescapable that it consumed them, financial hardships and moral degradation which they
faced in the Imperial CapitalJ3K contaminated or destroyed their femininity5 related to this,
prostitution became markedly more prominent in popular literature in the !th century.J%K
nother new aspect of literary suicides introduced in the 8etersburg te$ts is that authors have
shifted their ga+es from individuals and their plotEdriving actions to presentations of broad
political ideologies, which are common to "reek and Roman heroesWthis step was taken in
order to establish a connection between Russian male protagonists who take their own lives and
Classic tragic heroes, whereas the women of the literature remained as microcosms for the
stereotyped idea of the female condition. The idea of suicide as a mode of protecting oneXs right
to selfEsovereignty was seen as legitimate within the sphere of t. 8etersburg, a secular and
U"odlessYVJ3K capital. <nlike Classic tragic heroes, the deaths of male protagonists, such as in
;ikolai "ogolXs evskii Prospekt and mitry "rigorovichXs #vistul+kin, did not bring about great
celebrations in their honor, or even faint remembrances amongst their comrades. In fact, both
protagonists die lonely deaths, suffering Huietly and alone in their final hours. <ntil the Russianrevolution in !/, such themes remained prominent in literature. J3K
Silver Age
The beginning of the >3th century ranks as the ilver ge of Russian poetry. ?ellEknown poets
of the period includeL le$ander *lok , ergei :esenin, &alery *ryusov, (onstantin *almont,
#ikhail (u+min, Igor everyanin, asha Chorny, ;ikolay "umilyov, #a$imilian &oloshin,
Innokenty nnensky, 1inaida "ippius. The poets most often associated with the 0ilver ge0 are
nna khmatova, #arina Tsvetaeva, Osip #andelstam and *oris 8asternak .
?hile the ilver ge is considered to be the development of the !th century Russian literature
tradition, some avantEgarde poets tried to overturn itL &elimir (hlebnikov, avid *urliuk ,
leksei (ruchenykh and &ladimir #ayakovsky.
Though the ilver ge is famous mostly for its poetry, it produced some firstErate novelists and
shortEstory writers, such as leksandr (uprin, ;obel 8ri+e winner Ivan *unin, 6eonid ndreyev,
Aedor ologub, leksey Remi+ov, :evgeny 1amyatin, mitry #ere+hkovsky and ndrei *ely,
though most of them wrote poetry as well as prose.
20th century
?ith the victory of Russia's Revolution, #ayakovsky worked on interpreting the facts of the new
reality. #ayakovsky works such as 0Ode to the Revolution0 and 06eft #arch0 2both !%7
brought innovations to poetry. In 06eft #arch0, #ayakovsky calls for a struggle against the
enemies of the Russian Revolution. The poem 043,333,3330 discusses the leading played by the
masses in the revolution. In the poem 0&ladimir Ilyich 6enin0 2!>@7, #ayakovsky looks at the
life and work at the leader of Russia's revolution and depicts them against a broad historical
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background. In the poem 0It's "ood0, #ayakovsky writes about socialist society being the
0springtime of humanity0. #ayakovsky was instrumental in producing a new type of poetry in
which politics played a maBor part. JK
In the !93s ocialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was
#a$im "orky, who laid the foundations of this style with his works The ,other and his play The
&nemies 2both !37. -is autobiographical trilogy describes his Bourney from the poor of society
to the development of his political consciousness. -is novel The Artamanov Business 2!>47 and
his play )gor *ulyshov 2!9>7 depict the decay and inevitable downfall of Russia's ruling
classes. "orky defined socialist realism as the 0realism of people who are rebuilding the world,0
and points out that it looks at the past 0from the heights of the future's goals0. "orky considered
the main task of writers to help in the development of the new man in socialist society. "orky's
version of a heroic revolutionary is 8avel &lasov from the novel 0#other0, who displays
selflessness and compassion for the working poor, as well as discipline and dedication. "orky's
works were significant for the development of literature in Russia and became influential inmany parts of the world.J>K
;ikolay Ostrovsky's novel -o. the #teel /as Tempered has been among the most successful
works of Russian literature, with tens of millions of copies printed in many languages around the
world. In China, various versions of the book have sold more than 3 million copies.J9K In
Russia, more than 94 million copies of the book are in circulation.J@K The book is a fictionali+ed
autobiography of Ostrovsky's life, who had a difficult workingEclass childhood and became a
(omsomol member in Fuly !! and went to the front as a volunteer. The novel's protagonist,
8avel (orchagin, represented the 0young hero0 of Russian literatureL he is dedicated to his
political causes, which help him to overcome his tragedies. The novel has served as aninspiration to youths around the world and played a mobili+ing role in Russia's "reat 8atriotic
?ar. J4K
le$ander Aadeyev achieved noteworthy success in Russia, with tens of millions of copies of his
books in circulation in Russia and around the world. J@K #any of Aadeyev's works have been
staged and filmed and translated into many languages in Russia and around the world. Aadeyev
served as a secretary of the oviet ?riters' <nion and was the general secretary of the union's
administrative board from !@ to !4@. -e was awarded two Orders of 6enin and various
medals. -is novel The 0out deals with the partisan struggle in Russia's Aar )ast during the
Russian Revolution and Civil ?ar. Aadeyev described the theme of this novel as one of arevolution significantly transforming the masses. The novel's protagonist 6evinson is a
*olshevik revolutionary who has a high level of political consciousness. The novel The 1oung
uard , which received the tate 8ri+e of the <R in !@, focuses on an underground
(omsomol group in (rasnodon, <kraine and their struggle against the fascist occupation. JK
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The first years of the oviet regime were marked by the proliferation of avantEgarde literature
groups. One of the most important was the Oberiu movement that included ;ikolay 1abolotsky,
le$ander &vedensky, (onstantin &aginov and the most famous Russian absurdist aniil
(harms. Other famous authors e$perimenting with language were novelists ndrei 8latonov and
:uri Olesha and short story writers Isaak *abel and #ikhail 1oshchenko.
?riters like those of erapion *rothers group, who insisted on the right of an author to write
independently of political ideology, were forced by authorities to reBect their views and accept
ocialist realism principles. ome !93s writers, such as #ikhail *ulgakov, author of The
#aster and #argarita, and ;obelEpri+e winning *oris 8asternak with his novel Do"tor !hivago
continued the classical tradition of Russian literature with little or no hope of being published.
Their maBor works would not be published until the (hrushchev Thaw and 8asternak was forced
to refuse his ;obel pri+e.
#eanwhile, 2migr2 writers, such as poets &yacheslav Ivanov, "eorgy Ivanov and &ladislav
(hodasevich5 novelists such as "aito "a+danov, #ark ldanov and &ladimir ;abokov and short
story ;obel 8ri+e winning writer Ivan *unin, continued to write in e$ile.
The (hrushchev Thaw brought some fresh wind to the literature. 8oetry became a mass cultural
phenomenonL :evgeny :evtushenko, ndrei &o+nesensky, Robert Ro+hdestvensky and *ella
khmadulina read their poems in stadiums and attracted huge crowds.
ome writers dared to oppose oviet ideology, like short story writer &arlam halamov and
;obel 8ri+e winning novelist leksandr ol+henitsyn, who wrote about life in the gulag camps,
or &asily "rossman, with his description of ?orld ?ar II events countering the oviet officialhistoriography. They were dubbed 0dissidents0 and could not publish their maBor works until the
!3s.
*ut the thaw did not last long. In the !/3s, some of the most prominent authors were not only
banned from publishing, but were also prosecuted for their ntiEoviet sentiments or parasitism.
ol+henitsyn was e$pelled from the country. Others, such as ;obel pri+e winning poet Foseph
*rodsky, novelists &asily ksyonov, )duard 6imonov and asha okolov, and short story writer
ergei ovlatov, had to emigrate to the <, while &enedikt :erofeyev and Oleg "rigoriev
0emigrated0 to alcoholism. Their books were not published officially until perestroika, although
fans continued to reprint them manually in a manner called 0sami+dat0 2selfEpublishing7.
Popular genres
Children's literature in oviet <nion was considered a maBor genre, because of its educational
role. large share of early period children's books were poemsL (orney Chukovsky, amuil
#arshak , gnia *arto were among the most read. 0dult0 poets, such as #ayakovsky and
ergey #ikhalkov, contributed to the genre as well. ome of the early oviet children's prose
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was loose adaptations of foreign fairy tales unknown in contemporary Russia. le$ey ;. Tolstoy
wrote Buratino, a lightEhearted and shortened adaptation of Carlo Collodi's Pino""hio. le$ander
&olkov introduced fantasy fiction to oviet children with his loose translation of Arank 6.
*aum's The /onderful /izard of (z , published as The /izard of the &merald City, and then
wrote a series of five seHuels, unrelated to *aum. Other notable authors include ;ikolay ;osov,
6a+ar 6agin, &italy *ianki.
?hile fairy tales were relatively free from ideological oppression, the realistic children's prose of
the talin era was highly ideological and pursued the goal to raise children as patriots and
communists. notable e$ample is rkady "aydar , himself a Red rmy soldier in Russian Civil
?ar L his stories and plays about Timur describe a team of young pioneer volunteers who help the
eldery and resist hooligans. There was a genre of hero pioneer story, that bore some similarities
with Christian genre of hagiography. In (hrushov and *re+hnev times, however, the pressure
lightened. #idE and late oviet children's books by )duard <spensky, :uri )ntin, &iktor
ragunsky bear no signs of propaganda. In the !/3s many of these books, as well as stories byforeign children's writers, were adapted into animation.
oviet cience fiction, inspired by scientistic revolution, industrialisation, and the country's
space pioneering, was flourishing, albeit in the limits allowed by censors. )arly science fiction
authors, such as le$ander *elyayev, "rigory damov, &ladimir Obruchev, leksey
;ikolayevich Tolstoy, stack to hard science fiction and regarded -. ". ?ells and Fules &erne as
e$amples to follow. Two notable e$clusions from this trend were :evgeny 1amyatin, author of
dystopian novel /e, and #ikhail *ulgakov, who, while using science fiction instrumentary in
-eart of a Dog * The 3atal &ggs and Ivan %asilyevi"h, was interested in social satire rather than
scientistic progress. The two have had problems with publishing their books in oviet <nion.
ince the thaw in the !43s oviet science fiction began to form its own style. 8hilosophy,
ethics, utopian and dystopian ideas became its core, and ocial science fiction was the most
popular subgenre.J/K lthough the view of )arth's future as that of utopian communist society
was the only welcome, the liberties of genre still offered a loophole for free e$pression. *ooks of
brothers rkady and *oris trugatsky, and (ir *ulychev, among others, are reminiscent of social
problems and often include satire on contemporary oviet society. Ivan :efremov, on the
contrary, arose to fame with his utopian views on future as well as on ncient "reece in his
historical novels. trugatskies are also credited for the oviet's first science fantasy, the #onday
*egins on aturday trilogy. Other notable science fiction writers included &ladimir avchenko, "eorgy "urevich, le$ander (a+antsev, "eorgy #artynov, :eremey 8arnov. pace opera was
less developed, since both state censors and serious writers watched it unfavorably. ;evertheless,
there were moderately successful attempts to adapt space westerns to oviet soil. The first was
le$ander (olpakov with 0"riada0, after came ergey negov with 0#en 6ike "ods0, among
others.
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specific branch of both science fiction and children's books appeared in midEoviet eraL the
children's science fiction. It was meant to educate children while enterteining them. The star of
the genre was *ulychov, who, along with his adult books, created children's space adventure
series about lisa ele+neva, a teenage girl from the future. Others include ;ikolay ;osov with
his books about dwarf ;e+nayka, )vgeny &eltistov, who wrote about robot boy )lectronic, &italy
#elentyev, &ladislav (rapivin, &italy "ubarev.
#ystery was another popular genre. etectives by brothers rkady and "eorgy &ayner and spy
novels by :ulian emyonov were bestEselling,J%K and many of them were adapted into film or T&
in !/3's and !%3s.
&illage prose is a genre that conveys nostalgic decriptions of rural life. &alentin RasputinXs !/
novel, Prosh"haniye s ,atyoroy 2 3are.ell to ,atyora7 depicted a village faced with destruction
to make room for a hydroelectric plant.J!K
-istorical fiction in the early oviet era included a large share of memoirs, fictionali+ed or not.
&alentin (atayev and 6ev (assil wrote semiEautobiographic books about children's life in Tsarist
Russia. &ladimir "ilyarovsky wrote ,os"o. and ,us"ovites, about life in preErevolutionary
#oscow. The late oviet historical fiction was dominated by ?orld ?ar II novels and short
stories by authors such as *oris &asilyev, &iktor stafyev, *oris 8olevoy, &asil *ykaZ, among
many others, based on the authors' own war e$perience. &asily :an and (onstantin *adygin are
best known for their novels on #edieval Rus, and :ury Tynyanov for writing on Russian
)mpire. &alentin 8ikul wrote about many different epochs and countries in an le$ander umasE
inspired style. In the !/3s there appeared a relatively independent &illage 8rose, whose most
prominent representatives were &iktor stafyev and &alentin Rasputin.
ny sort of fiction that dealt with the occult, either horror , adultEoriented fantasy or magic
realism, was unwelcome in oviet Russia. <ntil !%3's very few books in these genres were
written, and even fewer were published, although earlier books, such as by "ogol, were not
banned. Of the rare e$ceptions, *ulgakov in ,aster and ,argarita 2not published in author's
lifetime7 and trugatskies in ,onday Begins on #aturday introduced magic and mystical
creatures into contemporary oviet reality to satiri+e it. nother e$ception was early oviet
writer le$ander "rin, who wrote romantic tales, both realistic and fantastic.
Post-Soviet era
)nd of the >3th century has proven a difficult period for Russian literature, with relatively few
distinct voices. lthough the censorship was lifted and writers could now freely e$press their
thoughts, !!3's political and economic chaos affected the book market and literature heavily.
*ook printing industry descended into crisis, the number of printed book copies dropped several
times in comparison to oviet era, and it took about a decade to revive.
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mong the most discussed authors of this period were &ictor 8elevin, who gained popularity
with first short stories and then novels, novelist and playwright &ladimir orokin, and the poet
mitry 8rigov. relatively new trend in Russian literature is that female short story writers
Tatyana Tolstaya or 6yudmila 8etrushevskaya, and novelists 6yudmila <litskaya or ina Rubina
have come into prominence. The tradition of the classic Russian novel continues with such
authors as #ikhail hishkin and &asily ksyonov.
etective stories and thrillers have proven a very successful genre of new Russian literatureL in
the !!3s serial detective novels by le$andra #arinina, 8olina ashkova and arya ontsova
were published in millions of copies. In the ne$t decade a more highbrow author *oris kunin
with his series about the !th century sleuth )rast Aandorin became widely popular.
cience fiction is still among bestEselling, albeit second to fantasy, that was relatively new to
Russian readers. These genres boomed in late !!3s, with authors like ergey 6ukyanenko, ;ick
8erumov, #aria emenova, &era (amsha, le$ey 8ekhov and &adim 8anov. good share of
modern Russian science fiction and fantasy is written in <kraineJ>3K, especially in (harkivJ>K,
home to -. 6. Oldie, le$ander 1orich, :uri ;ikitin and ndrey &alentinov. #any others hail
from (iev, including #arina and ergey yachenko and &ladimir renev. ignificant
contribution to Russian horror literature has been done by <krainians ndrey ashkov and
le$ander &argo.
The leading poets of the young generation are arguably mitry &odennikov and ndrey
Rodionov, both famous not only for their verses, but also for their ability to artistically recite
them. In the late >333s 2decade7 a new generation of young poets came, who prefer the classic
style of writing, which inherits the traditions of the ilver geL #aria #arkova 2owner of theRussian presidential award7, ndrey ;itchenko 2winner of many authoritative literary contests7
and many others.
Trent Fohnson was a leading critic of Russian literature during this time.
External infuences
ritish ro!antic poetry
Robert *urns became a [peopleXs poetX in Russia. In Imperial times the Russian aristocracy were
so out of touch with the peasantry that *urns, translated into Russian, became a symbol for theordinary Russian people. In oviet Russia *urns was elevated as the archetypical poet of the
people G not least since the oviet regime slaughtered and silenced its own poets. new
translation of *urns, begun in !>@ by amuil #arshak , proved enormously popular selling over
33,333 copies.J>>KJ>9K In !4, the oviet <nion became the first country in the world to honour
*urns with a commemorative stamp. The poetry of *urns is taught in Russian schools alongside
their own national poets. *urns was a great admirer of the egalitarian ethos behind the Arench
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Revolution. ?hether *urns would have recognised the same principles at work in the oviet
tate at its most repressive is moot. This didnXt stop the Communists from claiming *urns as one
of their own and incorporating his work into their state propaganda. The post communist years of
rampant capitalism in Russia have not tarnished *urns' reputation.J>@K
6ord *yron was a maBor influence on almost all Russian poets of the "olden )ra, including
8ushkin, &ya+emsky, 1hukovsky, *atyushkov, *aratynsky, elvig and, especially, 6ermontov.J>4K
"rench #iterature
?riters such as &ictor -ugo and -onor de *al+ac were widely influential.
A$road
Russian literature is not only written by Russians. In the oviet times such popular writers as
*elarusian &asil *ykaZ, (yrgy+ Chinghi+ itmatov and bkha+ Aa+il Iskander wrote some of
their books in Russian. ome renowned contemporary authors writing in Russian have been born
and live in <kraine 2ndrey (urkov, #arina and ergey yachenko7 or *altic tates 2"arros
and )vdokimov7. #any, if not the most, <krainian fantasy and science fiction authors write in
RussianJ>3K, which gives them access to a much broader audience, and usually publish their books
via Russian publishers such as )ksmo, +buka and T.
number of prominent Russian authors such as novelists #ikhail hishkin, Rubn "allego,
vetlana #artynchik and ina Rubina, poets le$ei Tsvetkov and *akhyt (enBeev, though born
in <R, live and work in ?est )urope, ;orth merica or Israel.
$0th century
•
#ikhail 6omonosov
•
le$ander umarokov
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•
"avrila er+havin
•
le$ander Radishchev
•
;ikolay (aram+in
•
Ivan (rylov
.olden Age
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&asily 1hukovsky
le$ander 8ushkin
Ayodor Tyutchev
;ikolai "ogol
le$ander -er+en
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Ivan "oncharov
#ikhail *akunin
#ikhail 6ermontov
Ivan Turgenev
fanasy Aet
;ikolai ;ekrasov
Ayodor ostoyevsky
le$ander Ostrovsky
#ikhail altykovEchedrin
6eo Tolstoy
;ikolai 6eskov
8eter (ropotkin
nton Chekhov
1ilver Age
mitry #ere+hkovsky
Ivan *unin
6eonid ndreyev
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Osip #andelstam
&ladimir #ayakovsky
ergei :esenin
&alery *ryusov
ndrey *ely
le$ander *lok
:evgeny 1amyatin
nna khmatova
&alery *ryusov
ndrey *ely
le$ander *lok
:evgeny 1amyatin
nna khmatova
23th century
leksey Tolstoy
*oris 8asternak
#ikhail *ulgakov
#arina Tsvetaeva
Isaak *abel
Ilya Ilf and :evgeny 8etrov
&ladimir ;abokov
#ikhail holokhov
aniil (harms
le$ander *elayev
leksandr ol+henitsyn
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)duard 6imonov
&ladimir orokin
*oris kunin
&ictor 8elevin
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ergei 6ukyanenko
Middle Ages /lothing ::
Image $
Middle Ages /lothing ::
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Middle Ages /lothing ::
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