sample copy. not for distribution. - educreation · i am thankful to dr harendra sinha, associate...

Sample Copy. Not For Distribution.

i

Solid Waste Management and

Safe Drinking Water in Context

of Mizoram and Other States in India


ii

Publishing-in-support-of,

EDUCREATION PUBLISHING

RZ 94, Sector - 6, Dwarka, New Delhi - 110075 Shubham Vihar, Mangla, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh - 495001

Website: www.educreation.in _____________________________________________________________________________

© Copyright, Author

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, magnetic, optical, chemical, manual, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written consent of its writer.

ISBN: 978-1-61813-473-8

Price: ` 415.00

The opinions/ contents expressed in this book are solely of the author and do not represent the opinions/ standings/ thoughts of Educreation.

Printed in India


iii

AICTE-NEQIP SPONSORED

National Seminar

On

“Solid Waste Management And Safe

Drinking Water In Context Of Mizoram And

Other States In India”

Editor-in-chief: Dr. Rajendra Prasad,

Mizoram Polytechnic, Lunglei

EDITORIAL BOARD

1. Dr. M. Pathak, Associate Professor, Lunglei Govt College, Lunglei

2. Mrs Lalbiakveli, Lecturer, Mizoram Polytechnic, Lunglei

3. Mrs Helen Lalrinkimi, Lecturer, Mizoram Polytechnic, Lunglei

ORGANIZED BY:

MIZORAM POLYTECHNIC, LUNGLEI

SPONSORED BY: AICTE-NEQIP, New Delhi

EDUCREATION PUBLISHING (Since 2011)

www.educreation.in


iv

ACKNOWLEDEMENT

It is with great pleasure and deep sense of gratitude that I offer my heartfelt

thanks to Mr B. Lalhmuakluaia, Principal, Mizoram Polytechnic, Lunglei for his able and

inspiring guidance during organizing the seminar and helping in publishing this

proceeding. My special thanks go to AICTE-NEQIP for providing provision for

organizing the seminar in Mizoram Polytechnic, Lunglei.

No words are apt enough to express my indebtedness to Dr Madhavendu Pathak and

Dr D. K. Jha Associate professors, Department of Chemistry, Govt College, Lunglei for

their support during organizing the seminar and in publishing this proceeding.

I am thankful to Dr Harendra Sinha, Associate professors, Govt J. Buana College,

Lunglei for his valuable guidance during this seminar works.

I owe my gratefulness to Mrs Lalbiakveli and Mrs Helen Lalrinkimi, Lecturers, Mizoram

Polytechnic, Lunglei for their kind support in editing the proceeding of the seminar.

My sincere thanks go to all the contributors who have made commendable efforts to

contribute to the cause so that publication could see the light of the day.

I extend my thanks to the entire team of publisher for their dedication and efficient

compilation of the papers in the form of this book.

At last I would like to thank all those who albeit anonymously helped me during this

seminar work.

Editor-in-chief: Dr. Rajendra Prasad,

Mizoram Polytechnic, Lunglei


v

Preface

The nature in its totality excites each and every one, and its significance and utilities lies

in its original form. Nature delivers the humanity to the maximum but we the human

beings are extracting and damaging it profoundly out of our sheer greed.

Be it industrialization, urbanization or other forms of so called developmental

activities, we directly or indirectly damage our nature and natural resources such as

water, soil and environment. Water is elixir of life. No form of life can exist without water. It is a wonderful gift

given to the universe by the nature. The two third of the earth’s surface is covered with

water and about two third of human body is constituted by water. It has direct bearing on

health and hygiene of plants and animals.

The relationship between water-quality and human activities is extremely

complicated. Water is most essential commodity for human consumption and is one of

the most important renewable resources, which must be prevented from deterioration.

The rapid industrialization, excessive use of Chemicals & fertilizers in agriculture,

concretization and many more human activities degrade; pollute the water bodies and

sources enormously and adversely. The extent of this widespread but generally diffuse

contamination has raised alarm about its adverse effects on plants, animals and human

beings.

The major sources of solid waste generation are Industries, Manufacturing sectors,

Commercial sectors like Hotels , restaurants, slaughter houses etc., domestic ,

Institutional sectors like Hospitals and health centres, Agricultural sectors and

Municipalities.

India has the world’s largest population of livestock. According to the Ministry of

Food Processing, a total of 3616-slaughter houses, slaughter over 2 million cattle and

buffaloes, 50 million sheep and goat, 1.5 million pigs and 150 million poultry annually,

for domestic consumption as well as for export purposes. The waste generated in this

sector is of liquid and solid in nature. Slaughtering of animals generates waste consisting

of non-edible organs, stomach contents, dung, bones etc.

Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis, treatment immunization of human

beings or animals. It may include wastes like sharps, soiled waste, disposables,

anatomical waste, cultures, discarded medicines, chemical wastes, etc. These are in the

form of disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids, human excreta, etc. This

waste is highly infectious and can be a serious threat to human health if not managed in a

scientific manner. It has been roughly estimated that per 4 kg of waste generated in a

hospital, at least 1 kg would be infected ones.

Bio-medical waste consists of human anatomical waste like tissues, organs, body

parts, animal wastes generated during research, from veterinary hospitals, microbiology

and biotechnology wastes, waste sharps, hypodermic needles, syringes, scalpels, broken

glass, discarded medicines and cyto-toxic drugs, soiled waste, such as dressing, bandages,

plaster casts, material contaminated with blood, tubes, catheters, liquid waste from any of

the infected areas, incineration ash and other chemical wastes.


vi

Plastic, with its exclusive qualities of being light yet strong and economical, has

invaded every aspect of our day-to-day life. It has many advantages: it is durable, light,

easy to mould and can be adapted to different user requirements. Once hailed as a

‘wonder material’, plastic is now a serious worldwide environmental and health concern,

essentially due to its non- biodegradable nature.

The growing population has brought so many intrinsic problems with it such as Global

warming, Flash floods, hurricanes, solid waste management and scarcity of safe drinking

water etc. Only a few works have been reported on the quality of drinking water due to

the methodology adopted to mitigate Solid wastes with reference to the North–East India,

with special reference to Mizoram.

Thus we felt the need of organizing the seminar on the topic which gave an

opportunity to the academicians, scientific community, several NGOs and society at large

to come together and explore and investigate these unventured areas with special

reference to the North Eastern States and in particular, the State of Mizoram.

The safety and acceptability of many widely used solid waste management practices

are of serious concern from the public health point of view. Such concern stems from

both distrust about policies in practice and solutions proposed at all level of government

agencies for the management of solid waste and a perception that many solid waste

management facilities use poor operating procedures. Waste management practices that

currently encompass segregation, disposal, treatment, reduction, recycling and

incineration have developed over the past several years.

Before the recent situations, wastes produced were handled by their producers using

simple disposal methods, including terrestrial dumping, dumping into streams or rivers

and uncontrolled burning. In spite of ever-increasing urbanization in Mizoram, the

dumping of solid waste, particularly in landfills and implied treatment remains a

prominent means of disposal.

Major developments have occurred with respect to landfill technology and the

legislative control of the categories of wastes that can be subject to disposal by land

filling. Even so, many landfills remain primitive in their operation. Alternative treatment

technologies for solid waste management include incineration with heat recovery, waste

gas cleaning and accelerated composting. However, these technologies are subject to

criticism either by environmentalists on the grounds of possible hazardous emissions,

failure to eliminate pathogenic agents or failure to immobilize heavy metals, or by

landfill operators and contractors on the basis of waste management economics, while

key questions concerning the effects of the various practices on public health and

environmental safety remain unanswered. The probable and relative effects on both

public health and environmental safety of traditional and modern landfill technologies

will be evaluated with respect to proposed alternative treatment technologies.

Further, open dumping is detrimental to the natural beauty of a town or city; because

when it is visible from roadside, it is aesthetically unpleasing. The chemicals and other

contaminants found in solid wastes can seep into the ground water and if it rains, these

solid wastes can be carried to the rivers and lakes which are the main sources of drinking

water. Thus, it becomes pertinent to think as to how we can get safe drinking water.

Hence, it is the need of the hour to study the impact of solid wastes on environment,

water bodies, on drinking water and its disposal. Further, the gradual change in the

quality of water is observed now a day. We also have to check and take necessary


vii

measures for the change in quality of water every year. We can not remain aloof and

observe silently the degradation of our water sources. It is the duty and responsibility of

each one of us especially that of scientific community to deliberate understand the

intensity and intricacy of the problem and find a suitable solution for the welfare of

humanity.

W


viii

Contents

S.no Author Title Page no.

1 N. Mohondas Singh; Department

of Chemistry, School of Physical

Sciences, Mizoram University,

Aizawl - 796004

Analysis of Fluoride content

in Drinking water of Aizawl

using SPADNS Method

1

2 Rajendra Bose Muthukumaran,

Department of Chemistry,

Mizoram University, Aizawl 796

004

Identification of Tissue-

specific Toxicity of Tuibur –

An Animal Model Study

6

3 R. Lawmzuali ,Department of

Chemistry, School of Physical


Aizawl-796004, India

Determination of Elements in

the Selected Leafy Vegetables

Commonly Consumed by

Natives of Mizoram using

ED-XRF

12

4 Rajendra Prasad, Department of

Sciences & Humanities,

Mizoram Polytechnic, Lunglei-

796701

Solid waste Management &

Presence of E-Coli in

Drinking water: A review

18

5 Malsawmtluanga; Department of

Geology, Lunglei Gov’t College,

Lunglei-796701, Mizoram

Geology and Tectonics of

Mizoram

24

6 Laltlankima; Department of

Geology, Mizoram University,

Aizawl, Mizoram

Status of Potable Water

Quality at Selected Sites of

Aizawl City, Mizoram

33

7 John Blick; Department of

Geology, Mizoram University,

Aizawl, Mizoram

Arsenic Contamination in

Potable Water of Chawngte,

Lawngtlai District, Mizoram

38

8 S. N. Mandal, National Institute

of Technical Teachers, Training

and Research Block-FC, Sector-

III, Salt Lake City, Kolkata-

700106, India

Removal of toxic heavy metal

using solid waste material

48

9 Raghvendu Pathak; Department

of Chemistry, Pachhunga

University College, Aizawl-

796001, Mizoram, India

Green and Sustainable

Technology for The

Management Of Solid Waste

56

10 Lalruatfela Chhangte: Assesment of physico- 61


ix

Department of Geology,

Mizoram University, Aizawl-

796004

chemical charcteristics of

groundwater in and around

chawngte town, mizoram

11 Rajendra Prasad, Department of

Sciences & Humanities,

Mizoram Polytechnic, Lunglei-

796701

Solidwaste management &

drinking water quality in

mizoram

70

12 M. Pathak; Department of

Chemistry, Lunglei Government

College, Lunglei-796107,

Mizoram, India

Hazards due to long term

exposure of radiation – An

overview

76

13 Raj Kumar Mishra; Department

of Chemistry, School of Physical


Aizawl-796004, India

Corrosion inhibition of mild

steel in acidic solution by

Clerodendron

colebrookianum walp leaf

(Phuinam) extract as a green

inhibitor

88

14 Satyajeet Kumar, HOD and

Associate Professor, Department

of Chemistry, HOJAI

COLLEGE, HOJAI, Assam -

782435

Fluoride contamination of

drinking water in Hojai

distric, Nagaon, Assam

96

15 Vinod K. Bharati, Dept. of

Chemistry, Govt. Kolasib

College, Kolasib, Mizoram -

796081

Hydrogeochemistry of

tuichhuahen river, kolasib

district, mizoram (India)

107

16 Rakesh Ranjan, Lecturer, Govt

Polytechnic Patna-07

Radiation hazards and its

effect on human

body,prevention

116

17 S.K Naskar, National Institute of

Technical Teachers, Training

and Research Block-FC, Sector-

III, Salt Lake City, Kolkata-

700106, India

Safe Drinking Water: some

important Treatment Process

119

Brief overview of the seminar by Dr. Rajendra Prasad (Seminar

convener)

127


x


Solid Waste Management and Safe Drinking Water in Context Of Mizoram and Other States in India

1

Analysis of Fluoride Content in Drinking Water of Aizawl Using

SPADNS Method R. Lawmzuali

a, K. Birla Singh

b And N. Mohondas Singh

a

aDepartment of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences,

Mizoram University, Aizawl – 796004 bDepartment of Zoology, Pachhunga University College, Aizawl – 796001

Email : [email protected]

________________________________________________________________________

Abstract:

The SPADNS method of determination of fluoride in drinking water is simple and

accurate and can be applied directly to most water samples without prior pre-treatment.

Water samples from 26 different sources around Aizawl were collected and analysed for

their fluoride content using SPADNS method. Measurement was done using UV-Vis

Spectrometer. The highest content of fluoride was found in Edenthar with a fluoride

concentration of 1.362 mg/L followed by the water sample from Chhangurkawn which

has a fluoride content of 1.192 mg/L and the third highest content of fluoride was found

in Tuikual having 1.161 mg/L. On the other hand, the lowest content of fluoride was

found in Govt, Complex (Midumtui) having a fluoride content of 0.287 mg/L followed

by Hunthar having 0.288 mg/L. The third lowest fluoride content was found in Govt

Complex (Field) having 0.290 mg/L fluoride. The water sample procured from PHE

water supply was also measured and the fluoride content was found to be 0.776 mg/L.

Rain water was also measured and the fluoride content was found to be 0.572 mg/L.

Key Words: SPADNS, Fluoride, UV-Vis Spectrometer.

Introduction:

Water is an essential natural resource for sustaining life and environment. However,

chemical composition of surface or sub-surface water is one of the prime factors on

which the suitability of the water for domestic, industrial or agricultural purpose depends.

Groundwater forms a major source of drinking water for both rural and urban areas.

Major problems are being faced due to the presence of excess fluoride, arsenic and nitrate

in ground water in certain parts of the country. (Hussain et al.,)

Flouride, a halogen compound, is one of the most reactive non-metals. Because of its

small size and lightness, its chemical behavior mainly differs from the other halogen

elements and this difference is evident in its reaction with natural water. At low

concentrations, fluoride can reduce the risk of dental cavities. Exposure to somewhat

1


Rajendra Prasad

2

higher concentrations of fluoride can cause dental fluorosis. Even higher intake of

fluoride over a long period of time can cause changes in bone, a condition known as

skeletal fluorosis.( Jabbar et al.,)

It may be detrimental to health if the fluoride ion concentration is more than the

desired limit given by International standards. In assessing the safety of a water supply

with respect to the above limits of fluoride concentration, special consideration should be

given to the total daily fluoride intake by the individual.( Barghouthi et al.,)

Spectrophotometric methods which are widely used in the determination of fluoride

are based on the reaction of fluoride with coloured metal chelate complexes, producing

either a mixed-ligand ternary complex or replacement of the ligand by fluoride to give a

colourless metal-fluoride complex and the free ligand with a colour different of the metal

ligand complex. (Einaga et al.,)

Currently, the US EPA has set an enforceable maximum contaminant level (MCL)

for fluoride at 4mg/L under National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Also, the US

EPA has set a secondary MCL for fluoride at 2mg/L under National Secondary Drinking

Water Regulations. The World Health Organisation (WHO) also sets a guideline value of

1.5mg/L for fluoride in drinking waters. (Bhosle et al.,)

The SPADNS colorimetric method is based on the reaction between fluoride and a

zirconium-dye lake. Fluoride reacts with the dye lake, dissociating a portion of it into a

colorless complex anion (ZrF62–

) ; and the dye. As the amount of fluoride increases, the

color produced becomes progressively lighter. The reaction rate between fluoride and

zirconium ions is influenced greatly by the acidity of the reaction mixture. If the

proportion of acid in the reagent is increased, the reaction can be made almost

instantaneous. Under such conditions, however, the effect of various ions differs from

that in the conventional alizarin methods.

Materials And Methods:

The traditional method for qualitative measurement of fluoride in water utilises

SPADNS, a chemical compound whose generic name is Sodium-2- (parasulfophenylazo)

-dihydroxy-3, 6-napthalene disulfonate, in combination with Zirconyl acid in

spectrophotometric technique. When the bright red solution of SPADNS is mixed with

colourless zirconyl acid solution, a dark red complex of Zirconyl acid- SPADNS is

formed. When zrirconyl acid–SPADNS solution is added to water containing fluoride,

the fluoride ions reacts with the complex and bonds with zirconium. The concentration of

the complex decreases in approximate proportion to the concentration of fluoride in the

water and the colour of the reagent-mixture becomes brighter.

Zr-SPADNS + 6F-

→ ZrF62-

+ SPADNS

(Dark Red) (Colourless) (Colourless) (Bright Red)

Drinking water samples were collected from the different places of the urban areas of

Mizoram in clean plastic bottles and labelled them properly like place and date of

collection. The bottles were kept secure to minimise contamination till used. For the

analysis of these samples, SPADNS method was employed.



3

A calibration standard ranging from 0 to 70 µg F-

was prepared by diluting an

appropriate volume of standard F– solution. The spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific

Evolution 220 UV-Visible Spectrophotometer) was set at wavelength of 570 nm, and a

calibration graph was prepared from different standard F– concentrations.

50 ml of the sample was used and the temperature was adjusted to that of the

standard curve. Reference point of photometer was set as above. 10 ml of acid-zirconyl-

SPADNS reagent was added, mixed and absorbance was noted.

Fig.1 SPADNS

Results And Discussion:

Water samples from 26 different sources around Aizawl were collected and analysed for

their fluoride content using SPADNS method.

Among the water samples analysed, the highest content of fluoride was found in

Edenthar (which is located near a highway) with a fluoride concentration of 1.362 mg/L.

This was


Rajendra Prasad

4

Fig.2 Spectra of fluoride content in

drinking water samples.

followed by the water sample from Chhangurkawn which has a fluoride content

of 1.192 mg/L and the third highest content of fluoride was found in Tuikual having

1.161 mg/L.

On the other hand, the lowest content of fluoride was found in Govt, Complex

(Midumtui) having a fluoride content of 0.287 mg/L followed by Hunthar having 0.288

mg/L. The third lowest fluoride content was found in Govt Complex (Field) having 0.290

mg/L fluoride.

The water sample procured from PHE water supply was also measured and the

fluoride content was found to be 0.776 mg/L. Rain water was also measured and the

fluoride content was found to be 0.572 mg/L.

Table 1. Fluoride content of drinking water

collected from various sources.

S.No. Water Source Fluoride content(mg/L)

1 Bawngkawn 0.762

2 Republic (Lungli) 0.845

3 Ramhlun Venglai 0.487

4 Durtlang 0.292

5 Dawrpui vengthar 0.628

6 Zohnuai 1.049

7 Vaivakawn 0.409

8 Tuikual South 0.626

9 Hunthar 0.288

10 Edenthar 1.362

11 Saron Veng 0.460

12 Tuivamit 0.809

13 Chawlhhmun 0.672

14 Zotlang 0.991

15 Zotlang (pump) 0.051

16 Tuikual (pump) 0.819

17 Zonuam 0.492

18 Govt. Complex (Midumtui) 0.287

19 Chhangur kawn (pump) 1.192

20 Govt. Complex (Field tui) 0.290

21 Tuikual 1.161

22 Zotlang Tlangte 0.845

23 Republic (Khurpui) 0.365



5

24 MZU 0.362

25 PHE 0.776

26 Rain water 0.572

Conclusion:

In the present study, the fluoride concentration recorded in the drinking water samples

from the various water sources of the urban area of Mizoram reveals fluoride

concentrations were within the permissible limit and as such, fluoride present in the

drinking water of this region may not have any adverse effect on the health of the natives

of this region.

________________________________________________________________________

Reference:

1. S. Hussain, S. Y. Hussain, V. Pradhan and M. Farooqui, International Journal of Plant,

Animal and Environmental Science., 1(3): 241-243 (2011).

2. A. Jabbar, M. Yakub and M. A. Khan, Science Chronicle., 237-242. (1975).

3. Z. Barghouthi and S. Amereih, American journal of Analytical Chemistry., 3:651-655 (2012).

4. H. Einaga and I. Iwasaki, Talanta., 28(12):889-900 (1981).

5. B. R. Bhosle and A. Peeliwal, World Applied Sciences Journal., 10(12):1470-1472 (2010).

6. American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Work Association (AWWA)

and Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF), Standard Methods for the Examination of

Water and Wastewater, Washington, DC, USA, edn. 16 (1985).

W


Rajendra Prasad

6

Spectroscopic Characterization of Tuibur and its Interactionwith Copper (II) Ions

R. Lawmzuali, N. Mohondas Singh And R. Muthukumaran Department of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004

Email : [email protected]

________________________________________________________________________

Abstract

The main aim of the present study is to carry out a detailed spectroscopic characterization

of tuibur, identify minor elements present in it and its metal binding capabilities that may

ascertain the nature of the ligating chemical species as tuibur is not scientifically well

characterized so far. Tuibur is made locally in and around many towns of Mizoram. It is

the product of smoke infused water, by passing the tobacco smoke, generated from

burning the leaves of tobacco through water until the solution turns golden brown in

colour and has a pungent nicotinic smell. Flame photometric measurements show the

presence of Sodium, Calcium and Potassium. Spectrometric measurements estimated the

presence of trace elements like Nickel, Nitrogen and Nitrate in addition to trace amounts

of Cyanide, Phosphorus, Iron, Chromium, Ammonium and Phosphate ions. With various

copper compounds, change of colour was observed which may imply the formation of a

complex between the tuibur and the copper complex.

Key words: Tuibur, Flame Photometer, Spectrophoto-meter, Copper Complex, Trace

elements

Introduction:

Consumption of tobacco has been practiced for a very long time, in many different forms,

all over the world, as smoke and smokeless tobacco products. Consumption of tobacco is

known to cause various forms of cancer as various chemical constituents of tobacco are

found to be carcinogenic.

Tobacco consists of more than 4800 chemical constituents, arising from both

primary and secondary metabolites, including nicotine based alkaloids [Rodgman et al.,

2008]. Tobacco smoke is a complex carbon-based mixture of species, distributed between

two distinct phases as gas-phase smoke and particulate phase (or tar), in addition to a

considerable concentration of nitric oxide radical [Pryor et al., 1983b]. These two phases

are highly oxidizing under ambient conditions. The gas-phase smoke contains different

kinds of low-molecular-weight oxygen- and carbon-centered radicals with concentration

exceeding more than 1014

molecular radical species that are much more reactive and

hence much shorter life time than the tar-phase radicals [Pryor, 1997].

2



7

The chemical constituents of smoke and smokeless tobacco were identified as a

source of carcinogenesis and the leading carcinogens arising from the leaves of tobacco

include volatile organic compounds like poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as

pyrene, benzo-[α]-pyrene, tobacco-specific nitrosoamines (TNSA), nitrosoamino acids,

hydrazine, o-cresol, m-cresol, p-cresol, catechol, resorcinol, hydroquinone, acrylonitrile,

hydrogen cyanide, styrene, toluene, benzene, isoprene, 1,3-butadiene, acetone, methyl

ethyl ketone, acrolein, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, crotonaldehyde, formaldehyde,

acetaldehyde and semi-volatile bases like pyridine, quinoline, and inorganic compounds

of cadmium, chromium, nickel, lead, cobalt, berylium, radioactive polonium-210,

ammonia, nitrogen oxides, and arsenic [Baker et al., 2004].

In Mizoram, one among the north-eastern states of India, a very high age-adjusted

incidence of stomach cancer is recorded over the last two decades. In this regard, a

hospital-based case-control study had been carried out to identify the influence of various

forms of tobacco use on the risk of developing stomach cancer in Mizoram [Phukan et

al., 2005]. In addition, In vitro studies using the allium root test have exhibited the

carcinogenic nature of tuibur (tobacco smoke-infused extract) [Mahanta et al., 1998].

The people of Mizoram are ethnically as well as culturally distinct from the other

tribes and communities of India. Unlike other smokeless tobacco products, the use of

unique tobacco smoke-infused aqueous solution has been observed in Mizoram, which is

locally known as tuibur. Most of the users take tuibur few times a day; some people are

addicted to the extent of consuming it constantly. Consumption of tobacco in this unusual

form of aqueous solution has been a cultural practice and this peculiar practice may be

one of the reasons for the high prevalence of various stomach cancer related ailments

among the populace in Mizoram [Phukan et al., 2004].

Tuibur is made locally in and around many towns of Mizoram. Indigenous in-house

made devices have been in use for the production of tuibur on a small scale. It is the

product of smoke-infused water, by passing the tobacco smoke, generated from burning

the leaves of tobacco, through water until the solution turns dark golden brown in colour

and has a pungent nicotinic smell [Phukan et al., 2005]. Once the tuibur extraction

process is completed, in the metallic container, there are two immiscible layers. The

upper (aqueous) layer which is larger in quantity is called tuibur separated from the

denser tar resin like layer which is very small in quantity (organic layer). Thus, tuibur is

the product of tobacco smoke-infused aqueous extract, wherein smoke is generated from

the combustion (~ 700oC) followed by the distillation (< 500

oC) of the tobacco leaf

material.

Nicotine, a secondary metabolite, is the most abundant of the various volatile

alkaloids present in the tobacco leaf [Vlase et al., 2005]as a deterrent to pests. Nicotine is

a colourless, and volatile liquid alkaloid found in tobacco smoke and smokeless tobacco

that turns brown due to the oxidation of polyphenolic secondary metabolite compounds

and acquires the pungent odour upon exposure to air [Yildiz, 2004]. Nicotine is water

soluble and forms water soluble salts at different pH conditions.

Diverse effects of nicotine occur as a result of both stimulant and depressant actions

on various central and peripheral nervous system pathways. This drug can increase the

heart rate by excitation of the sympathetic nervous system, or by paralyzing the


Rajendra Prasad

8

parasympathetic nervous system. Nicotine affects the medulla, stimulating the brain at all

levels, to increase heart rate. Nicotine causes a discharge of epinephrine from the adrenal

medulla, which significantly increase breathing, lower HDL (the good fats) levels,

increase heart rate and raises blood pressure and constrict peripheral blood vessels.Some

individuals experience nausea and vomiting, decreased urinary flow, increased free fatty

acids. Nicotine increases the oxygen requirements of the heart muscle, but lowers oxygen

supply, and this effect may lead to heart attacks. Nicotine initially stimulates the salivary

and bronchial secretions and then inhibits them. Cigarette smoke causes the excessive

saliva associated with smoking. Nicotine inhibits hunger and also causes a slight increase

in blood sugar, and deadens the taste buds. As tuibur is not scientifically well

characterized so far, the main objective of the present study is to carry out a detailed

spectroscopic characterization of tuibur, identify minor elements present in it. Thus the

present study proposes to carry out a spectroscopic study to evaluate the elemental profile

of tuibur and its metal binding capabilities that may ascertain the nature of the ligating

chemical species.

Materials and Methods:

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy:

Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) is a multielemental atomic spectroscopic

technique. It is based on the conversion of a sample into its constituent atoms due to

thermal breakdown, followed by the measurement of the extent of absorption of

electromagnetic radiation in the ultra-violet and visible region by the gas phase atoms in

their ground state.

Flame spectrophotometry, a rudimentary form of atomic absorption spectroscopy, can

be used to detect the elemental composition of a liquid sample. In using flame methods,

sample preparation can be kept to a minimum. As long as chemical or spectral

interferences are absent, essentially all that is required is to obtain the sample in the form

of a diluted and filtered solution. It makes no difference what the chemical form of the

analyte is as it will be dissociated to the gas phase free element in the flame. Usually,

dilution with water or solvent will be required to prevent clogging of the burner [Lajunen

et al., 2004].

Spectrophotometry :

The spectroquant analysis system makes it possible for every user to conduct highly

sensitive and exact analysis. The spectrometer is optimized to correlate the absorbance

directly with the concentration of a chemical species being measured. As a result, the

developed technology is optimally adapted to the chemistry of the Spectroquant tests

because all the method parameters are pre-programmed. This has been achieved by the

inclusion of the latest micro processing technology in connection with high quality

electronic and optical components. The numerous individual reagents are combined in a

few liquid concentrates and powdered mixtures. As a result, simple and certain analysis

has been made possible. The volume of the formulation must merely be enough for the

filling of one cell.

During the measuring process, the spectroquant photometer indicates if the

measuring range has been exceeded. Correct results will only be shown within the



9

measuring ranges. So, when working with sample solutions of unknown concentration,

we have to establish whether the sample concentration is within the measuring range by

using suitable pre-tests. Pre-tests increase analytical reliability and make determination of

the dilution ratio necessary for high sample concentration easier.

Chemical colour reactions function optimally in a very distinct pH range. The use of

Spectroquant reagents leads to a buffering of the sample solution and in general, to the

optimal Ph range. Very acidic or highly alkaline solutions, as well as those with high salt

content can disturb the optimal pH value adjustment. The buffer capacity of the reagents

is not sufficient. In the analysis of the sample solution, correction of the pH value is very

useful. The pH can be checked with pH indicator sticks.

A necessary correction is carried out drop by drop with Acetic acid (lowers the pH)

or with diluted Sodium Hydroxide solution (raises the pH). After each drop the solution

is thoroughly mixed and the pH value is retested using the same indicator stick. The

addition is repeated until the optimal pH value is reached.

Results and discussion:

Flame Photometric studies

The pH value of commercially available tuibur is pH = 9.0. The commercially available

tuibur was found to be highly concentrated and hence it was diluted until the solution was

pale golden brown in colour [~ five fold (v/v)] using spectroscopic grade water. The

diluted sample of tuibur was introduced via an aspirator to pass through the blue flame of

the flame photometer. Even after dilution, dissolved macro nutrient metallic elements

present in tuibur are more than the detection limit (200 ppm) of the photometer (Table 1).

The spectroscopic observation of the water soluble alkali elements present in tuibur

solution commensurate with its measured alkaline pH value.

Table: 1: Flame photometric estimation of major inorganic ions of tuibur.

S.No. Chemical Species Concentration(in ppm)

1 Sodium (Na) < 200

2 Potassium (K) < 200

3 Calcium (Ca) < 200

Spectrophometric Estimation

In order to identify various chemical compounds present in tuibur, a spectrophotometric

study using spectroquant system in the visible region was carried out. Under appropriate

pH condition, using commercially available reagent kit, quantitatively the inorganic

compounds in their ionic form were estimated (Table 2). Identification of ammonium

ions and cyanide ions indicate that they might be end-products of thermal degradation of

plant material. Furthermore, the identification of phosphorous as total phosphorous and

phosphate ion shows that these chemical species could have been generated by the

decomposition of DNA or from the additive compounds as compounds such as

diammonium phosphate, ethylene glycol etc. are added as additives to achieve


Rajendra Prasad

10

consistency in flavor during the cigarette manufacturing process. In general, under aerial

combustion conditions, proteins/amino acids are converted into bases. In addition, trace

elements like Ni2+

, Fe, chromium as Cr6+

were also estimated (Table -2). The chemical

form in which these elements exist in tuibur solution are currently under study.

Table: 2: Spectrophotometric estimation of

trace elements and ions present in tuibur

S.No. Chemical species pH Concentration (mg/L)

1 Ammonium (NH4+

) 9.1 1.59

2 Cyanide (CN-) 8.0 0.060

3 Nickel (Ni2+) 11.0 2.37

4 Phosphorus (P) 9.1 0.46

5 Phosphate (PO43-

) 9.1 1.7

6 Iron (Fe) 9.1 0.63

7 Calcium (Ca) 9.1 2

8 Chromium (Cr6+

) 5.0 0.36

9 Nitrate (NO3-) 9.0 33.8

10 Nitrogen (N) 9.0 7.6

Interaction with Metal Complexes-

To understand the health effects of cigarette smoke constituents and, in synergy, the role

that trace metal may have in chemical carcinogenesis, atherosclerosis, and other

deleterious pathogenic conditions, it is imperative to study the activity of chemical

constituents on trace metal metabolism. Hence, to study the biological effects of chemical

constituents of tuibur on the metabolism of trace transition metal ions, a metal affinity

study has been undertaken to look at the metal binding capabilities of those chemical

species of tuibur which most likely bind transition metal ions.

The pH of the tuibur is first raised to 12 with the addition of sodium hydroxide

(NaOH) and then lowered to 8 with the addition of acetic acid (CH3COOH). The pH of

the solution is maintained at 8 because the condition is unfavorable for the formation of

any metal-ligand complex at pH lower than 7, in general. To a tuibur solution, 0.01 M

copper chloride solution was added. The colour of the resulting solution immediately

changed to a bluish green colour with intense precipitation. The precipitation is attributed

to the formation of insoluble copper hydroxide under alkaline conditions.

When a solution of copper sulphate (0.01 M) was added to a solution of tuibur at pH

= 8.0, after initial precipitation of probably copper hydroxide, the solution colour did not

experience much change. Further more, after filtering the precipitate, the solution was set

aside for more than a week, along with pale yellow precipitate, colourless hygroscopic

orthorhombic crystals were obtained. To understand the molecular nature of the

crystalline species, a detailed crystallographic characterization is currently under way.



11

Get Complete Book At Educreation Store

www.educreation.in


sample copy. not for distribution. - educreation · i am thankful to dr harendra sinha, associate...

Documents