7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

1/107

Systems Analysis and Design

Lecturer: Albert Osei

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

2/107

PARIS MODEL

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

3/107

PHASE I

Planning the approach

One of the main causes of project failure isinadequate understanding of the requirements

one of the main causes of inadequateunderstanding of the requirements is poorplanning of system analysis.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

4/107

Cont

The first step taken by the systems analystshould be to plan the approach carefully,bearing in mind the old saying that

failure to prepare is to

prepare to fail!

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

5/107

Cont..

Before requirement gathering starts, theanalyst needs to stand back, recall theobjectives of the project, and consider the

following three points in order to plan;

What type of information is required?

What are the constraints on the investigation?

What are the potential problems?

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

6/107

CASE Study

Lets consider an example: You work for a Companybased in UK. Your company has just won the followingcontract with Nestle Gh. Limited. The contract covers:

Analysis of Nestles current warehousing, stock control andmanufacturing systems and the integration of these systems;

an investigation of Nestles current problems and of futurestrategic plans in this area;

production of a report outlining your companys proposals formeeting Nestles future systems requirements in warehousing,stock control and manufacturing systems.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

7/107

Cont..

Nestle is an international company and haspresence all over the world.

The company has four manufacturing sites atAccra, Kumasi, Takoradi and Tamale. There arewarehouses at each manufacturing site;

Against this background think about how youwould plan this investigation.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

8/107

It will be good to think about the:

The critical information you require before theinvestigation starts;

HOW you will get that information;WHAT techniques will be appropriate;

What are the constraint- to the project and thecompany.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

9/107

Planning is the answer.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

10/107

Planning

As part of the planning process, analysts mustensure that: He understand the objectives and terms of reference

agreed with the client;

He must be aware of constraints that affect theanalysis process;

they plan the research, initial contact and other tasks

to be completed during

the investigation and manage time appropriately

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

11/107

Objectives &

Terms of Reference

To understand more about the clientsexpectations, you need to ask a number ofkey questions at the beginning of the

analysis phase of the project:

Who initiated the project?

What is their role in the organisation? What are their objectives for the project?

What are the company objectives

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

12/107

Cont..

Once you know the answers to thesequestions, you can begin to understandthe context in which the analysis is to be

carried out.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

13/107

Projects are usually initiated to meetorganisational need:

Senior management: strategic planning anddecision making

Line managers: system to support their activities

The IT dept: cost-efficiency, new technologies or

method of working

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

14/107

Whatever the case might be, management oforganisation expect to benefit, e.g:

increased profitability;

improved cash flow;

more effective utilisation of resources,

improved customer service leading to customer

satisfaction.faster access to management information;

better management control

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

15/107

Analyst will be in good position to addressmanagements problems if they are able to

prioritized the OBJECTIVE. To help in;

Planning the analysis phase

Writing proposal after the analysis

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

16/107

The stated objectives of the client areusually recorded in the terms of reference.

main areas included in the terms ofreference.

System boundaries-(Scope)

ConstraintsObjectives

Permissions

Deliverables

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

17/107

System Boundaries

System boundarydefine the area of theorganisation under investigation and mayalso specify the limit of any new system

Implemented as a result of the project.

Should be a paragraph or a series of dot

points, describing where theprocess/system/operation/issue to bestudied begins and ends

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

18/107

Constraints

Restrict the project, or the solution, in manyways. May be expressed in terms of;

Fig 1.0: Constraints on possible solution

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

19/107

Objectives

An unambiguous statement of theexpectations of those in the clients

organisation who have initiated the project.

These may be broken down by function ordepartment.

Well-defined objectives are clear andmeasurable.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

20/107

Permission

This will indicate who in the clientsorganisation is responsible for thesupervision of the project.

and, if permission needs to be grantedfor example to extend the scope of theanalysis who has the authority to do so.

Points of contact and the appropriatereporting structure may also be defined.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

21/107

Deliverable

A description of the deliverable or endproducts of the investigation.

Usually they fall into makingrecommendation for: solving a problem;

improving a process or a system; making a change;

creating a new system

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

22/107

USES OF TR

Planning

Reference point for the project

Resolving conflicts that may arise

Thus;

Must exist, if none exist, create it andagree with the client

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

23/107

Constraints

After understanding the TR and the Objective

Its important that all constraints are understood

in order to help with planning and to avoid

problems

Constraints may be set by the customer to limitthe options that may be presented as part of the

system proposals.

They may be expressed in the TR

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

24/107

They may be expressed in termsof;

Technology: software orhardware

Environment: skilled or unskilled

users, place of use..

Timescale: delivery time baseon customer/gov policy

Budget: cash available for thepurchase of hardware or

software, limitations on theoperation budget

Scope:area under investigation,system boundary

Fig 1.1: Constraints on possible solution

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

25/107

Other constraints are:

.

Fig 1.2: Constraints on investigation -help in selecting the right fact-finding approach

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

26/107

Getting Ready

for Detailed AnalysisIn order for analysts to be well prepared for the laterstages of systems analysis, and to increase theircredibility in interviews with client staff andstakeholders more time needs to be spent on research

during the planning stageThis means:

Understanding the TRReviewing relevant documents

Contract documents

Annual reports Organisation structures

Identify the types of information you will need to collect during yourinvestigationThe areas to be investigated

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

27/107

Following are examples of topics that the analyst may wish to investigate:

Growth What plans does the organisation have for future growth, what would be the information requirements to support this growth

Functionality. What are the major areas of the business the functions that will be investigated during the system, and what are the clients requirements for the functionality of the system?

Procedures. What procedures, standards and guidelines govern the way in which the

organisation conducts its business are they recorded somewhere

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

28/107

Volumes. What are the volumes of data that pass through the system?

how many orders are processed by the sales department in a week?How many amendments are made to customer records each month?

Fluctuations. What bottlenecks or hold-ups are there in the system, Where and when do these occur in the current system? What steps are taken to deal with these?

Information required.

What information is currently required by the business in order to carry out itsfunctions effectively,

what are the sources of this information? What information, if available, will it benefits the organisation?

Environment.

In what type of environment is the business conducted how does this affect the way in which information is exchanged?

Problems. In the view of users, what are the main problems with the system, what are the implications of these problems,

how can the problems be overcome?

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

29/107

In planning the approach to analysis, animportant area to consider is the:

First face-to-face contact with the client.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

30/107

Why Face-to-face

Contact

To gather requirements

To build a good relationship with the client

To establish the analysts credibility

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

31/107

Face-to-face

Meeting Ethics

In all meetings with users, the following guidelinesrepresent good practice:

Focus on confidentiality, integrity, respect and confidence-

building. Recognise expertise in the users and welcome their input.

Have as a key objective the need to build the clients

confidence.

Keep everybody informed. This includes client contacts andproject staff.

Be discreet and diplomatic.

Double-check any information gathered.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

32/107

There are many tasks to complete duringsystems analysis however there arelimited time;

Time management is one of the factors tobe taken into consideration

It should be budgeted for, managed andused

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

33/107

To help you manage your time as effectivelyas possible, here are some guidelines: Listobjectives and set priorities.

Make a daily to do list Handle paper only once.

Set and keep deadlines

Ask yourself frequently Whats the best use of my time rightnow?

Always carry a notebook

Do it now (The right time is now..).

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

34/107

The Feasibility Study

The objectives of a feasibility study are to find out if the projectcan be done (...is it possible?...is it justified?) and to suggestpossible alternative solutionsA feasibility study should provide management with enoughinformation to decide:

Whether the project can be done; Whether the final product will benefit its intended users;

What are the alternatives among which a solution will be chosen (duringsubsequent phases)?

Is there a preferred alternative?

After a feasibility study, management makes a go/no-godecision.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

35/107

Thus, analyst should concentrate onproviding answers to four key questions:

How much -The cost of the new system.

What -The objectives of the new system.

When -The delivery timescale.

How -The means and procedures used toproduce the new system.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

36/107

What to study

Things to be studied during the feasibility study phase:The present organizational system

users, policies, functions, objectives,...

Problems with the present system

inconsistencies, inadequacies in functionality, performance,...,

Objectives and other requirements for the new system What needs to change?

Constraints, including non-functional requirements on the system

preliminary passPossible alternatives

the current system is always one of those

Advantages and disadvantages of the alternatives

Things to conclude: Feasibility of the project and the preferred alternative.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

37/107

Types of Feasibility

Operational Define the urgency of the problem and the acceptability of any solution; If the

system is developed, will it be used? Includes people-oriented and social issues:internal issues, such as manpower problems, labour objections, managerresistance, organizational conflicts and policies; also external issues, includingsocial acceptability, legal aspects and government regulations.

Technical Is the project feasibility within the limits of current technology? Does thetechnology exist at all? Is it available within given resource constraints (i.e.,budget, schedule,...)

Economic(Cost/Benefits Analysis) Is the project possible, given resource constraints? Are the benefits that will

accrue from the new system worth the costs? What are the savings that willresult from the system, including tangible and intangible ones? What are thedevelopment and operational costs?

Schedule Constraints on the project schedule and whether they could be reasonably met.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

38/107

Operational Feasibility:

The PIECES FrameworkThe PIECES framework can help in identifying operational problems to besolved, and their urgency:

Performance - Does current mode of operation provide adequatethroughput and response time?

Information - Does current mode provide end users and managers with

timely, to the point, accurate and usefully formatted information?Economy- Does current mode of operation provide cost-effectiveinformation services to the business? Could there be a reduction in costsand/or an increase in benefits?

Control - Does current mode of operation offer effective controls toprotect against fraud and to guarantee accuracy and security of data andinformation?

Efficiency- Does current mode of operation make maximum use ofavailable resources, including people, time, flow of forms,...

Services-Does current mode of operation provide reliable service? Is it

flexible and expandable?

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

39/107

How do end-users and managers feel about the problem(solution)?

It's not only important to evaluate whether a system canwork

but also evaluate whether a system willwork.

A workable solution might fail because of end user ormanagement resistance. Does management support the project?

How do the end users feel about their role in the new system? What end users or managers may resist or not use the system?

People tend to resist change. Can this problem be overcome?If so, how?

How will the working environment of the end users change?

Can or will end users and management adapt to the change

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

40/107

Technical FeasibilityIs the proposed technology or solution

practical?Do we currently possess the necessarytechnology?

Do we possess the necessary technicalexpertise, and is the schedule reasonable?

Is relevant technology mature enough to beeasily applied to our problem?

Some firms like to use state-of-the-arttechnology, but most firms prefer to use mature

and proven technology.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

41/107

A mature technology has a larger customer basefor obtaining advice concerning problems andimprovements.

Assuming that required technology ispractical, is it available in the informationsystems shop? If the technology is available,does it have the capacity to handle the

solution.

If the technology is not available, can it beacquired?

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

42/107

Schedule FeasibilityWe may have the technology, but that doesn't mean wehave the skills required to properly apply that technology.True, all information systems professionals can learn newtechnologies. However, that learning curve will impactthe technical feasibility of the project; specifically, it willimpact the schedule.

Given our technical expertise, are the project deadlinesreasonable? Some projects are initiated with specificdeadlines. You need to determine whether the deadlinesare mandatory or desirable. If the deadlines aredesirable rather than mandatory, the analyst can proposealternative schedules.

It is preferable (unless the deadline is absolutelymandatory) to deliver a properly functioning system twomonths late than to deliver an error-prone, uselessinformation system on time!

Missed schedules are bad, but inadequate systems areworse!

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

43/107

Economic Feasibility

The bottom line in many projects is economicfeasibility.

During the early phases of the project, economic

feasibility analysis amounts to little more thanjudging whether the possible benefits of solvingthe problem are worthwhile.

As soon as specific requirements and solutions

have been identified, the analyst can weigh thecosts and benefits of each alternative.

This is called a cost-benefit analysis.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

44/107

Cost/Benefit AnalysisThe purpose of a cost/benefit analysis is to answer

questions such as: Is the project justified (because benefits outweigh costs)? Can the project be done, within given cost constraints? What is the minimal cost to attain a certain system?

What is the preferred alternative, among candidate solutions?

Examples of things to consider: Hardware/software selection How to convince management to develop the new system Selection among alternative financing arrangements

(rent/lease/purchase)

Difficulties - discovering and assessing benefits andcosts; they can both be intangible, hidden and/or hard to estimate, it's also hard to rank multi-criteria alternatives

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

45/107

Feasibility study report

A report is written after the studyThe content should include:

Fig 1.3: Feasibility study report content

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

46/107

Background

Terms of reference.

Reasons for the study

This section will outline the background tothe project and the way it relates to thestated objectives of the organisation.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

47/107

The current situation

Overview of current situation.

Problems and requirements identified.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

48/107

Proposed solutionA description of the requirements of a new system along with

a number of options explaining how this solution might beimplemented. Each option will address:

Technical implications

how it meets the requirements, the hardware and software needed.

Operational implications the impact the solution will have on the business in terms of human,

organisational and political aspects.

Cost implications both initial (capital) and continuing (operational). There are a number of

methods of assessing the costs of solutions. In the feasibility report, theanalyst should use the cost assessment method specified by the client.

C t b fit l i

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

49/107

Costbenefits analysis

A comparison of costs and benefitsprepared using whatever evaluation

technique is favoured by the organisation.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

50/107

Recommendations

A brief statement that presents the main points of theprevious sections of the report.

3 types of recommendation can be made in afeasibility report:

Advising the client to progress with the full detailedanalysis. If this is the case, a plan would also be includedfor this phase of the project.

Advising the client to review the terms of reference or thescope of the study before proceeding further or making anyjudgement on feasibility.

Advising the client to scrap the project as it is not feasible;

the resources could be better spent elsewhere.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

51/107

Once the feasibility report has beendelivered

Assuming that the recommendation madeby the analyst is to proceed, the detailed

systems analysis phase can begin

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

52/107

To start the investigation the following

needs to be done;

collect information about the current system

record the problems & requirements

building up a picture of the required system

NextAsking Questions & Collecting Data

A ki Q ti &

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

53/107

Asking Questions &

Collecting Data

Fact-finding takes place from the start of theproject:

during the feasibility study

right through to the final implementationDuring the investigation, information about thecurrent system is collect to:

establishes what the existing system does

Details of inputs and outputs from the system

How information is stored

volumes and frequencies of data

Specific problems in the existing system

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

54/107

you may also be able to gather useful informationabout:

departmental objectives

decisions made and the facts upon which they are based;

what is done, to what purpose, who does it, where it is doneand the reason why;

critical factors affecting the business;

staff and equipment costs.

These may leads to a definition of a set of optionsfrom which the users may choose their requiredsystem

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

55/107

Range of fact-finding methods can be used toachieve the above feat, including: Interviewing

Questionnaires

Observation

Focus groups

searching and document analysis

it is important to remember that they

Note: more than one method may be usedduring a fact-finding session:

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

56/107

Fact-finding Interview

The interview is the primary technique forinformation gathering during the systemsanalysis phases.

It is a skill which must be mastered byevery analyst.

The interviewing skills of the analystdetermine: what information is gathered

the quality and depth of that information.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

57/107

Definition:

An interviewis "a formal face-to-face meeting,especially, one arranged for the assessment ofthe qualifications of an applicant, as for

employment or admission.... A conversation,as one conducted by a reporter, in which facts,or statements are elicited from another."(The American Heritage Dictionary, 2nd Ed. College Edition )

An interview can be defined as a conversation

with a specific purpose.(D. Yeates & T. Wakefied, System Analysis and Design, 2nd Ed)

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

58/107

Cont

The interview is a specific form of meeting orconference.

usually limited to two persons:

interviewer interviewee.

In special circumstances there may be:

more than one interviewer

more than one interviewee in attendance.

In these cases there should still be:

one primary interviewer and

one primary interviewee

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

59/107

Interviewing Components

The interview process itself consists of anumber of parts. Selection of the interviewee and scheduling time for

the interview Preparation of interview questions, or script

The interview itself

Documentation of the facts and information

gathered during the interview Review of the interview write up with the

interviewee

Correction of the write up, sign-off, and filing

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

60/107

Planning the Interview

When planning a fact-finding interview,you are trying to answer five questions:

What do I wish to achieve as a result of these

interviews? Who should be interviewed?

How will these interviews be conducted?

What topics will be covered during theinterviews?

Where will the interviews take place?

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

61/107

The answers enables analyst to:

helps you to identify a set of objectives

leads you to a list of interviewees and to a

sequence in which they will be interviewed gives you a format or structure for the interview

putting together an agenda

implications for both interviewer and the intervieweedepending on the answer with regard to location.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

62/107

Interviewing Guidelines

properly conducted interview should be self-evident. It should

Start with a social chart

To create a relaxed atmosphere

building rapport with the interviewee

Make it a conversation and not an interrogation.

First and foremost, establish the tone of the interview. Gain the interviewee's trust and cooperation early on,

and maintain it throughout.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

63/107

Overview: Let the interviewee know the reason for the

interview and why he or she was selected tobe interviewed.

Stress that the interviewee's knowledge andopinions are important, and will aid in theanalysis process.

Establish what will happen to the informationgathered.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

64/107

Cont

Determine any areas of confidentiality or restrictedinformation.

Let the interviewee know that candour and honesty

will be valued and that nothing will be published orpassed on until it has been reviewed and verified bythe interviewee.

Firmly establish that there are no negativeconsequences to being interviewed.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

65/107

Overview

Questions and answers ask questions to find out as much as possible about

the interviewee & their role in the firm.

listening carefully to the answers

Make notes

It is important to keep control of the interview

It is also important to maintain the rapport

remembering that you are not there to evaluate theinterviewee but to hear their views

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

66/107

Structuring the Question

Fig 2.0: The Questioning model

There are four steps in this questioning model,designed to guide the analyst through thefact-finding process and provide information about

the users problems and requirements

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

67/107

In conducting an interview:

the questions should initially be at a high level soinformation is gathered about:

background & work environment of the interviewee (user)within the organisation. - context questions

Context questions contain the words like tell, explain ordescribe

E.g. Can you describe your main responsibilities as sales

manager? etc

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

68/107

detailed questions: Enable one to obtainspecific information about the areas explored inthe context.

This information will usually include facts andfigures that indicate volumes as well asoperational peaks and troughs.

e.gOn average, how may invoices would be processed each month? You said that the current procedures cause difficulties for your staff what sort of

difficulties?

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

69/107

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

70/107

The fourth step can take place alongside stepthree

Its to explore the users views about the solutionto a problem

Find out what the user needsto correct theproblem.

It is important during fact-finding to discover

what the users realneeds are, so that: any solution developed will be efficient and effective:E.g. In your opinion, what steps could be taken to solve thisproblem?

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

71/107

ClosingAs the model indicates, time should be left at the endof the interview to bring it to a formal close.In closing the interview:

summarise the points discussed checking key facts with the interviewee describe what will happen next as a result of the information

obtained.

In most cases it is appropriate to offer to send a copyof the formal record of the interview for the intervieweeto check and confirm.Finally, arrangements can be made to re-contact theinterviewee if there are any problems, thereby leaving

the door open for future discussion.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

72/107

The starting point for this task is the list of objectivesprepared earlier. Using the objectives especially the passive ones

the information to be collected can be prioritised as

follows: Facts that you mustfind out in order to develop the new system.

This relates to the key objective, or objectives.

Facts that you shouldfind out to add flesh to the bare bones ofthe system.

Details that, given the time, you could find out to add the finalpolish to the system.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

73/107

Dos and Don'ts of Interviewing

The rules of interviewing are similar to therules which govern most humaninteractions and

rules which govern most investigative andproblem-solving processes.

In effect they can be called the rules of the

game.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

74/107

Donts

Do notassume anything.

Do notform pre-judgments.

Do notinterrupt.

Do avoid confrontation.

Do notgo off on tangents.

Dont stare

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

75/107

Dos

Do ask questions which start with who, what,where, when, why, and how, where possible.

Do ask both open and closed questions.

Do verify understanding through probing andconfirming questions.

Do act in a friendly but professional manner.

Do listen actively.Do take notes, but do notbe obtrusive about it.

maintaining eye contact

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

76/107

Do let the interviewee do most of the talkingDo establish rapport early and maintain it.

Do maintain control over the subject matter.

Do establish a time frame for the interview andstick to it.

Do conclude positively.

Do allow for follow-up or clarification interviewslater on.

Do be polite and courteous.

Do nod your head from time to time

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

77/107

Who to interview

Under normal conditions, the analyst will haveaccess to all people in the user areaalthough normally there is no need to interviewthem all.

This is especially true if the user area is verylarge.

Generally speaking, the list of those to be

interviewed can be divided into three sections: the most senior manager, subordinates and junior managers, and line workers, clerks, production people, sales staff, etc.

Q i i

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

78/107

Questioning

Asking the appropriate question to obtainthe information required is a technique

Different types of question call forthdifferent types of response

A selection of question types aredescribed below:

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

79/107

Closed questions They produce a definite yes or

no,

can help to control the talkativeinterviewee.

Open questions

E.g. please explain

Probing questions.

are used to obtain more detail toprobe further when a previousquestion has not yielded

sufficient info. E.g why

Probing technique may also beused e.g. planned pauses,periods of silence, or an

unfinished sentence.

Reflective questionsLimited-choice questions Which of these three courses

of action is most suitable . . .? Is your busiest time in Aprilor in September?

Leading questions

Leading questions imply thecorrect answer. E.g Wouldyou agree that . . . ?,

Link questions. For example:

In view of what you have justsaid

I i D i

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

80/107

Interview Documentation

THE NEEDDocumentation, however painful andtedious it may seem, is one of the most

critical tasks of analysis. Thedocumentation produced as a result of theanalytical interviews, the analyst'sobservations and research, and ultimately,

the total analysis phase of the projectserves a number of purposes.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

81/107

P i i d ll

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

82/107

Precision and recall

A written document is more precise and may be reviewedrepeatedly until understanding is achieved.

It has the added advantage that small changes can be

made to it without having to restate the entire premise orthought.

Once an idea is written down, it may be recalled at willexactly as first presented and may be completed bysomeone other than the original author, or authors.

Because there is little feedback from the written word, onecan only take issue with misstatements of fact or withambiguous wording. If it isn't written down, it isn't there.

G hi

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

83/107

Graphics.

Documentation usually includes both a narrativeportion and an illustration portion.

These illustrations serve to amplify andenhance the narrative.

One picture can be worth many thousands ofwords, if properly drawn.

simple flowcharts, data flow diagrams, orpowerful modelling techniques, presents theuser and the analyst with a way to walk throughanalysis and design.

F ti f D t ti

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

84/107

Functions of Documentation

Documentation serves to clarify understanding,and perhaps most important,

it provides the audit trail of the analyst. That is,it creates the records which can be referred toat some later date

serve as the basis for future work and decisions

t

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

85/107

cont

Good documentation precludes the need toreturn to the interviewee for a repetition ofground previously covered.

Good documentation can be reviewed overand over until adequate understanding is

achieved.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

86/107

Documentation vital.Good documentation allows other analysts and the analyst'ssuccessors to pick up where the first left off.Documentation is necessary if the next project phases are to besuccessful, since they are predicated on the results of the

analysis.To a very real extent, analytical documentation provides theroad maps for the remainder of the project. If the maps arefaulty, or incomplete, the succeeding teams may wind up in aswamp, or worse, in quicksand.

Most important, the finalized documentation serves as acontract between the user and the data processing developer.In it the analyst has described the user's environment, theanalyst's understanding of the user's needs and requirements,and with the proposal for a future environment, the analyst's

D ti th I t i

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

87/107

Documenting the Interview

The interview is not complete until it hasbeen documented.

The documentation of the interview needNOT be a verbatim transcript of what wassaid but should cover the following items.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

88/107

the date, location and duration of theinterview;

the names of the attendees;

the agenda or objectives;the main points discussed;

any conclusions;

any actions;the date of next meeting if appropriate

T l h I t i

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

89/107

Telephone Interview

it has become necessary to gather datafrom all employees in a given areas, oreven in extreme cases throughout the firm.

Phone Interviews are used to gathernon-sensitive yes or no types of answersto highly focused questions

Characteristics

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

90/107

Characteristics:

Sample size is relatively limited.

The response rate is relatively good

The turnaround time is very fast

moderate cost

Good for gathering relatively simple data

Advantage Disadvantage

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

91/107

Advantage Disadvantage

The interviewer can clarifyquestions if answers are notunderstood

It is the fastest method to

collect information and has abetter response rate that mailsurveys

It is the least expensive type ifinterview

There is no opportunity toestablish a rapport with theinterviewee

The scope of the survey isnecessarily limited

Respondents tire quicklyduring the interview

It is difficult to schedule phoneinterviews in advance

It is difficult getting return calls

Observation

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

92/107

Observation

Effective technique for understanding system.

Possible to participate in, or watch, a person performactivities to learn about system.

Useful when validity of data collected is in questionor when complexity of certain aspects of systemprevents clear explanation by end-users.

Example: studying how a student learns throughVERBAL PROTOCOLS.

Observation Checklist

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

93/107

Observation Checklist

Adv /Dis Of Observation

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

94/107

Adv./Dis. Of Observation

Record Searching

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

95/107

Record Searching

Time constraints can prevent systems analystsfrom making as thorough an investigation of thecurrent system as they might wish.

Another approach, which enables conclusions to

be drawn from a sample of past and presentresults of the current system, is called recordsearching.

This involves looking through written records to

obtain quantitative information, and to confirm orquantify information already supplied by user staffor management. Information can be collectedabout:

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

96/107

the volume of file data and transactions,frequencies, and trends;

the frequency with which files are updated;

the accuracy of the data held in the system;

unused forms;

exceptions and omissions

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

97/107

All of the information collected by recordsearching can be used to cross-checkinformation given by users of the system.

This doesnt imply that user opinion will be

inaccurate, but discrepancies can be valuated

and the reasons for them discussed.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

98/107

Where there are a large number ofdocuments, statistical sampling can beused.

Document Analysis

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

99/107

Document Analysis

investigating the data flowing through a systemis another useful technique.

Such documents might include

Reports Forms

Organisation charts

Formal lists.

To fully understand the purpose of a documentand its importance to the business, the analyst

must ask questions

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

100/107

It is particularly powerful when used incombination with one or more

of the other techniques mentioned in theearlier lecture

Systems Analysis:

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

101/107

Recording the Information

Typically, the analyst collects aconsiderable amount of information duringthe investigation phase:

interviewReports

observation records

sample documents

completed questionnaires

lists of problems and requirements.

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

102/107

It is important for the systems analyst to: record this information in an unambiguous,

concise manner that will be clear and accessible to others,

and which can be used by other analysts and designersinvolved in developing the new system.

There is a structured techniques to help systemdevelopers to

record information in this way using diagrams and a limited amount of text

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

103/107

Before introducing these recording techniqueswe shall briefly describe data dictionaries andCASE tools, which help the analyst to create

and edit diagrams, and to store data in astructured and meaningful way

Without data dictionaries and CASE tools thelarge-scale application of structured methodswould be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve.

Data Dictionaries

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

104/107

and CASE Tools

A data dictionary is used to record all thosepieces of information about a system (textualor numeric) that cannot be recorded on

diagrams

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

105/107

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

106/107

7/31/2019 SAD good (2)

107/107