sanbi biodiversity series 10 · sanbi biodiversity series the south african national biodiversity...

SANBI Biodiversity Series 10

User profilesfor the

South African offshore environment

Lara Atkinson Kerry Sink

Pretoria

2008

SANBI Biodiversity SeriesThe South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) was established on 1 Sep-tember 2004 through the signing into force of the National Environmental Manage-ment: Biodiversity Act (NEMBA) No.10 of 2004 by President Thabo Mbeki. The Act expands the mandate of the former National Botanical Institute to include respon-sibilities relating to the full diversity of South Africa’s fauna and flora, and builds on the internationally respected programmes in conservation, research, education and visitor services developed by the National Botanical Institute and its predecessors over the past century.

The vision of SANBI: Biodiversity richness for all South Africans.

SANBI’s mission is to champion the exploration, conservation, sustainable use, appreciation and enjoyment of South Africa’s exceptionally rich biodiversity for all people.

SANBI Biodiversity Series will publish occasional reports on projects, technologies, workshops, symposia and other activities initiated by or executed in partnership with SANBI.

Technical editor: Beverley MombergDesign & layout: Sandra Turck

CitationATKINSON, L. & SINK, K. 2008. User profiles for the South African offshore environment. SANBI Biodiversity Series 10. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Authors’ addresses:Ms L. Atkinson, Marine Research Institute, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, 7701 Rondebosch, Cape Town.Dr Kerry Sink, WWF Offshore Biodiversity Initiative, South African National Biodiver-sity Institute, Private Bag X7, Claremont 7735, Cape Town.

ISBN 978-1-919976-46-4

© Published by: South African National Biodiversity Institute. Obtainable from: SANBI Bookshop, Private Bag X101, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa. Tel.: +27 12 843-5000. E-mail: [email protected]. Website: www.sanbi.org.

ContentsIntroduction 1 iv

Chapter 1. Petroleum activities 1

Chapter 2. Mineral prospecting and mining 9

Offshorediamondmining 9

Otheroffshoremining 14

Chapter 3. Commercial fishing 15 Hakedeep-seatrawl 16

Hakeandsoleinshoretrawl 21

Hakelonglinefishery 22

Demersalsharklongline 24

Hakehandline 25

Midwatertrawl 26

Traditionallinefish 27

Tunapole 30

Largepelagics 31

Smallpelagics 34

Squid 35

Crustaceantrawl 37

Westcoastrocklobster(offshore) 39

Southcoastrocklobstertrapfishery 41

ExperimentalNataldeep-waterrocklobster 42

Exploratoryfishing 43

Chapter 4. Shipping 45

Chapter 5. Dumping of waste 47

Chapter 6.Submarine cables 50

Chapter 7.Naval activities 53

Chapter 8.Scientific research 55

References 54 57

Annexure A 61 64

PPrepared for the South African National Biodiversity InstituteJune2007

ThisdocumentwascommissionedbytheOffshoreMarineProtectedAreasProject,SouthAfricanNationalBiodiversityInstitute,WorldWildlifeFund&DeptEnvironmentalAffairsandTourism,June2007toserveasanoverviewofexistinginformationpertainingtooffshoremarineusersofSouthAfrica’sexclusiveeco-nomiczone

Forcopiesofthisdocumentorfurtherinformation,pleasecontact:SouthAfricanNationalBiodiversityInstituteMarineProjectManagerPrivateBagx7,Claremont,7735CapeTownTel:[email protected]

Acronyms

BOP BlowoutpreventionCCSBT CommissionfortheConservationofSouthernBluefinTunaCEF CentralEnergyFundCL CarapacelengthCNRI CanadianNaturalResourcesInternationalCPUE CatchperuniteffortCSIR CouncilforScientificandIndustrialResearchDBCM DeBeersConsolidatedMinesDEAT DepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairsandTourismDME DepartmentofMineralsandEnergyEASSY EastAfricanSubmarineCableSystemEEZ ExclusiveEconomicZoneEIA EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentEMP EnvironmentalManagementProgrammeEMPR EnvironmentalManagementProgrammeReportEMS EnvironmentalManagementSystemGDP GrossdomesticproductICCAT InternationalCommissionfortheConservationofAtlanticTunasICSEAF InternationalCommissionfortheSoutheastAtlanticFisheriesIHO InternationalHydrographicOrganization

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IMO InternationalMaritimeOrganizationIOTC IndianOceanTunaCommissionIUCN InternationalUnionfortheConservationofNatureandNatural ResourcesKZN KwaZulu-NatalLMP LinefishManagementProtocolMCM MarineandCoastalManagementMDMA MarineDiamondMinesAssociationMENZ MinistryoftheEnvironmentofNewZealandMLRA MarineLivingResourcesActNo.747of1998MPA MarineProtectedAreaMPRDA MineralandPetroleumResourcesDevelopmentActNo.28of 2002NEMA NationalEnvironmentalManagementActNo.107of1998OMPA OffshoreMarineProtectedAreaOPASA OffshorePetroleumAssociationofSouthAfricaOPRC InternationalConventiononOilPollutionPreparedness,Response andCooperation,1990ORI OceanographicResearchInstitutePASA PetroleumAgencySouthAfrica/SouthAfricanAgencyforPromotion ofPetroleumExplorationandExploitationPMCL PrecautionarymaximumcatchlimitRFMOs RegionalFisheriesManagementOrganizationsSADSTIA SouthAfricanDeep-SeaTrawlingIndustryAssociationSAFE SouthAfrica/FarEastcableSAMSA SouthAfricanMaritimeSafetyAuthoritySAN SouthAfricanNavySANBI SouthAfricanNationalBiodiversityInstituteSANHO SouthAfricanNationalHydrographicOfficeSECIFA SouthEastCoastInshoreFishingAssociationSOEKOR SouthernOilExplorationCorporationTAC TotalallowablecatchTAE TotalappliedeffortVMS VesselmonitoringsystemsWASC WestAfricanSubmarineCableWSSD WorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment

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Introduction

Approximately9%ofSouthAfrica’scoastlineisaffordedfullprotection

intheformofMarineProtectedAreas(MPAs),withanadditional14%hav-ingsomelesserdegreeofprotection(limitedutilization).IntermsofSouthAfrica’sExclusiveEconomicZone(EEZ),only0.16%ofthetotalareahasfullmarineprotection.Theoffshoremarineenvironmenthasconsiderableeconomic,socialandscientificimpor-tancewithoffshorebiodiversityprovid-ingmanyessentialgoodsandservicesandisthesourceofseveralimportantcommercialfisheriesinSouthAfrica(Sink&Attwood2007).Globally,ex-tractiveoffshoreactivities(e.g.fishingandmining)andnon-extractiveoff-shoreactivities(e.g.shipping,under-seacables,navalactivities)areknowntohavelong-termimpactsonecosys-temhealthandbiodiversitywithcon-comitantsocialandeconomiccosts(Olsgard&Gray1995;Goñi1998;Jennings&Kaiser1998;Watling&Norse1998;Gislasonet al.2000;Kaiseret al.2003;Kaiseret al.2006;Queiroset al.2006).RepresentativeMPAnetworkshavebeenidentifiedasacriticalcomponentinconservingoffshorebiodiversityandpromotingsustainablemarineresourceuse(Sink&Attwood2007).Throughtheratifica-tionofseveralinternationalconven-tionsandagreements(e.g.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity1992;WorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment2002;WorldParksCongress2003)andlocallegislationorpolicies,SouthAfricahaspledgedcommitmentto

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protectmarinebiodiversity,ecologicalintegrityandpromotesustainableuseofmarineresources.Assuch,SouthAfricahascommittedtoimplement-inganecosystemapproachtomarineresourcemanagementandtheestab-lishmentofarepresentativemarineprotectedareanetworkby2012.Glo-baltargetsrecommendthat10–30%ofeachmarinehabitattypeshouldbeincorporatedintoeffectivelymanagedmarineandcoastalprotectedareasby2012.TheOffshoreMarineProtectedAreaProject(OMPA),housedwithintheSouthAfricanNationalBiodiversityInstitute(SANBI)MarineProgramme,aimstoidentifyapotentialoffshoreMPAnetworkthatwillcontributetowardsSouthAfrica’scommitmentsinthisregard.Thisprojectisthefirstofitskindtoundertakeco-operativeconsultationwithseveralgovernmentdepartmentsandmanystakehold-ers,representingcommercialfishing,mining,petroleumandothermaritimeindustriesthatutilizeSouthAfrica’soffshoremarineareas.

Thisdocumentaimstoprovideback-groundinformationonthevariousoffshoremarineresourceusers(ex-tractiveandnon-extractive),operatingwithinSouthAfrica’sEEZ.Anoverviewofthehistory,generaloperationandareaoftheactivityisprovided.Knownandpotentialbiodiversityimpactsasaresultoftheactivity,overlapandissuesofconflictbetweenvariousresourceusersareidentified.Informa-tionprovidedinthisdocumentwasdeemedcurrentasofAugust2007.

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SANBI Biodiversity Series 10 (2008)

CPetroleum activitiesOverview

ExplorationforoilinSouthAfricabeganasearlyas1946intheKarooBasin.In1965,

theparastatalSouthernOilExplorationCorpo-ration(SOEKOR)wasestablishedandbeganoffshoreexplorationwiththeintentiontosearchfor,andiffound,commerciallyexploitviableoilandgasdeposits,bothindepend-entlyorinpartnershipwithforeigncompanies.Fromthemid1970suntilthelate1980s,SOEKORwasthesoleexploreroperatingtheentireoffshoreareaofSouthAfrica.Thiswaslargelyduetopoliticalsanctionsatthattime.In1994,offshoreareaswereopenedtointernationalinvestorsviaanewlicensinground.In1999,SOEKORwasre-constitutedastheSouthAfricanAgencyforPromotionofPetroleumExplorationandExploitation—Pe-troleumAgencySA(PASA)(www.petroleum-agencysa.com,May2007).ItisasubsidiaryoftheCentralEnergyFund[CEF(Pty)Ltd]andhasthemandatetoensureoptimaldevelop-mentofthenaturaloilandgaspotentialoftheRepublicofSouthAfrica.PetroSA,alsoasubsidiaryofCEF(Pty)Ltd,ownsandmanagestheSouthAfricangovernment’scommercialassetsinthepetroleumindustry,includingexploration,productiononthesouthcoastandinternationalupstreampetroleumven-tures(PASA2007).Thepetroleumindustryishighlycompetitiveandinternationallygovern-mentsareprioritizingpetroleumdevelopmentandcreatingincentivesforgasexploration,stimulatingpetroleumexplorationactivitiesintheEEZofthosecountries[MinistryoftheEnvironmentofNewZealand(MENZ)2005].SouthAfricaisalsoactivelyaimingtoexpandoilandgasproductionwithintheEEZandthePASAisleadingtheextendedcontinentalshelfclaimthat,ifawarded,wouldincreasethesizeofSouthAfrica’sEEZandthusprovideaccesstohydrocarbonresources.

Thefollowingdescriptionofexplorationactivi-tiesisdrawnmostlyfromaGenericEnviron-mentalManagementProgrammeReportpreparedbyCrowtherCampbell&AssociatesandCentreforMarineStudies(CCA&CMS2001).Offshorehydrocarbonexplorationinvolvesgravity,magneticandtwo-orthree-dimensionalseismicsurveystoinvestigatesubseageologicalformations.Highlevel,lowfrequencysoundsaredirectedtowardsthe

seabedfromnear-surfacesoundsourcestowedbyashipandreflectedsignalsfromgeologicaldiscontinuitiesbelowtheseafloorarerecordedbytowedhydrophones.Thedatagainedfromseismicsurveysareusedtoiden-tifypotentialhydrocarbontraps.Prospectwellsaredrilledtotestthesepotentialaccumula-tionsofoiland/orgas.Over300wellshavebeendrilledwithintheSouthAfricanEEZandsome233000linekmsoftwo-dimensionaland10200km²ofthree-dimensionalseismicdatahavebeenacquired(PASA2007).Varioustypesofdrillingplatformsareusedaroundtheworldinoffshoredrillingforpetroleum.Theseincludebargesinshallowwaters,platformsfixedtotheseabedatdepthsofupto300m,semi-submersiblesanddrillshipsfordeep-waterdrilling(Figure1.1).Atypicaldrillingprocedureinvolvestheuseofequipmentsuchasaderrick(supportingtheequipmentusedtoraiseandlowerthedrillstring),drawworks,drillingmud,handlingequipment,powergen-erators,cementingandtestingequipmentandablowoutprevention(BOP)unit.Anarrayofsixtoeightanchors(12to20tonseach)areusedtopositionandholdthedrillingunitinplace.Drillinggenerallycrushesrockintofinerparticlestermed‘cuttings’.Thecuttingsareremovedfromthebottomoftheholeinadrill-ingfluidor‘mud’,amixtureofnaturalclays,polymers,weightingagentsandothermateri-als,suspendedinafluidmedium.Guidebases(steelstructures3.5mwideand4.7mhigh)areusedtopositionthedrillaccurately.Figure1.2illustrateskeystepsinthedrillingprocess.

Beforereliabletechnologywasavailable,thetemporaryandpermanentguidebaseswere‘abandoned’ontheseafloorifnocommercialoilorgaswasfoundorthewellwasdeemedunsuitableforfurtheruse(CCA&CMS2001;Figure1.3).Thesewellswerethensealedoffwithcementplugstopreventhydrocarbonsescapingtothesurfaceandalsotopreventcontaminationofaquifers.IntheSouthAfricanoffshoreregion,143wells(2007NoticetoMariners)havebeenleftinthis‘abandoned’condition.Iffurtheruseofthewellisplanned,itis‘suspended’toallowforre-entry,andtheguidebasesareleftontheseafloorbutacorrosioncapisusuallyplacedoverthe

CHAPTER 1

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FIGURE1.2.—Diagrammaticrepresentationofkeystepsindrilling(fromCCA&CMS2001).

FIGURE1.1.—Diagramofdifferenttypesofdrillingplatforms(fromCCA&CMS2001).

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wellhead.RecentpracticeinSouthAfricanprospectingwork(post1999)istoretrievetheguidebases,leavingonlya2.5mlongcasingprotrudingabovetheseafloor(CCA&CMS2001).Recoveringwellheadsinvolvestheremovalofthe30and20inchcasingsabout3mbelowtheseafloorandtheremovaloftheguidebases,leavingasmallholeintheseafloor.Theequipmentremovedisrecycledordisposedofonland.

Wheredevelopmentofoilandgasactivitiestakesplace,offshoreproductionplatformsareinstalledandsubseawellheadstructuresandpipelines(includingflowlines,umbilicalsandrisers)maybeinstalled(Blood&Corbett2006).Platformscontaintheequipmentusedforproductionandinitialprocessingandcanincludeanaccommodationareawithlivingquartersandassociatedutilities.Onshorepro-ductionpipelinesaresometimesinstalledtotransportgastoonshoreprocessingfacilities.

Oilandgashavebeendiscoveredwithinsever-alpartsofSouthAfrica’sEEZ(Figure1.4)withmostwellsdrilledinlessthan250mwater(I.McLachlanpers.comm.).TheBredasdorpBasinontheAgulhasBankhasbeenthefocusofmostseismicanddrillingactivity.Commer-cialproductionhastakenplaceontheAgulhas

BankwiththedevelopmentoftheOribi,OryxandSableoilfields.TheOrcaisafloatingoilproductionfacilitythatsuppliesacrudeoilrefineryinCapeTownviaashuttletanker.TheFAgasfieldsandsatellitesaresituatedabout90kmoffshoreofMosselBay.TheyproducegascondensateswhicharetransportedbypipelinetoPetroSA’sproductionfacilityatMos-selBaywherepetrol,dieselandkeroseneareproduced(PASA2007).During2006,averageproductionfromthesefieldswasapproximate-ly3900barrelsofoilperdayand160millionstandardcubicfeetofgasperday(PASA2007).ThereareseveraloperatorsevaluatingoilandgaspotentialonthewestcoastandtheIbhubesiGasFieldiscurrentlybeingappraisedfordevelopment(www.petroleumagencysa.com,May2007).ThedevelopmentoftheIbhubesiGasFieldwouldentailanoffshoresubseadevelopmentschemewithonshoreproduction(processingandcompression)facilities.Overthefourdevelopmentphasesitisanticipatedthat99wellswouldbedrilledinLicenseBlock2Ainthe200–250mdepthrange(Blood&Corbett2006)althoughthedeepestplannedwellinthewestcoastregionisinexcessof1000m(I.McLachlanpers.comm.).Internationaloperationsfrequentlyexploitoilatdepthsof~3000manddeeper,butsuchlarge-scaleoperationsarecostly.SouthAfricaiscurrentlyholdinganewlicens-

FIGURE1.3.—Diagrammaticrepresentationofwellheadsnolongerinuse(fromCCA&CMS2001).

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ingroundwithnewacreageonofferinshallowwaterinthenorthernOrangeBasin,theshelfanddeepwaterinthesouthernOrangebasin,thewesternpartoftheBredasdorpBasinandoffshoreoftheAlgoaBasin(PASA2007).TheaimofofferingnewacreageistoincreaseSouthAfrica’soilandgasproductionthroughacompetitivebidprocess.TheOrangeBasinisconsideredunder-exploredandisbelievedtohavesignificantpotentialforgasontheshelfandforoilindeeperwater(PASA2007).Limitedseismicanddrillingexploration(fourwells)hasoccurredontheeastcoast,butpreliminarydataisreportedtojustifyfurtherexploration.AnareaoftheTugelaBasinofftheKwaZulu-Natalnorthcoasthasarousedsubstantialinterestforoilexplorationasthereappearstobeevidencethatthisareahasun-tappednaturaloilresources.AUnitedStatesoilcompany(GlobalOffshoreOilExploration)waslegallyembattledwiththeSouthAfricanAgencyforthePromotionofPetroleumExplo-ration(PASA)forrightstoexploretheareaoffKwaZulu-Natalforoilandnaturalgas(www.ports.co.za,May2007).InNovember2006thecasewasdismissedandthescopeforoil

explorationinthisregionisnowopentobothlocalandinternationalinterests.

Currentlicenseholders(Block9and11A)include:

PetroSA(Pty)LtdEnergyAfricaPioneerNaturalResources(SouthAfrica)(Pty)Ltd

Currentsubleases(prospecting)areheldby:Anschutz(SouthAfrica)(Pty)Ltd—Blocks1,2Aand2CForestExplorationInternational(Pty)Ltd—Blocks1,2Aand2C

PioneerNaturalResources(SouthAfrica)(Pty)Ltd—Block14B

CanadianNaturalResourcesInternational(CNRI)(SouthAfrica)—Blocks11Band12BBHPBillitonPetroleumLtd—Block3B/4BSasolPetroleumInternational(Pty)Ltd—Block3A/4A(Source:www.petroleumagen-cysa.com,May2007)

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FIGURE1.4.—OffshoreoilandgasexplorationandlicenseblocksinSouthAfrica’sExclusiveEconomicZone(source:www.petroleumagencysa.com).

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ValueOffshoreproductionofoilandgas(whichisconvertedtoliquidfuelatMossgas)fulfills~7%ofSouthAfrica’soilrequirement(I.McLach-lanpers.comm.).Approximately69%ofSouthAfrica’scrudeoilrequirementsareimportedfromelsewhere,withthebalance(~24%)be-ingobtainedfromcoal,usingSasol’ssyntholprocess(PASA2007).

TheproposeddevelopmentoftheIbhubesiGasFieldmayhavethepotentialtomakeamacro-economicimpactonSouthAfricaingeneral(intermsofGrossdomesticprod-uct—GDP)andontherelevantgeographicalregionsspecifically(Blood&Corbett2006).Aneconomicspecialiststudywillbecommis-sionedtoassessthispotentialimpact(Blood&Corbett2006).

Governance frameworkEnergyinterestsinSouthAfricaareadmin-isteredbytheDepartmentofMineralsandEnergy(DME).UnderSouthAfricanlaw,DMEisresponsibleforensuringcorrectenvironmentalmanagementofoilandgasprospectingandproductionactivities.TheSouthAfricanAgencyforPromotionofPetroleumExplorationandExploitation(PASA)is,however,thedesignatedagencywiththeresponsibilityforpromoting,licensing,monitoringanddataarchivingofthepetroleumexplorationandproductionindustryinSouthAfrica.PASAisconsideredtobearegionwithintheDEMstructure.Incarryingoutitsresponsibilities,thePASAconsultswiththeDepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairsandTourism(DEAT)andotherrelevantgovernmentdepartments(CCA&CMS2001).ThemostimportantitemoflegislationwithrespecttooilandgasexplorationactivitiesistheMineralandPetroleumResourcesDevelopmentActNo.28of2002(MPRDA)whichwaspromul-gatedin2004,replacingtheMineralsActNo.50of1991.TheMPRDA,inter alia,regulatestheprospectingforandoptimalexploitation,processingandutilizationofminerals,andcontrolstherehabilitationoflanddisturbedbyexplorationandmining(Robinsonet al.2006).ThePASAisappointedasthedesignatedauthorityundersection71oftheMPRDAforadministrationofgovernancerelatingtothepetroleumindustry.FourtypesofpetroleumrightscanbeissuedintermsoftheMPRDA:

areconnaissancepermit:validforoneyearatechnicalco-operationpermit:validforoneyearanexplorationright:availableforthreeperiodsoftwoyearseach

aproductionright:availablefor30years

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IntermsoftheMPRDA,anoperatorisrequiredtoprepareanEnvironmentalManagementProgrammeReport(EMPR)priortothecom-mencementofexplorationactivities.AgenericEMPRforallSouthAfricanoffshorepetroleumactivitieswaspreparedin2001andservesasareferenceforexplorationapplications(CCA&CMS2001).DevelopmentandproductionoperationsrequiretheirownspecificEMPRs.TheMRPDAspecifiesthatproductionrightsmustbeapprovedpriortocommencementofdevelopmentactivities.ArequirementforobtainingaproductionrightisthatanEnviron-mentalManagementProgramme(EMP)fortheoperationmustbecompiledandsubmittedtothePASAforapproval.Aspartofthecompi-lationoftheEMP,anEnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)mustbeconductedintermsofSection83(4)(b)oftheMPRDA.

NationallegislationpertainingtotheInterna-tionalMaritimeOrganization(IMO)stipulatesthatanexclusionzoneof500mshouldbeobservedbyallvesselsinthevicinityofanoperationaloilrig.Trawlvessels,inparticular,arerequestedtoobserveanchorchainsandanchors,thatcanextendmorethan1500mfromtheoilrig,posinghazardstofishingoperations.

Priortothecommencementofdrillingactivi-ties,theoperatorsmustconsultwithrelevantbodiesincludingtheDepartmentofMineralsandEnergy(DME),PASA,theSouthAfricanMaritimeSafetyAuthority(SAMSA),theSouthAfricanNavyHydrographicOffice,relevantportcaptains,theSouthAfricanDeep-SeaTrawlingIndustryAssociation(SADSTIA),theSouthEastCoastInshoreFishingAssociation(SECIFA)andMarineandCoastalManagement,DEAT.Thesebodiesmustbenotifiedofthenaviga-tionalco-ordinatesofanynewlocation,priortoanydrillingactivities.

TheOffshorePetroleumAssociationofSouthAfrica(OPASA)includesseveralpetroleumcompanieswhoworkco-operativelyinsomeinstances.Thisassociationistheappropri-atebodyforgeneralcommunicationwiththeSouthAfricanpetroleumsector.Otherrelevantlegislation:

AtmosphericPollutionPreventionActNo.45of1965

DumpingatSeaControlActNo.73of1980EnvironmentalConservationActNo.73of1989MarineTrafficActNo.2of1981

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MarineLivingResourcesActNo.18of1998MarinePollutionControlandCivilLiabilityActNo.6of1981MarinePollutionPreventionofPollutionfromShipsActNo.2of1986MaritimeSafetyAuthorityActNo.5of1998MaritimeZonesActNo.15of1994MerchantShippingActNo.57of1951NationalEnvironmentalManagementActNo.107of1998NationalHeritageResourcesActNo.25of1999NationalParksActNo.57of1976NationalNuclearEnergyRegulatorActNo.47of1999NuclearEnergyActNo.46of1999Sea-ShoreActNo.21of1935SeaBirdsandSealsProtectionActNo.46of1973

Biodiversity impactsMarineseismicsurveyscanhaveshort-termadverseeffectsonsomemarinelife(MENZ2005).Thepotentialimpactsofseismicsur-veysonplankton,invertebrates,fish,turtles,seabirdsandmarinemammalsinSouthAfri-canwatershavebeenassessed(CCA&CMS2001).Potentialimpactsonpenguins,turtlesandcetaceanswereratedofmediumtohighsignificanceincertainareasandseasons,whereaspotentialimpactsontheothermarinespecieswereconsideredtobenegligibleorlow(CCA&CMS2001).Thefishingindustryhasexpressedconcernsthatseismicactivitymayaffectfishbehaviour,distributionand/orchangesinfishcatches.Noquantitativedataorevidencethereofiscurrentlyavailable.Theimpactthatpetroleumexplorationseismicsurveyshaveonbaleenwhalesisofsomecon-cern(Gründlinghet al. 2006).Baleenwhalesareknowntohavegoodlow-frequencyhearingwhichoverlapswiththeoutputrangeoffre-quenciesusedforseismicsurveys.Thereisastronglikelihoodthatthefrequencyemissionsofseismicsurveyswillnegativelyimpactonwhalesinthevicinity.Themitigationmeasurecurrentlyemployedistoavoidseismicsur-veyingwhenwhalesarelikelytobepresent(Gründlinghet al.2006).

Dischargeofdrillingmudsandcuttingshaveapotentiallyadverseimpactontheenviron-ment(Gründlinghet al.2006).Cuttingsaredischargedoverboardthroughoutthedrillingoperationandsurplusmudisdischargedoncompletionofthewell(Gründlinghet al.

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2006).Theimpact‘footprint’ofthesedis-chargesisofconcerntobenthicbiodiversity.Fossilwater,trappedwithinoil-bearingrockhasbeenknowntorisetothesurfaceduringoilextraction.This‘producedwater’isusuallythelargestaqueousdischargefromoffshoreproductionplatformsandcanreachvolumesofupto20000m3perday(Sakhalin-l1994inGründlinghet al.2006).Limitedresearchhasbeenconductedonthepropertiesofproducedwater.Itislikelytocontainchemicalswhichcouldhaveadverseeffectsonmarinebiota,particularlylarvalstages(Gründlinghet al.2006).

TheimpactofpetroleumactivitieshasnotbeenexaminedinSouthAfricabutinterna-tionalstudieshaveshownthatoffshoredrillingcanresultinthefollowingimpacts:

contaminationofthemarineenvironmentthroughdrillingmuds(Cranmer1988;Neffet al.1987,1989;Davies&Kingston1992;Hylandet al.1994;Olsgard&Gray1995;Daan&Mulder1996;Cranfordet al.1999).Contaminationeffectsarelinkedtoincreasedtotalhydrocarbons,barium,strontiumandmetalssuchaszinc,cop-per,cadmiumandlead.InNorway,studiesshowedthatecologicallyimportantpreyspecies(brittlestars)forcommerciallyimportantfishspecies(e.g.cod),werereducedbyinitialpollutionimpactsandreplacedbysmalleropportunisticspe-cies,believedtobelessvaluableasafoodsource.Water-baseddrillingmudshavereducedenvironmentalcontaminationandbiologicalimpactlessthanoil-baseddrill-ingmuds(Olsgard&Gray1995);

disturbanceofsediments,habitatsandbenthicmacrofaunabydisplacement,burial,smotheringandsedimentation(Newell1998;Hylandet al.1994;Olsgard&Gray1995,MENZ2005).Thesedistur-bancesmayimpactonotherspeciesthataredependantuponsuchfaunaaspreyitems;

localizeddisturbanceoftheseafloorbytheanchorchainandtheanchorswillhavenegativeeffectsonbenthiccommunities(CCA&CMS2001);

associatedconstructionactivitiessuchasblastingandpiledrivingcancauselocal-izeddamagetomarinelife;

potentialcontaminationofthemarineenvironmentthroughwastedischargesandoilspills;

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otheroperationalactivitiessuchaslight-ing,helicopteroperationsandflaringcouldalsoimpactonmarinelife(Blood&Corbett2006);

physicalstructuresontheseabedcanpotentiallyincreasethediversityofenvi-ronmentsavailableforbenthicorganisms,aggregatefishandconsequentlythebiodi-versityinthearea(Hall2001).

Pollutionanddisturbancecanimpactonbothhard-bottomfaunaandbenthicinfaunafromunconsolidated(softsubstrate)habitats(Daanet al.1992,1994;Hylandet al.1994).Ondeepreefhabitats,Hylandet al.(1994)foundthattheabundanceofsomeinvertebratetaxa(4of22)weresignificantlyreducedatsitesofheavypetroleumactivity.Analysesofchemicalcontaminantsshowedconcentrationstobebelowtoxiclevelsandtheobservedimpactswerethusbelievedtobelinkedtophysicalimpactsofincreasedsedimentationsuchasdisruptionoffeedingorrespirationandburialofsettledlarvae.Moststudiesshowthatdrill-ingimpactsarerelativelylocalized(Ferbrache1983;Daanet al.1992;CSIR1995)butimpactscanspreadtomorethan6kmfromplatforms(Olsgard&Gray1995).PetroleumactivitiesatGeorge’sBankontheAmericaneastcoastwereconsideredtohaveminimal,ifany,impactsonbenthicinfaunacommuni-tiescomparedtothemoreextensiveimpactsatmid-Atlanticrigsites(Neffet al.1989).ThelowerimpactwasbelievedtobeattributedtothehigherenergyenvironmentandthelesseraccumulationsofdrillingmudcuttingsandsolidsatGeorge’sBank.

ImpactsofpetroleumactivitiesshouldbeassessedinSouthAfricaandinareaswherepetroleumactivitiesoverlapwithfisheries,particularlyontheAgulhasBank.Thereisanurgentneedforinformationaboutthepoten-tialcumulativeimpactsofalloilandgasactivi-tiesinconcertwiththeimpactsoffisheries,inparticularthatofbottomtrawling.Oilandgasstructures,particularlyontheAgulhasBank,havepreventeddemersaltrawlingandthepetroleumsectormotivatesthatthisprotec-tionmaybenefitbothbiodiversityandfisheries(Hall2001;Loveet al.2005).Elsewhere,oilandgasinfrastructurehasbeencolonizedbyreefbiotarepresentingadifferenttypeofbio-diversityfromunconsolidatedhabitatswheredrillingusuallytakesplace(Forteathet al.1982).Petroleuminfrastructurecanthereforeserveasanartificialreef,increasingbiodi-versitybyprovidinghardsubstrate;however,thevalueofthisiscontroversial.Wherecold

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watercoralcommunitieshavebeenheav-ilyimpactedbybottomtrawling,untrawledartificialreefsmayprovidehabitatforhealthycoralcolonies(Hall2001).InCalifornia,oilandgasinfrastructureswereshowntoprovidehabitatforcommerciallyimportantfishessuchasrockfishandlingcod,someofwhichareoverexploited(Loveet al.2005).MostMPAsexcludepetroleumactivitiesbuttherearecaseswherepetroleumactivitiescontinueinMPAs,wheretheseactivitieswereinitiatedpriortoproclamation(MPA News2004).TheEnergy&BiodiversityInitiative,aglobalgroupdevelopingandpromotingbestpracticesforintegratingbiodiversitywithoilandgasdevel-opment,recommendthattheriskofdamageshouldnotpreventbiodiversityplannersandthepetroleumindustryfromexploringwaystoworktogether(www.ebi.org,May2007).Therearecasesofco-operativeresearchandmanagementwherepetroleumactivitiesoccurwithinoradjacenttoMPAs.

Thegreatestenvironmentalconcerninexploratorydrillingistheprobabilityofanuncontrolledreleaseofhydrocarbons(calledablowout).Theprobabilityofthisoccurringis,however,low,althoughtheenvironmentalconsequencesofoilspillsaresevereandgasblowoutshavesignificantsafetyconsidera-tions.Thepossibilityofanoilspillisperceivedasthegreatestthreatposedbythisindustrytomarinebiodiversity(Attwoodet al.2000).Therearenoknownpublishedstudiesontheactualphysicalimpactsofoilandgasex-plorationanddevelopmentactivitiesinSouthAfrica.SeveralstudieshaveassessedtheimpactofoilspillsunderdifferentspillvolumescenariosusingOILMAP,anumericaloilspilltrajectorymodel(CSIR1995;CrowtherCamp-bell&Associates&CSIR1998).Theenviron-mentalimpactthereofwouldbeconsideredhigh;however,thelikelihoodofoccurrenceisconsideredlow.

Issues of conflictThereissignificantpotentialforconflictbetweentheoffshorepetroleumandfishingsectors(CCA&CMS2001;Wilkinson&Japp2005a,b).Drillingactivitiescanresultinatemporaryloss-of-accesstofishinggroundsandenvironmentalimpactassessmentsrec-ommendliaisonbetweenthepetroleumindus-tryandtherelevantstakeholders,specificallywiththefishingsector,regardingthelocationofprospectwellsinrelationtofishinggroundsandtrawllanesinparticular(CCA&CMS2001).Wilkinson&Japp(2005a)examined

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thesocio-economicimpactoftheSouthCoastGasDevelopmentProjectonthetrawlingin-dustry.Umbilicalsandpipelinesarevulnerabletodamagebytrawlequipment(Gründlinghet al.2006)andmeasures,includingtrawlexclusionzones,arerequiredtoprotectthisequipment.Trawlnetscouldbeentangledbysuchobstructionsandthevesselandcrewcanbeplacedatrisk(CCA&CMS2001).Thefish-ingindustryhasexpressedconcernabouttheimpactthatabandonedandsuspendedwellheads,andlostequipment(suchasanchors),couldhaveonfishingactivities(Wilkinson&Japp2005b).

Fishingcanalsoimpactonpetroleumactivi-ties.Unattendedfishinggearcanhaveseriousimpactsonseismicsurveysinparticular(CCA&CMS2001;Gründlinghet al2006).Wilkin-son&Japp(2005b)surveyedthetypesoftrawldoorsandgroundgearusedonthesouthcoastasacomponentofeffortstounderstandandreduceoffshoreuserconflictsinthisarea.Thepotentialcollisionbetweenadrillingunit

andashiporfishingvesselisconsideredaseriousrisk.SAMSAhasinstitutedaformaltrafficseparationschemeontheSouthAfricansouthcoast.A35kmsafetyzonehasbeendeclaredaroundtheOribi/Oryxproductionfacilityinadditiontothe500mexclusionzoneimposedbytheInternationalMaritimeOrgani-zation.Acollisionbetweenalargevessel,par-ticularlyanoil-ladentanker,andadrillingrig,islikelytoresultinahighlysignificantimpactontheenvironment(CCA&CMS2001).

Petroleumactivitiesalsohaveimplicationsformarinediamondminingthroughtheimposi-tionofexclusionzonesaroundseismicsurveyvesselsanddrillingplatforms,althoughinthecaseofseismicsurveys,thesearemostlyofshortduration(3–5weeks)(Roos2005).Therehavealsobeenconflictsofinterestwhereminingandseismicsurveyswereplannedconcurrentlyinoverlappingareas(CCA&CMS2001).

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Offshore diamond miningOverview

DuringtheCretaceousPeriod(144to65millionyearsago)marinediamonds,

originatingfrominlandkimberlitepipes,weretransportedseawardsbyriversanddepositedongravelbeachesalongthesouthernAfricanwestcoast,whicharenowlocatedoffshore,atdepthsof150mormore(Penney&Pulfrich2004).Miningofmarinediamond-gravelswasinitiatedontheNamibiansouthcoastin1961byMarineDiamondCompany(Pty)Ltdandprovedtobesurprisinglysuccessful(Clarket al.1999;Penney&Pulfrich2004).Shortlythereafter,in1962,SouthAfricacommencedmarinediamondminingintheoffshoreNamaqualandconcessionzone,betweentheOrangeandOlifantsRivers(Penney&Pul-frich2004).Intheearly1970showever,aninternationaldiamondmarketslumpresultedinreducedoffshorediamondminingactivity,especiallybysmallercompanies(Clarket al.1999).Adepletionofthelucrativeinshorediamondresourcesduringtheearly1990sandtheavailabilityofimprovedminingtech-nology,onceagainresultedinanincreaseinminingeffortsintheoffshoreareas(Clarket al.1999).

DiamondsinthesouthernAfricancoastalregionareconcentratedonornearthebed-rockwithyounger,unconsolidatedsedimentsdepositedabovetheolderbedrock(Clarket

al.1999;Mareeet al.2002).Marinediamondmininginvolvestheremovalofunconsolidatedsediments(overburden)fromtheseafloorus-inglarge,purpose-designedvesselsoperatedonananchorspreadareaofapproximately1km2atatime—threeorfouranchorsarespreadontheseabedtoenablethevesselstopositionthemselvespreciselyovertheareatobemined(Penney&Pulfrich2004;Gründlinghet al.2006).Overburdensediments,contain-ingdiamond-bearinggravel,arepumpedorairliftedtothesurfaceforon-boardprocessingusingoneoftwomethods(Roos2005).Thetwocategoriesofdeep-watermarinediamondmining(120–150m)currentlyemployedare(Figure2.1):1,horizontal(crawler)miningwhereaseabedcrawlerfittedwithasuctionheadisattachedtoatetheredhose.Thissystemisdesignedtooperateinoverburdendeeperthan4m;2,vertical(drill)miningwhereaverticallymounteddrillbit(5.2–5.6mdiameterWirthdrillsystems)isattachedbyadrillstring.Thissystemisdesignedtooperateinoverburdenshallowerthan4m.

Bothsystemsaredesignedtodisturbtheover-burdenallowingittobepumpedtothevesselforprocessing.Oversizedbouldersandfinetailingsareimmediatelydiscardedoverboard,withalmost90%ofthematerialpumpedtothesurfacebeingreturneddirectlytothesea(Roos2005).Theremaininggravelfractionisseparatedusingaferrosilicondensemediumseparationsystem,thediamondsextracted

CCHAPTER 2

Mineral prospecting and mining

FIGURE2.1.—Illustrationsofthehorizontal(crawler)andvertical(drill)miningtechnology(Roos2005).

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fromtheheavyfractionusinganX-raysorter,andtheremaininggraveldiscardedinthesea(Penney&Pulfrich2004).InNamibia,hop-per-dredgeminingiscurrentlybeingemployedoffshore,whichisanewtechniqueallowing

processingof100000m3ofsedimentperday(comparedwith10000m3/daybydrillmining).Thisminingtechniqueenablesthefeasibilityoftheminingoflowdiamonddensityareas(AndreaPulfrichpers.comm.).

FIGURE2.2.—MapoftheSouthAfricanmarinediamondminingconcessionareas,showingthepositionoftheML3/2003mininglicensearea(L.Roospers.comm.,DeBeers2007).

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Theuseoflargedredgers,whichcandredgesedimentsfromdepthsof130m,arecurrentlybeinginvestigatedforuseinfuturedeep-wa-terdiamondminingoperations.However,thefeasibilityandexpenseofpumpingdredgedmaterialashoreviaapipelineisofconcern(Gründlinghet al.2006).

In1994,theSouthAfricanDepartmentofMineralsandEnergy(DME)establishedagridnetworkofmarinemineralconcessionzonesonthewestcoastofSouthAfrica(fromtheOrangeRivermouthtojustsouthofSaldanhaBay,Figure2.2)extendingfromthehigh-watermarkseawardsto500mdepth.Eachconces-sionareaisfurthersplitintofoursubareas(ConcessionsAtoD)inanoffshoredirection.TheAConcessionsareconsideredcoastalandextend1kmfromtheshorelineto±30moffshore(Clarket al.1999;Roos2005).BConcessionsextendfrom1kmupto5kmoff-shore,reachingdepthsofbetween15mand100m.CConcessionsextendwestwardsasfarasthe200misobathwhileDConcessionscoveruptothe500misobath(Damarpupur-shad2006).

Severalminingcompanies,suchasAlexcorLtd.andTranshex,holdprospectinglicensesinoffshoreconcessionareas(>30mdepth).In2007,onlyDeBeersConsolidatedMines(DBCM)havebeengrantedamininglicenseforanoffshoreconcessionarea,thisbeingfortheML3/2003licensearea(Figure2.2).Whereasdiamondprospectinghastakenplaceinoffshoreareasforseveralyears,full-scalemininghasonlyjustcommenced(May2007).DeBeersConsolidatedMinesissuedanotificationofcommencementofminingoperationsinML3/2003withintenttoinitiateminingon1May2007,inshoreofthe150misobathinthisconcessionarea.

Theoffshorediamondminingindustryislargelydominatedbythreecompanies:DeBeersConsolidatedMinesLtd(primarilymidtodeepconcessions),AlexcorLtd(mainlyshallowconcessions)andTransHexOperations(Pty)Ltd(shallowanddeepconcessions,Damar-pupurshad2006).DeBeersConsolidatedMinesholdamininglicensefortheML3/2003licensearea(theinshoreportionofconces-sions2c,3c,4cand5c)andprospectingpermitsforconcessionareas7c,9c,10cand12c,thusbeingconsideredthelargestmarineminingcompanyinSouthAfrica.(Figure2.2,Penney&Pulfrich2004).

ValueSouthAfrica’stotal(terrestrialandmarine)diamondminingindustryisrankedthirdmostimportantintheworld(trailingbehindBotswa-naandRussia)andisvaluedatanestimateofU$1700millionin2005,contributingnearly14%oftheworld’sdiamonds(Damar-pupurshad2006).In1997,alluvialandmarinediamondscomprisedapproximately10%ofSouthAfrica’stotaldiamondproduc-tion(L.Roos,DeBeerspers.comm.;Clarket al.1999)withmarinediamondsspecificallycomprising0.35%(nearlyU$6million,L.Roos,DeBeerspers.comm.).Marinediamondminingcontributes0.0026%toSouthAfrica’sannualGDP(L.Roos,DeBeerspers.comm.;Damarpupurshad2006).

Governance frameworkTheDepartment of Minerals and Energyistheover-ridingresponsibleauthorityfordiamondminingasdefinedundertheMin-eralandPetroleumResourcesDevelopmentActNo.28of2002andtheMineHealthandSafetyActNo.29of1996.LegislationrequiresacomprehensiveEnvironmentalManagementProgrammeReport(EMPR)tobecompiledandsubmittedinsupportofanyapplicationforaprospectingorminingright.ForanEMPRtobeeffective,however,anEnvironmentalManage-mentSystem(EMS),compliantwiththeISO14001codeofpractice,shouldbeimplement-ed(Penney&Pulfrich2004).Furthermore,legislationalsorequiresfinancialprovisionintheproposedbudgetforremediationofanyenvironmentaldamageresultingfromminingactivities(Roos2005).

OthergovernmentdepartmentsresponsibleforapplicationofrelevantActsandregulationstocontrolpollution,accesstothecoastalzoneanddamagetonaturalresourcesare:

theDepartment of TransportfortheMari-timeZonesActNo.15of1994;SeaShoreActNo.21of1935;MerchantShippingActNo.57of1951;MarinePollutionPreven-tionbyShipsActNo.2of1986;MarinePollutionControlandCivilLiabilityActNo.6of1981;WreckandSalvageActNo.94of1996;MarineTrafficActNo.2of1981;andNationalRoadTrafficActNo.93of1996;

theDepartment of Environmental Affairs and TourismfortheNationalEnvironmen-talManagementActNo.107of1998;EnvironmentalConservationActNo.73of1989;NationalEnvironmentalManage-ment:BiodiversityActNo.10of2004;and

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AtmosphericPollutionPreventionActNo.45of1965;withtheirMarineandCoastalManagementbranchbeingresponsiblefortheMarineLivingResourcesActNo.18of1998;andDumpingatSeaActNo.73of1980;

theDepartment of Arts and CulturefortheNationalHeritageResourcesActNo.25of1999;

theDepartment of Water Affairs and ForestryfortheNationalWaterActNo.36of1998.

TheMarineDiamondMinesAssociation(MDMA)representstheinterestsofminingcompaniesthatoperateincoastalandmarineenvironments.ThisAssociationwasformedinresponsetothegovernmentnoticeofintentiontodeclaretheproposedNamaqualandMarineProtectedAreain2004.

Biodiversity impactsGlobally,miningofdiamondsinthemarineenvironmentonlytakesplaceonthewestcoastofsouthernAfrica.Theimpactsofma-rinediamondminingwerefirstinvestigatedin1991whenDeBeersMarinecommissionedagroupofspecialiststoundertakeanEnvi-ronmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)ofthepotentialeffectsofdeep-seadiamondminingactivitiesinthisarea.Thisstudyresultedinseveralspecialistreportsprovidingthefirstknownenvironmentalstudiesfordeep-seadiamondminingoperationsinsouthernAfrica(Roos2005).TheoverallconclusionoftheEIAwasthatenvironmentalimpactsarenotofsuf-ficientsignificancetoprecludecontinuationofmining(Roos2005),althoughseveralimpacts,pertinenttooverallmarinebiodiversity,wereidentified.

Disturbanceofseabedsedimentsandbenthiccommunitiesisconsideredtheprincipalim-pactofmarinemining,resultinginthetop~20cmofsedimentandtheassociatedbenthicfaunabeingunavoidablydestroyedbyminingactivities.Thecompositionandstructureofbenthicmacrofaunaarecloselyassociatedwithsedimentcomposition(Field&Parkins1997;Parkins&Field1998;Pulfrich&Penney1999;Steffani&Pulfrich2004).Disturbanceofthesedimentresultsinasignificantlymodi-fiedbenthicmacrofaunacommunity,whichcantakeuptofiveyearstorecolonize(VanderMerwe1996;Pulfrich&Penney1999;Stef-fani&Pulfrich2004).Sedimentdisturbance,suchasthatimposedbyminingactivities,maycausespeciesselectionforphysicalrobust-nessandtolerancetoairexposuremorethan

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resistancetotheactualdisturbance(Savageet al.2001).Organicpollution(enrichedsedi-mentandpotentialchemicalcontaminantsinthesediment)canexcludemorechemicallysensitivemacrofaunaspecies(Savageet al.2001).Overall,sedimentdisturbance,suchasthatimposedbyminingactivities,isknowntoresultinadecreasedabundanceandbiomassoflarge,long-lived,slow-growingmacrofaunaspecies,whereassmall,fast-growingpioneerspeciesincreaseinabundanceandtendtodominatethecommunitycomposition(Olsgard&Gray1995;Newellet al.1998;Hall2001;Kaiseret al.2002).Thisshiftincommunitycompositionisusuallyassociatedwithadecreaseinoveralldiversity,andcanhavenegativeimpactsontheoverallecosystemfunctioning(Hall2001;Kaiseret al.2002).

Dischargedgravelandfinesediment(tail-ings)aredepositedontheseafloorduringtheminingprocess(Figure2.3)andcanalterthesedimentcompositionand/orsmotherbenthicfaunainalocalizedarea(Griffithset al.2004).Thisimpactislargelyconsideredtobeminorduetothecomparativelysmallareainwhichsuchdepositsarebelievedtosettle.Finesedimentplumesextendforafewkmsfromtheminingvesselbuttherapidandsubstantialdilutionthatoccursthroughthenaturallydynamicnatureoftheenvironment,resultsinasmalltotalareaofimpact(Penny&Pulfrich2004).Therehasbeenconcernoverthere-suspensionofheavymetalsthroughminingactivities(Attwoodet al.2000).Heavymetalconcentrationsinthetailingshavebeenevaluatedandareconsideredtobewellbelowtheguidelinelevelsandarethusnotconsideredlikelytocontributetotoxicityoftheenvironment(Penny&Pulfrich2004).Theriskofpollutionfromdisposaloftailingshasbeenrankedas‘low’intheSpecialistScop-ingreportforminingoperationsintheML3licensearea(Penny2005).Furthermore,theimpactonphytoplanktoncommunities(reduc-tionoflight),nutrientenrichment,remobiliza-tionofcontaminantsandoxygenconsumption(decompositionoforganicmatter)asaresultofsedimentplumes,havebeenfoundtobelimitedandlocalized,andnotconsideredtohaveextensiveenvironmentalimpacts(Penny&Pulfrich2004).Achangeinfishcommuni-ties,asaresultofsedimentplumes,hasalsobeeninvestigated.However,resultsindicatedthatanypotentialchangewouldbeshort-livedandsomefishspeciesmayeventemporar-ilyfavourtheplumes,astheyprovideshelterfromvisualpredators(Clarket al.1999).

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Acousticvibrationsandnoise,causedbyseismicsurveyactivitiespriortoprospect-ingormining,wereconsideredtohavelowimpactsignificanceonthemarineenviron-ment,particularlymarinemammals,intheEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentforDeBeersMininglicenseareaML3(Roos2005).Low-frequencyairgunsarenolongerusedforseismicsurveysandthesurveyequipmentcurrentlyinuseemitslow-sourcenoiselevels.Theimprovedtechnologyandunderstandingofseismicimpactshasshownthatseismicactivityinmarineminingisoflowsignificance(Roos2005).Amitigationmeasuretoensurethattheimpactofseismicactivityislowonthemarineenvironmentistoimplement‘softstarts’wherebythenoiseleveloftheequip-mentusedisinitiatedatverylowlevelsandisgradually(overatleasttwentyminutes)increasedtofulloperationalstrength.Thisisbelievedtoallowanymarinemammalswithinthevicinityofseismicoperationstomoveoutoftheareaandpreventbeingnegativelyaf-fected(Roos2005).

TheonlyactivelyminedoffshoreareainSouthAfrica’sEEZisthatoftheML3/2003licensearea,DeBeersConsolidatedMines,whereinonly0.5%oftheareahaspotentiallyviablediamondreserves,andonly0.07%areconsid-eredeconomicallyviableformining(Penney&Pulfrich2004).Thisimpliesthatitishighlyun-likelythatmorethan1%ofaminingconces-sionareawilleverbemined,andtheoverallimpactfromdischargedsedimentisconsid-eredminimal(Roos2005).Thereishowever,concernthatshoulddiamondconcentrationsoccurinaparticularuniquehabitat,thebio-diversityofthathabitatwouldlargelybelostwiththeimpactsincurredbyminingactivities(Attwoodet al.2000).

Issues of conflictThefishingindustryhas,inthepast,ex-pressedconcernsabouttheimpactsofmarineminingonthewestCoastrocklobster(Jasus lalandii)resourceandondemersaltrawlfisheries(Penney&Pulfrich2004).Concernsoftherocklobsterfisheryrelateprimarilytoactivitiesoftheboat-basedandshore-baseddiveroperationsintheshallowerAandBConcessions.Deep-waterminingoperationsintheCConcessions(theonlyonecurrentlybeingminedisML3/2003)donotoverlaporinteractwiththerocklobsterfishery,whichoccursindepths<25m(Roos2005).Thede-mersaltrawlfisheryonthewestcoastofSouthAfrica,largelytargetsfishspeciesthatoccurinassociationwithsmooth,organic-richsandandmuddysandsedimentplains(Birch&Rogers1973).Thesesedimentsoccurlargelyontheoutercontinentalshelfatdepths>200m,inthedeeperDConcessionminingareas,whichhavenotasyet(2007)beenexploitedduetominingtechnologylimitations(Penney&Pulfrich2004).Asyet,thereisnodirectareaoverlapbetweenoffshoremarinemininganddemersaltrawlfishing.Marineresourcescontributingtocommercialfisheriesarenotconsideredtobeimpactedbyseismicsurveyactivity(Roos2005).

Theareaofoverlapbetweenoffshoreminingandpetroleum(oilandgas)activitiesonthewestcoastofSouthAfricaoccursbetweenthe200mand600misobaths(Penney&Pulfrich2004;Wilkinson&Japp2005a).TheDConcessionaretheonlypotentialminingareaswhereoffshoreminingandpetroleumactivitiesmightinteract.Asyet,onlyprospect-

FIGURE2.3.—Coarsesedimentdischargeplumeduringminingoperations(Penny2005).

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inglicenseshavebeenissuedinDConces-sions.Thereispotentialforfutureuser-conflictbetweenthesetwosectors(CCA&CMS2001).

Other offshore miningPotassium and glauconiteExtensivepotassiumandphosphorous-richdepositsoccuronthecontinentalshelfofthesouthernandwestcoastsofSouthAfricaandNamibia(Coleset al.2002).Thelargestknownconcentrationofglauconiteinsouth-ernAfricaoccurswestofSaldanhaBayindepthsbetween200mand300m(Coleset al.2002).Isolatedoccurrencesofauthogenicphosphatepelletsandextensivediagenicphosphaterocksoccuralongthecontinentalshelf-break(200–300misobath)offthewestcoastandAgulhasBankofSouthAfrica(Coleset al.2002).Someinvestigationintothefeasibilityofminingthesedepositsforphos-phaticandglauconitecomponents(usedtosupplementthefertilizerindustry)havebeenconducted(Rogers&Bremner1991).Thusfar,thesestudieshaveconcludedthatduetotheexpensivenatureofmarineoffshoreminingandtheavailabilityofthesecomponentsfromterrestrialsourcesinothercountries,itisnoteconomicallyviabletoinitiateprospectingorminingventuresfortheseresources(Coleset al.2002).Furthermore,itisacknowledgedthatconsiderableuser-conflictislikelytoexistwiththefishingindustry,shouldthedepositsofglauconiteandphosphatebeminedinSouthAfrica.

Heavy metalsRichardsBayMinerals(RBM)wereissuedafive-yearheavymetalsprospectingpermitbytheDepartmentofMineralsandEnergyin2004foranareaonthenorthernKwaZulu-Natalcoast,stretchingbetweenRichardsBayinthesouthandCapeStLuciainthenorth(Jenvey2005).In2005,thecompanywasinitsthirdphaseofexploratorysurveystodeterminetheviabilityofoffshoreminingforilmenite(convertedtotitaniaslagandiron),rutileandzircononthecontinentalshelfofitsTisandandZultiNorthleases(BusinessDay14thJuly2005).IfRBMdeterminesthatminingfortheseheavymineralsisfeasibleandeconomicallyviableandaminingpermitisgranted,theywillimplementadredge-typesystem,similartothatusedbyoffshoredia-mondminingactivities.Limitedinformationiscurrentlyavailableastothecurrentfindingsorintentionsofthecompany.

ManganeseManganesenodules,enrichedinvaluablemetalssuchasnickel,copperandcobalt,occurinwatersexceeding3000moffthewestandsouthcoastsofSouthAfrica(Rogers&Bremner1991).Exploratorysurveysreportthatthenickel,copperandcobaltcontentsofmostofthesemanganesenodulesfallbelowthe2%economiccut-offgrade(Rogers&Bremner1991).Surveysintheareanorthof33°SintheCapeBasinandoffnorthernNamaqualandshowevidenceofmineralgradenodules.However,noprospectinglicenseshaveyetbeenappliedforinthisrespect(CCA&CMS2001:vol.2.).

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Commercial fishingIntroduction

Commercialfisheriesandrecreationalan-glersinSouthAfricaarereportedtocatch

over250marinespecies,althoughfewerthan5%oftheseareactivelytargetedbyfisheries,yetcomprise90%ofthelandedcatch(Mann2000).Thereareapproximately15majorfisherysectors(Table1)thatoperateinSouthAfrica’soffshoreregion(deeperthan30m),contributing0.5%tothenationalGDP(Saueret al.2003).Thepelagicpurseseinefisherysuppliesthegreatesttonnageoffishlandedperannumwiththedemersaltrawlfisherylandingthesecondlargestcatch(FishingIndustryHandbook2004).ThedemersaltrawlsectorrepresentsthehighestvaluefisheryinSouthAfrica(Figure3.1.).Thefishingindus-try(primary,secondaryandtertiaryaspects)provideemploymentfornearly28000peopleinSouthAfrica(Saueret al.2003)constitut-inganextremelyimportantcontributiontoSouthAfrica’ssocialandeconomicwellbeing.Profilesofthe15majorfishingsectorsarepro-

videdinthissectionofthereport,includingabriefhistoryofeachfishery,potentialimpactsonbiodiversityandpossibleconflictissueswithotheroffshoreusers.Governance frameworkCommercialandrecreationalfishinginSouthAfricaisprincipallygovernedbytheMarineLivingResourcesActNo.18of1998,althoughvariousotherlegislationandpoliciesareinplacetofacilitate,supplementandsupporttheimplementationthereof.Eachcommercialfish-erysectorhasdevelopedmanagementpolicydocuments,updatedannually,thatareusedtoprovidestringentguidelinesinimplementingmanagementmeasuresforthesustainableuseofmarineresources.TheDepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairsandTourism(DEAT),Directorate:MarineandCoastalManage-ment(MCM)arethedesignatedimplementingagentsfornationalmanagementofthefishingindustry.

CCHAPTER 3

TABLE1.—Size,participantsandvalueforallfishingsectors(www.feike.co.za,May2007)

Vessels Rights holders

Jobs sus-tained

Duration of rights

Gross asset value

Hake deep-sea trawl 45 46 8900 2006–2020 R2.4billion

Hake inshore trawl 31 17 1480 2006–2015 R1.5billion

Hake longline 64 132 1495 2006–2020 R182million

Hake handline 39 39 342 2006–2013

Midwater trawl 6 15 527 2006–2015 R2.4billion*

Traditional line fish 450 3450

Tuna pole 157 152 2516 2006–2013 R125750990.00

Large pelagics 31 43 2005–2015

Small pelagics 101 95 15133 2006–2020 R1.2billion

Squid 138 121 2400 2006–2013 R441million

Crustacean trawlWest coast rock lobster (off-shore) 105 195 1058 2006–2015 R941million

South coast rock lobster (trap) 9 12 441 2005–2020 R127million

Natal deep-water rock lobster

Exploratory fishing

*Grossassetvalueformidwatertrawlnotreportedseparatelyfromhakedeep-seatrawlduetocloselinksbetweenthesefisheries(sharedvessels,gear,amongothers).

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TheMarineLivingResourcesActNo.747of1998(MLRA)andthesupplementaryregula-tionspublished,governallextractiveexploita-tionoflivingmarineresourcesinSouthAfrica(i.e.fishing)throughscientificallybasedandpubliclyacceptableoperationalmanagementprocedures.ThisActrepealsmostoftheoldSeaFisheryActNo.12of1988anditspream-blereadsasfollows:‘Toprovidefortheconser-vationofthemarineecosystem,thelong-termsustainableutilizationofmarinelivingre-sourcesandtheorderlyaccesstoexploitation,utilizationandprotectionofcertainmarinelivingresources;andforthesepurposestoprovidefortheexerciseofcontrolovermarinelivingresourcesinafairandequitableman-nertothebenefitofallthecitizensofSouthAfrica;andtoprovideformattersconnectedherewith’.

Itaffordsprotectiontoeveryspeciesofseaanimal(vertebrateandinvertebrate),includingthespawnorlarvaeofsuchseaanimal,butexcludinganysealorseabird.Fishandmarineorganismsareprotectedbymeansofprohibi-tionagainsttheircatching,disturbanceorpos-session,althoughtheActmakesprovisionforthegrantingofcommercial,recreationalandsubsistencefishingrights.TheActemphasizesfairandequitableaccesstoresources,thegradualtransformationoffishingmethods,thedevelopmentoffeesforutilizationandafavourablebusinessenvironmentinfisheries.TheActprovidesforaprincipleofnationalcontrolandco-ordinationandplacesresponsi-bilityforresourceallocationdecisionswiththeMinisterofEnvironmentalAffairsandTourism.Theprimaryfunctionofthenationalgovern-mentdirectorateMCM,istoprovidescientificliaison,logistic,administrativeandpersonnelmanagementsupporttotheMinisterofDEAT,tomeetvariousinternationalcommitmentsandtofulfillnational,provincialandparastatalresponsibilities.MCMaimstofacilitatesus-tainabledevelopmentofmarineandcoastalresourcesbyintegratinghumanneedsandnaturalresources.

TheNationalEnvironmentalManagementActNo.107of1998(NEMA)isSouthAfrica’soverarchingenvironmentallegislation.TheActemphasizestheprincipleofco-operativegovernanceandensuresthattheenviron-mentalrightsprovidedforintheConstitutionareprotectedandfulfilled.AlthoughtheActrequirestheleadagent(DEAT)toensureeffectivecustodianshipoftheenvironment,italsoacknowledgesthattheStatealoneisunlikelytobeabletomanagetheenvironment

effectively.ThescopeforpublicinvolvementinenvironmentalmanagementisprovidedforintheAct,whichincludestheabilitytoinstituteprivateprosecutionsandgivesthepublictheabilitytoparticipateinthemanagementoftheenvironment.TheActalsomakesprovisionfortheissuingofregulationsinordertocarryoutthepurposesandprovisionsofNEMA.

SeveralfishingsectorsinSouthAfricahaveformedassociationsinordertopromoteandprotecttheinterestsofitsmembers.Thevari-ousassociationsarenon-profitorganizationsfulfilling,inter alia,thefollowingfunctions:

representmembersinnegotiationswiththegovernment,legislativeoradministra-tivebodies;consider,report,adviseandmakerepre-sentationsonexistingorcontemplatedlegislationaffectingtheindustry;collectanddisseminateinformationlikelytobeofusetomembers;co-operatewithorganizationswhichmaybeestablishedtodealwithmattersthataffectthemembers;assistmemberswithadministrativeandtechnicalmattersregardingtheindustry.

Someofthelargerassociationsofrelevancetooffshoremarinefisheriesinclude:

AssociationofSmallHakeIndustriesSouthAfricanPelagicFishingIndustryAs-sociationSouthAfricanWestCoastRockLobsterAssociationSouthAfricaDeepSeaTrawlingIndustryAs-sociation(SADSTIA)SouthAfricanMarineLinefishManagementAssociationSouthAfricanMidwaterTrawlingAssocia-tionSouthAfricanSquidManagementIndus-trialAssociationSouthAfricanTunaAssociationSharkLonglineAssociationSouthCoastRockLobsterAssociationTheNationalSMMEFishingForum

Hake deep-sea trawlOverviewThedemersaltrawlfisherystartedintheearly1900soffsouthernAfrica,targetingthetwoCapehakespecies,Merluccius capensisandM. paradoxus.Initiallythefisherywasconcen-tratedclosetotheportofCapeTownwhere

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totalannuallandingsofshallow-waterhake(Merluccius capensis)wereapproximately1000tonsjustafterWorldWarI(Lees1969;Payne1989).By1950,afterWorldWarII,annuallandingshadincreasedto50000tonsandfishingcentredaroundSaldanhaBay,re-flectingimprovedtechnologyandanexpansionofthefishinggrounds(Payne&Punt1995;Griffithset al.2004).Intheearly1960s,internationalfleets(Russian,JapaneseandSpanishtrawlers)escalatedthetotallandingsofhaketo160000tons(Payne1989;Payne&Punt1995).ThesehighcatchratesledtosubstantialoverexploitationofthedemersalhakeresourceinSouthAfricaandNamibia(Payne1989).TheInternationalCommissionfortheSoutheastAtlanticFisheries(ICSEAF)wasestablishedin1972tomanagethehakeresource(Griffithset al.2004).In1975,ICSEAFintroducedaminimummeshsizeof110mm,asystemofinternationalinspection(observerprogramme)andallocatedquotastoeachmembercountryparticipatinginthehakefishery(Payne1989).In1977,SouthAfricadeclareda200-nauticalmileeconomicexclusionzone(EEZ)subsequentlyexclud-ingthemajorityofforeignfishingeffortandtherebyreducingthehakecatchesoffSouthAfrica(Payne1989;Payne&Punt1995;Grif-fithset al.2004).SouthAfricabeganrebuild-ingitshakeresourcebyintroducingconserva-tiveannualtotalallowablecatch(TAC)quotasin1978(Payne&Punt1995).Thefisherywasalsoformallyseparatedintooffshoreandinshoresectors,targetingdifferenthakespe-cies;deep-waterhake(Merluccius paradoxus)andshallow-waterhake(M. capensis)respec-tively,dividedatthe110mdepthcontour.Since1999,thehakeresourcehasstartedshowingearlywarningsignsofdepletionand

asaprecautionarymeasure,theTAChasbeenreducedbybetween2000and4000tonsinrecentyears.Thestatusofthestocksandtheassociatedenvironmentalparametersarebeingcarefullymonitoredandmanagedwithcaution.

Thedeep-seahakefisheryprimarilytargetsdeep-waterhake(M. paradoxus)whichoccursinwatersbetween200mand800mofftheSouthAfricanwestcoastcontinentalshelf.Onthesouthcoast(definedaseastwardsof20°Elongitude)deep-seatrawlersarenotpermit-tedtofishshallowerthan110morwithin20nauticalmilesofthecoast,concentratingfish-ingeffortontheoffshoreedgeoftheAgulhasBank(Figure3.2).Offshorefishinggroundsextendinanunbrokenbandsouthwardsfromapproximately300mdepthoffHondeklipbaaionthewestcoast(30°S)tothesoutherntipoftheAgulhasBank(Figure3.2).LittleoffshoretrawlingoccursbetweenthesouthernedgeoftheAgulhasBankandoffshoreofPlettenbergBay,duetorockyterrain(Wilkinson&Japp2005c).TheheavilytrawledoffshoreareabetweenPlettenbergBayandPortElizabethconsistsofsandormuddysediments,ahabitattypeknowntoyieldgoodtrawlcatches(Wilkinson&Japp2005c).Walmsleyet al.(2007)recognizethefollowingpotentialmanagementunitsfortheoffshoredemersaltrawlsector:Westcoastshallow(<300m);Westcoastshelfedge(301–500m);andWestcoastdeep(>500m).

Vesselspartakinginthetrawlfisheryaremostlymodernsterntrawlersranginginlengthfrom23to90m(Wilkinson&Japp2005c).AdetaileddescriptionoftrawlgearusedinSouthAfricaisprovidedbyWilkinson&Japp

Catch landed (tonnes)

19%

74%

4%1%

1%1%

DemersalPelagicRock lobster (WC)Rock lobster (SC)Crustacean trawlLine fishDemersal longlineAbaloneMiscellaneous netsOystersMaricultureSeaweed

Total value of catch (percent)

47%

20%

7%

3%

11%

5%4% 1%1%1%

DemersalPelagicRock lobster (WC)Rock lobster (SC)Crustacean trawlLine fishDemersal longlineAbaloneMiscellaneous netsOystersMaricultureSeaweed

FIGURE3.1.—LandingsandvalueofcommercialfisherysectorsinSouthAfricain2000.(source:FishingIndustryHandbook2004).

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(2005c).Insummary,thetypicaltrawlcon-figurationusedinSouthAfricaisthatof‘ottertrawls’whichmakeuseoftwotrawldoors(otterboards)draggedalongtheseaflooraheadofthenettoholdthemouthofthenetopen(Figure3.3).Thenetiscomprisedofafootrope,thatmayincludechains,bobbinsorweights,thelarge-mesh‘belly’and‘wings’ofthenetandthefinermeshcod-end(restrictedto110mm),whichretainsthecatch.Themainwarpsandbridalwiresattachthetrawldoorstothewarpdrumonboardtheshipandareusedtotowthenetthroughthewater.Thetrawldoorsvaryinsizeandshapeand,beingtheheaviestcomponentofthegear(upto3500kgeach),frequentlycomeindirectcontactwiththeseafloor(Wilkinson&Japp2005c).Theareaofthetrawlgearincontactwiththeseafloorisdependantontheshapeandsizeofthedoors,thespeedoftowingandthepowerofthevessel.Rockhoppergearisalsofrequentlyusedtoallowthenetto‘hop’overrockygroundandotherobstructions.Rockhoppergearconsistsofrubberdiscsrangingindiameterfrom250mmto610mm,spacedalongthefootropeatregularintervals.Useofthistypeofgearallowstrawlingtotakeplaceinareaspreviouslyprotectedbytheirrockiernature.Trawlnetsaredeployedfromthesternasthevesselsteamsaheadandaregenerallytowedforbetweenoneandfourhours,typicallycatchingabout5tonsoffish(Wilkinson&Japp2005c).Theentirecatchishauledupfromdepthsrangingbetween

200mand600m,landedonthedeckandsortedintotargetandbycatchspeciesandsizecategories.Thecomponentofthecatchwithoutcommercialvalueisdiscardedover-board.

Biodiversity impactsAriskassessmentidentifiedtheimpactoftrawlingonthebenthichabitatandbiotaasamajorthreattothesustainabilityoftheSouthAfricandemersalhakefishery(Nel2005).Shannonet al.(2006)statedthattrawlingonbenthichabitatandbiotawasofmajorconcerntotheecosystemandshouldbeaddressedaspartofSouthAfrica’sEcosys-temApproachtoFishingcommitment(WorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment,WSSD2002,recommendation29dand31c).Thedi-rectandindirectimpactsoftheSouthAfricandemersaltrawlfisheryremainpoorlyunder-stoodandlocalstudiesarenecessarytoassistinquantifyingtheseimpacts.Thespecificecologicaleffectsofthedemersalhakefisheryaredifficulttoestimate.However,threemainimpactaspectsshouldbeconsidered,namely,substratumdamage,bycatchanddiscards.Demersaltowedfishinggear,suchasthatemployedinthedemersalhakefishery,areknowntodamagebenthichabitatsandtheas-sociatedbiota,duesimplytothenatureofthefishingactivity,whichinvolvesdragginganetovertheseafloor.Theextentofimpactisinflu-encedbythesizeofthefishedarea,frequency

FIGURE3.2.—Totaltrawl(inshoreandoffshore)effortdistributionaroundtheSouthAfricancoast(from:Wilkinson&Japp2005c).

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offishingeffortandthehabitattype(Kaiseret al.2003).Structurallycomplexhabitats(coralreefsandseagrassbeds)andhabitatsthatarerelativelyundisturbedbynaturalperturba-tions(e.g.deep-seabenthicenvironments)areconsideredtobehighlysusceptibletoimpactsfromtrawlgear(Jennings&Kaiser1998;Watling&Norse1998;Kaiseret al.2002;Queiros et al.2006).

Thedisturbancecausedbyfishingactivitieswaspreviouslyspeculatedtoenhancebioticproductionandgeneratefoodfortargetspe-cies.However,globalstudieshaveshownthattheremovalofhighbiomassspecies,suchasfish,generallyreducesoverallecosystembiomassandspeciesdiversity,ultimatelyloweringproductivity(Jennings&Kaiser1998;Kaiseret al.2002).Fishingpressurehasbeenfoundtoleadtoadeclineoflarger,slow-grow-ing,late-maturingspeciesandanincreaseinabundanceofsmaller,faster-growing,early-maturingspecies(Jenningset al.1999).Scavengersandsmall-bodied,fast-growingor-ganisms(e.g.polychaetes)tendtorapidlyrec-olonizeandproliferateinheavilyfishedareas,reducingspeciesdiversity(Ballet al.2000).Areasfrequentlytrawledoveralongperiodoftimetendtosupportabenthiccommunityrichinpredatoryandscavengingorganisms(Kaiser&Spencer1996;Sparks-McConkey&Watling2001).Theseorganisms,beinghighlymobile,areabletorapidlycolonizerecentlytrawledareastofeedofftheinfaunathatwouldhavebeenunearthedandre-suspendedbypassingtrawlgear(Wilkinson&Japp2005c).Changesinthebenthiccommunitycomposition,asaresultoffishingactivities,arelikelytoleadto

changesinthecommunitycompositionofresi-dentfishspecies(Bianchiet al.2000;Kaiseret al.2002).Furthermore,demersalfishingoversoft-bottomsubstratesresultsinlarge-scalere-suspensionofsedimentwhichcanre-sultinchangesinthenutrientfluxesbetweenthesedimentandwaterinterface(Churchill1998).Organicmatterinthesedimentisre-suspendedinthedisturbanceeventandrap-idlytakenupbyopportunisticspecies,whichthenflourish(Churchill1998).Demersalfish-ingundeniablyresultsinamorehomogeneousenvironment,devoidofstructuralcomplexity,supportingalowerdiversityandbiomassofalargeproportionofmarinespecies,includingthoseofcommercialimportance(Collieet al.1997).Thebroaderimpactofthesemodifica-tionstotheecosystemhasyettobeclearlydefinedwithintheSouthAfricancontextandfurtherstudiesareunderway.

Theindiscriminatenatureofthetrawlfisheryresultsinaproportionofthecatchbeingmadeupofbycatchspecies,someofwhichhaveagoodmarketvalueandareretainedonboard(Japp2004).Valuablebycatchspeciesoftheoffshoredemersaltrawlfisheryincludemonk(Lophiusvomerinus),kingklip(Genypter-us capensis),angelfish(Brama brama),snoek(Thyrsites atun)andhorsemackerel(Trachu-rus trachurus capensis).Inwatersdeeperthan500monthewestcoast,thebycatchincludesotherspeciessuchasoreosandslimeheads(Hoplostethus spp.)someofwhicharecommerciallyvaluable(DaveJapppers.comm.).Themarketvalueofkingklipandmonkaresometimeshigherthanthetargethakespeciesandfishingactivitiesareknowntobedirectedtowardsthesebycatchspecies,

FIGURE3.3.—Schematicrepresentationoftypicalottertrawlconfigurationemployedbythemajorityofthedemersalhaketrawlfishery(source:Gründlinghetal.2006,LargeMarineEcoystems14,figurebyT.vanDalsen).

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apracticethathasoccurredwithincreasingfrequencyinrecentyears.Kingklipandmonkstocksarebelievedtobesmall,vulnerabletoover-fishingandarenotconsideredsustain-ableforfull-scalecommercialexploitation(Japp2004).Thekingklipstockinparticularisrecoveringfromsevereoverexploitationinthe1980sandisnotconsideredviabletosupportatargetedfishery(Japp2004).Walmsleyet al.(2007)showtheefficacyofmonk-directedtrawlingwherenetmodificationfortargetingthisspeciesraisedtheproportionofmonkfrom3%to33%ofthecatchbymass.By-catchconcernsinthisfisheryarereportedlybeingaddressedthroughabycatchmanage-mentplan(Japp2004).Keyconcernsforeachproposeddemersaltrawlmanagementunit,asidentifiedbyWalmsleyet al.(2007),areshowninTable2.Bycatchinwaterdeeperthan500mislessthanthatontheshelf:9.6%ofthetotalcatchcomparedto34.6%inthe0–300mdepthrange(Walmsleyet al.2007).

Bycatchspeciesretainedinthedemersaltrawlnetthatarenotofanysignificantcommercialvalue(suchasgrenadiers)oraretoosmallformarketdemands(specificallyhake),aredumpedoverboard(Walmsleyet al.2006).Thediscardingofsmallhakeinfavouroflarger,morevaluablefish(highgrading)isofparticularconcerntothesustainabilityofthefishery(Walmsleyet al.2006).Theecologicalimpactsofdumpinglargequantitiesofdeadfishontheenvironmentandthehealthoftheecosystemhavenotbeenconclusivelyestab-lished.

Issues of conflictThehakedemersaltrawlfishery,beingthelargestandmostvaluablefisheryinSouthAfri-ca,frequentlyexperiencesconflictwithseveralotherfisherysectors.Withthereintroductionofthehakelonglinefisheryin1994,consid-erableconflictbetweenthehakedemersaltrawlandlonglinesectorshasdeveloped(seehakelonglinefishery).Frequentinteractionsbetweentrawlersandlonglinersarereported,withsubstantialcomplaintsofobstructiontofishingactivitiesanddamagetogearasaresultoffishingareaandtargetspeciesoverlap(Fairweather2002).Longlinersareknowntotargetlarger,adulthake,impactingonspawningfemales(Japp2004).Trawlersarebeingforcedtofishindeeperwatersduetodecliningcatchrates,withtheaimofland-inglargerfish,havinghighermarketdemand(high-grading,CCA&CMS2001:vol.2).Theconflictintargetfishingareasbetweenthesesectorsisincreasing,withlonglinersreportedlyfishingwithincreasingfrequencyinsoftbot-tomareasanddeeperwaters,suchasthosetargetedbytrawlers(CCA&CMS2001:vol.2).AreasofparticularconflictbetweentrawlersandlonglinersincludetheCapeValleyandtheButterballarea(commercialgridblocks469and505respectively,I&Jtrawlskipperspers.comm.).

Theoccasional,yetsubstantialbycatchofsnoek(Thrysites atun)inthedemersaltrawlfisheryhasresultedinissuesofconflictbetweenthetrawlandlinefishsectors(Japp

TABLE2.—SummaryofbycatchandotherconcernsindemersaltrawlsectorsasidentifiedbyWalmsleyet al.(2006,2007)

Sector Bycatch concerns Discard & other concernsOffshore hake-directed (east coast)

Bycatch=15%ofvalueoflandedcatch

Discardofhake,jacopever;targetingofkingklip

Offshore hake-directed (west coast)

Bycatch=30%ofvalueoflandedcatch;muchofbycatchnotutilized

TargetingoflargeMerluccius capensis (duetohighexportvalue)ofconcern;discardofsmallhakeofsomeconcern

Inshore hake-directed fishery Bycatch=36%ofvalueoflandedcatch;bycatchoflinefishandchondrichthyansofconcern;targetingofpangashouldbemonitored

Discardofhakeofsomeconcern

Inshore sole-directed fishery Captureofoverexploitedlinefishofconcern;bycatchofjuvenilesilverkobandotherlinefishofseriousconcern;chondrichthyanscontributemorethan10%ofcatch

Seriousconcernaboutdis-cardingofjuvenilehake(20%ofhakecaughtdiscarded)

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2004).Snoek,atargetspeciesofthelinefishsector,formanimportantcomponenttothisfisheryandremovaloftheresourcebythetrawlfisheryisviewedwithcontemptbythelinefishers.

Conflictexistsbetweenthedemersaltrawlfish-ingsectorandpetroleumanddiamondminingoperationswithrespecttoareaofactivity.CurrentlyactivediamondminingactivitiesarerestrictedtotheDeBeersML3concessionareajustsouthoftheOrangeRivermouth.However,thisareaisnotconsideredtodirectlyoverlapwithtrawlgrounds.Furtherimplica-tionsandconcernsoverminingactivitiesarereportedintheOffshorediamondminingsec-tionofthisreport.

Thepotentialforconflictbetweenthedemer-saltrawlfisheryandpetroleumactivitiesisconsideredtobehighlyrelevantwithdrillingactivitiestemporarilypreventingfishingincer-tainareas.Thereisconsiderableconcernfromthetrawlindustryregardingtheimpactofwellheadsandlostequipmentfrompetroleumac-tivitiesonthefishery,specificallywithrespecttosuchequipmentobstructingfishingactivi-tiesintrawllanes(Wilkinson&Japp2005a).TheseconflictingusesofoffshoremarineareasarediscussedfurtherinthePetroleumActivitiessectionofthisreport.

Hake and sole inshore trawlOverviewTheinshorehaketrawlfisherywasunofficiallyinitiatedinthe1950sbyanincreaseinthenumberofsmalltrawlingvesselsthatwereabletooperatecloseinshore,targetingthevaluableAgulhassole(Austroglossus pec-toralis)andshallow-waterhake,Merluccius capensis (Saueret al.2003).Itwasonlyin1978thatthedemersalfisherywasformallyseparatedintooffshoreandinshoresectors,withtheinshoresectorreceivingannualtotalallowablecatch(TAC)quotas,independently,forhakeandsole,since1982(Saueret al.2003;www.seis.sea.uct.ac.za,May2007).SouthAfricamanagestheinshorehaketrawlfisheryaspartofa‘hakecollective’wherebylegislation(MLRA)prescribesanannual‘global’TACforallhakes(bothshallow-anddeep-waterspeciescombined)setbytheMinisterofEnvironmentalAffairsandTourism.The‘global’TACisthensubdividedamongthevariousfisherysectorsthattargethakewith83%oftheTACallocatedtodeep-seatrawl,6%toinshoretrawl,10%sharedbetween

hakehandlineandlonglineand1%allocatedforbycatchofthemid-watertrawlfishery(www.seis.sea.uct.ac.za,May2007).

Inshoretrawlgroundsarerestrictedsouth-wardsfromCapeAgulhasinthewesttothemouthoftheGreatKeiRiverintheeast(Per-mitconditions:hakeandsoleinshoretrawl2007).IntheAgulhasBankarea,thetrawlgroundsaremostlycloseinshoreinthevicinityofMosselBaywithadistinctoffshoreareaonthecentralandeasternedgeknownas‘TheBlues’.TheBluesfishingareaisexploitedbybothinshoreandoffshorefisheries(Wilkinson&Japp2005b).Inshoretrawlingismostin-tensealongthe100misobathwithnoinshorepermitholdersallowedtofishdeeperthan110morto20nauticalmilesfromthecoast,whicheveristhegreatestdistance(Wilkin-son&Japp2005b;Permitconditions:hakeandsoleinshoretrawl2007).Agulhassolearetargetedin50–80mofwaterbetweenMosselBayandStruisbaaiinareaswherethesedimentisdominatedbymuddysand(www.seis.sea.uct.ac.za,May2007).Trawlingisnotpermittedinmostoftheshallowbaysandinletsalongthecoastandthecodendmeshsizemustbenosmallerthan75mm,asde-tailedinthePermitconditions:hakeandsoleinshoretrawl(2007).

Theinshoretrawlfisheryoperatesfromsmallersternorsidetrawlers,between14and30minlength,restrictedtolessthan1000hpenginecapacity(Wilkinson&Japp2005b).Thisrestrictionimposesanautomaticlimitonthegearconfigurationwithaforcedreductioninthetrawlwarpdiameter,sizeofthetrawldoorsandnets.Furtherlimitationsonthegearincludeameshsizeof75mmstretchedmeshandnorockhoppergearispermitted.

Biodiversity impactsThegeneralconcernsforbiodiversityimpactsofthehakeinshoretrawlfisheryaresimilartothoseidentifiedfortheoffshoredemersaltrawlfisheryonthewestcoastofSouthAfrica(seeHakedeep-seatrawlfisherysectionabove).Theseincludedamagetobenthichabi-tats,highincidenceofbycatchanddiscardingoflowvalueorsmallfish(Table2).

Theinshorehaketrawlfisheryisknowntoencounterasubstantialhigh-diversitybycatchasaresultofhighfishdiversityoccurringontheAgulhasBank(Wilkinson&Japp2005a;Walmsleyet al.2007).Themajorityofthebycatchismadeupofhorsemackerel(Trachu-rus trachurus capensis)andpanga(Pterogym-nus laniarius).However,severalotherlinefish

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speciesarealsofrequentlylanded,althoughmostlyinlowabundance(Wilkinson&Japp2005a).Theseinclude,amongothers,carpen-ter(Argyrozona argyrozona),whitestumpnose(Rhabdosargus globiceps)andwhitesteen-bras(Lithognathus lithognathus),thestocksofwhichareallconsideredoverexploitedorcollapsed(Mann2000;Griffiths2000).OtherreeffishfrequentlycontributingtotrawlbycatchincluderedromanChrysoblephus lati-ceps,johnbrownGymnocrotaphus curvidens,parrotfish(Scaridaefamily),bronzebreamPachymetopon grande,andbanksteenbrasChirodactylus grandis(C.Wilke,MarineandCoastalManagement,MCMpers.comm.).Thelegalsaleofsuchtrawlbycatchspeciesexacerbatestheproblemsofconflictandpressureonlinefishstocks.Theinshoretrawlsectorreportshighcatchesofoverexploitedlinefishsuchasredstumpnose,with9.7tonscaughtin2005(FishingIndustryHandbook2006).Atotalof703tonsofpangaand71.3tonsofwhitestumpnosewerereportedinthesameyear.Inmanyinstancesundersizelinefishprofferedforsalearetracedbacktotrawlbycatch,particularlyinthecaseofredroman.Catchesofslow-growingelasmobranchssuchasthebiscuitskate(Raja straelieni)arealsoofconcern.Asmuchas251tonsofskateswerereportedlycaughtduring2005(FishingIndustryHandbook2006).

Theincidentalcaptureofaggregationsofjuve-nilesilverkob(Argyrosomas inodorus)intheinshoretrawlfisheryisofparticularconcern(Walmsleyet al.2006).Theareaofoperationoftheinshoretrawlfisherystronglyoverlapswithjuvenilesilverkob(Argyrosomus ino-dorus)nurseryareas,resultinginasignificantamountofundersizedkobcontributingtothetrawlbycatch(C.Wilkepers.comm.).

Thereisconcernthatbobbin-gearandticklerchains,onceextensivelyusedbylocalandforeigntrawlers,havedamagedtemperatereefhabitatontheAgulhasBankwhiletarget-ingreefandotherdemersalfish,particularlyPanga,Pterogymnus laniarius,andmonkfish,Lophius vomerinus(Attwoodet al.2000).Thereare,however,nolocalbaselinedatatotestthesehypotheses.Thirteenbaysonthesouthcoastareprotectedfromtrawling(Per-mitconditions:hakeandsoleinshoretrawl2007)andcomprisesoft-sedimentbenthiccommunities.Thesebaysare,however,small,closeinshoreorincluderockyreefs,whichmaketrawlinghazardousanyway.Theireffec-tivenessasrepresentativebaysprotectedfromtrawlimpactshasnotyetbeenassessed.

Substantialdamageofuniquehabitats,suchaslacecoral(razorblades)andcoldwatercoralcommunitiesoccurringonthesouthcoastarereportedasaresultofdemersalinshoretrawling(P.Simmspers.comm.).

Substantialquantitiesofthelargegastropod, Bulliasp.(knownasthebokhoringshell)werehistoricallycaughtinthesole-directeddemer-saltrawlfisheryintheinshoreregionsofthesouthcoast,suchthatfisherswereknowntobeforcedtocuttheirnetstoreleasethelargequantitiesoftrawledgastropods.CatchesofthismagnitudearenolongerreportedandthelargeBulliasp.seldomoccursintrawlnets(P.Simmspers.comm).

Issues of conflictThefrequentandoccasionallysubstantialbycatchofseverallinefishspecies(especiallyjuvenilesilverkob)inthehakeinshoretrawlfisheryresultsinconflictwiththelinefishsec-tor(C.Wilkepers.comm.).Thereisalsosomelevelofconflictbetweentheinshoretrawlersandthehakehandlinefisherywithrespecttooverlapintargetspecies(hake)andtheareafished.

Theinshoredemersaltrawlfisheryonthesouthcoastencountersconflictwiththehakelonglinefishers,similartothatexperiencedbyoffshoredemersaltrawlersonthewestcoastandoffshoreAgulhasregion(seeHakedeep-seatrawlfisheryandHakelonglinefisherysections).Theareasofoverlapbetweentheinshoretrawlandthehakelonglinesectorsareconsiderablylesssothanforothersectors.

Thereisconsiderableoverlapoftargetareaforpetroleummininganddemersaltrawlfish-inginthesouthcoastAgulhasBankregion(Wilkinson&Japp2005a).AstudyconductedbyWilkinson&Japp(2005a)concludedthattherewouldbeanegativeimpactonthetrawlfisherywiththedevelopmentofgaswellsinTheBluesfishingareaontheAgulhasBankintermsofexclusionzonesaroundthepipelines,eliminatingimportantfishingground.Theover-allimpactonthefisherywashowever,rankedaslowwithlocalizedextent.

Hake longline fisheryOverviewAnexperimentalhakelonglinefisherywasfirstintroducedinSouthAfricain1983(Grif-fithset al.2004)targetingbothspeciesofCapehakes.Thismethodoffishingwassoondiscoveredtobehighlyeffectiveincatching

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largequantitiesofthemorevalued,kingklip(Genypterus capensis),resultinginthefishingeffortbeingredirectedtowardsthishighlyvalu-ablebutquota-unrestrictedspecies(Booth&Hecht2000).By1986,catchratesofkingklipbegantoshownotabledeclinesandalthoughamaximumlimitof5000tonsofkingklipbycatchwasimplemented,catchescontinuedtodeclinefurther(Saueret al.2003).By1991alldemersallonglinefishingwasterminated,butin1994,ahake-directedexperimentallonglinefisherywasre-introduced(Fairweatheret al.2006).Four-yearcommercialfishingrightswereallocatedtothehakelonglinesectorin2001(www.seis.sea.uct.ac.za,May2007).Thisfisheryismanagedaspartofthe‘hakecollective’with10%ofthe‘global’hakeTACbeingsharedbetweenhakelonglineandhandlinesectors(Fairweatheret al.2006).

HakelonglinefishingtakesplacealongthewestandsoutheastcoastsofSouthAfricainbothinshoreandoffshorewaters.Inshorelongliningmayonlyusebottom-setlonglineswithamaximumof5000hooksdeployedperdayandnofishingispermittedintidallagoons,riversorestuaries[Permitconditions:hakelongline(SouthCoastOffshore)2007].Offshorelongliningmayonlytakeplaceinwaterdeeperthan110mandnomorethan20000hooksperlinearepermitted(www.seis.sea.uct.ac.za,May2007).

Baitedhooksareattachedtosubsidiarylines,stemmingfromthemainfishingline,andaredeployedfromahydraulicallycontrolledshoot,locatedatthesternofthevessel(Figure3.4.).Floatsareattachedtothemainlinetoholdsubsidiarylinesofftheseafloor.Theselinescanbewelloverakilometreinlength(Griffiths

et al.2004)witheachlonglinesetholdinganaverageof7500hooksforthedemersalhakelonglinefisheryinSouthAfrica(Petersenet al.2007).Linesareusuallysetintheearlyhoursofthemorning(~3a.m.),lefttosoakfor5–6hoursafterwhichhaulingcommences,whichcanrequiremuchofthedaylighthourstocom-plete,dependingontotallengthofthelineandsuccessofthecatch(D.Japppers.comm.).Anaverageof8.3millionhookswerereportedlyseteachyearbetween2000and2004forthisfisheryinSouthAfricanwaters(Petersenet al.2007).

Biodiversity impactsLonglinesareconsideredtobeamoreselec-tivefishingmethodthandemersaltrawlandbelievednottocauseasmuchdamagetotheseabed;however,theyarenotwithouttheirbiodiversityandecologicalimpacts(Griffithset al.2004).Longlinegearcancauselocalizeddamagetotheseabedandgearlosscanre-sultinghostfishing(J.Barendsepers.comm.).Themostseriousbiodiversityconcern,withrespecttolonglinefishingactivities,aretheincidentalmortalitiesofsharks,seabirdsandturtles.Longlinefisherieshavebeendeemedresponsibleforthedecliningpopulationsandthreatenedconservationstatusofseveralshark,seabirdandturtlespecies(Petersenet al.2007).Demersallonglinefisheriesarereportedtokill±300seabirdsand400000sharksandskatesperannum(Petersenet al.2007).Barneset al.(1997)reportedontheimpactofthedemersallonglinefisheryonseabirdsandsuggestedthatsomemitiga-tionmeasuresbeimplementedtoreducethisimpact.

FIGURE3.4.—Schematicrepresentationoftypicalhakelonglinegearconfiguration(source:D.Japp).

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Thereisconsiderabledebatebetweenthevarioushakefishingsectorsontherecentdeclinesinhakefisheryyields.Thereisaper-ceptionthatlonglinefishingtechniqueshavesignificantlyimpactedonthehakeresourcebyexploitinggroundsthatmaypreviouslyhaveservedasrefugiaandthroughtargetingoflargerfish.Thisneedstobeconsideredincontextandwithanunderstandingofthepres-suresondemersalresourcesfromamatureandintensivetrawlfishery.Demersallonglin-ingcanoperateinareaswheretrawlingcannottakeplace(rockyterrain)andthesepreviouslyunexploitedareasmayhavehadanimportantroleinsustaininghakeandotherdemersalre-sources.Largecatchesofkingklipintheinitialphasesofdemersallongliningweretestamenttotheunexploitedresourcesinunfishedrockyareas.Thekingklipresourcewasalreadyover-fishedbutthehighlydirectedfishingpressureonspawnerstockwasanadditionalunsustain-ablepressure(Punt&Japp1994inBooth&Hecht2000).Thekingklipresourcewasseverelyoverexploitedanddrasticmeasureshadtobeintroduced.Kingklip-directedfishingwassuspendedandthisspeciescannowonlybelandedasabycatch.Longliningtargetslargefishthroughhooksizeandaslargefisharebelievedtohaveagreaterreproductivesuccess(Berkleyet al.2004),therehasbeenconcernthattargetingofthelargerspecimenswillresultinadisproportionallylargereduc-tionofreproductiveoutput.Longliningdoesselectforlargerfishbutasthetrawlquotaisfargreaterthanthatofthelonglinesector,morelargeindividualhakearebelievedtobecapturedbythetrawlfisheryoverall.Thereareanecdotalreportsoflonglinersnowfishingindeeperwaterandonsoftbottomtrawlareas,apparentlyduetooverfishinganddecliningcatchesonroughground,wherethisfisheryusedtofocusitsefforts(I&Jtrawlskipperspers.comm.).

Issues of conflictThenatureofthehakelonglinefishery(exten-sivelinessetadriftinthecurrents)lendsitselftoahighlikelihoodofconflictwithseveralotheroffshoresectors,thelargestofwhicharethehakedemersaltrawlfishery,thepetroleumandtheshippingsector(CCA&CMS2001:vol.2).Thehakelonglineanddemersaltrawlfisheriescompeteforthesameresource(demersalfish),insimilarareasandconflictoverdamageorpotentialdamagetogear(CCA&CMS2001:vol.2).Longlinefishersusu-allysettheirgearatnightacrossthedepthcontours,onlyhaulingintheirgearduringthecourseofthefollowingday.Demersaltrawlersoperatealongthelengthofthecontours,most

frequentlyduringdaylighthoursandarethuspreventedfromtrawlingwhilelonglinersarehaulingtheirgear.Theconflictinfishingareahasrecentlybeguntoincreasewithlonglinersreportedlysettingwithincreasingfrequencyinsoftbottomareasanddeeperwater,suchastheareastargetedbytrawlers(CCA&CMS2001:vol.2).AreasofparticularconflictbetweentrawlersandlonglinersincludetheCapeValleyandtheButterballarea(commer-cialgridblocks469and505respectively,I&Jtrawlskipperspers.comm.).Longlineskippersreportthatthereareincidenceswheretrawl-erstrawlovertheirgear,ignoringtherulethatfirstskippersonthegroundhaverightofway.Thisresultsinlossofgearandcanleadtoghostfishing.

Thereisalsoariskthatthedemersallonglinefisherywillimpactonseismicsurveygearusedbythepetroleumordiamondindustries(CCA&CMS2001:vol.2).Longlinevesselsarerestrictedintheirmovementabilitieswhilstshootingandhaulingtheirgear,which,duetotheexpansivelengthofthelines(upto20kmlong),cantakeasubstantialamountoftime.Thedemersallonglineeffortiswidelydis-persedwithfishingoccurringonbothhardandsoftbenthicenvironments.Thevesselsareoftensmallandcommunicationpoor.Demer-sallonglinevesselsarelikelytounintention-allyimposesignificantdisruptionsordelaysonseismicsurveys,simplyasaresultoftheirfishingpractice.

Demersal shark longlineDecliningcatchesinthetunalonglinefisheryinthemid1960sresultedinfishersusinglonglinegeartotargethakeandkingklipundertheguiseofsharkpermits(issuedaspartoftunalonglinefishery).Bycatchlimitsforhakeandkingklipwerereduced,resultinginadecreaseineffortinthesharklonglinefisheryandin1998only23permitswereissued(decreasedfrommorethan30permitspriortothis).Thesharklonglinefisherypreviouslytargetedbothpelagicanddemersalsharkspecies.However,in2006,amanagementde-cisionwastakentoincludethepelagicsharkfishery(blueandmakosharks)withtunaandswordfishmanagement,asthegearusedtotargetthesespeciesissimilar(seeLargeandsmallpelagicsbelow).Thesharklonglinefish-erythusbecamethedemersalsharklonglinefisherywhichisonlypermittedtotargetsharksofthegenusMustelus(smooth-houndsharks)andGaleorrhinus (soupfinsharks)(DEAT

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2005).Thevesselsusedinthisfisheryaregenerallysmallerthanpelagiclonglinevesselsandoperateclosertothecoast.

Thedemersalsharkfisheryismanagedwithatotalappliedeffort(TAE).However,poorcatchratessince1998haveresultedinasequen-tialdecreaseinannualpermitholderseachyear(DEAT2005).Thefisheryisseasonalwithhighercatchesduringthewintermonths,andcatch-per-unit-effortfluctuateswidely.Priorto2001,catchesaveragedabout34tonsofGaleorrhinus galeus,since2001,catcheshavedeclinedtobelow20tonseachyearandin2004only3tonswerelanded(DEAT2005).In2001–2002,astockassessmentindicatedthatthemaintargetedspecies,Galeorrhinus galeus,wasoptimallyexploited,despiteonlythreelonglinersoperatingin2001andtwoin2002(DEAT2005).Sixpermitholdershavebeenissuedwithlong-termrights(eightyears)fordemersalsharklongliningin2007(DEAT2005).Noshark-finning(removaloffinsanddiscardoftherestofthebody)ispermit-tedandtheuseofstainlesssteelhooksareprohibited(PermitConditions:DemersalSharkLonglineFishery2007).Rightsholdersarenotpermittedtoharvestoceanicsharksincludingblue,mako,hammerhead,oceanicwhitetipandthreshersharksorthoseontheprotectedspecieslistwhichincluderaggedtoothandwhitesharks.Furthermore,permitconditionsstipulatethatrightsholdersarenotpermittedtotargetanyspeciesofsharksadjacenttotheWildCoastoralongtheKwaZulu-Natalcoast.

Biodiversity impactsSharksarelong-lived,apexpredatorsofmarineecosystems,displayinglowfecundity,slowgrowthratesandlatematuration,makingsharksparticularlysusceptibletooverexploita-tion(Stephenset al.2000;DEAT2005).Re-movalordepletionofsharkpopulationscouldhavedrastic,negativeeffectsonfunctioningofmarineecosystemsandthesefisheriesshouldbemanagedwithcaution.

Highbycatchofhakeandkingklipinthedemersalsharklonglinefisheryisalsoofconcernandbycatchlimitsarecurrentlyinplacetorestricttargetingofthesebycatchspecies.Furtherreductionsinbycatchlimitswillbeconsideredinfuture,ifnecessary(DEAT2005).

Issues of conflictThereissomesectorconflictbetweendemer-salsharklonglinersandhakehandlineanglers(overlapintargetspecies)andwithinshoredemersaltrawl(overlapintargetarea).

Hake handlineOverviewThehakehandlinefisherywasinformallyconceptualizedinthelate1980swhensquidandlinefishpermitholdersbeganexploringotherpotentialresourceoptionsonthesouthcoastwhencatchesofthesetargetspecieswerelow(Saueret al.2003).Itwas,however,onlyin2000thattheMinisterofDEATsplitthemanagementofthehandlinefisheriesintothreesectors:tunapole,traditionallinefishandhakehandlineinresponsetotheoverex-ploitedstatusofthemajorityoflinefish(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Traditionally,handlinefishershavealwayscaughtshallow-waterhake(Merluccius capensis),largelyforsubsistenceuse.However,withaninternationalshiftinem-phasistowardsprimequalityhakeintheearly1990sandthedeclineintraditionallinefishspecies,handlinehakebecameacommer-cially(althoughrisky)viableresource(Saueret al.2003).Generallyhakearedifficulttocatchonahandlineasthespecieslargelyoccursindeepwater.Occasionally,however,cold,bottomwatermovesontothecontinentalshelfbringingthehakeclosertothecoastandaccessibletohandlinefishers,especiallyinthecoastalareabetweenPlettenbergBayandMosselBayalongthesouthcoast(Saueret al.2003).ThefisherycontinuedtogrowandactivityincreasedinthePortElizabethregion,withPortAlfredbeingtheeastern-mostlimitforthissector(Saueret al.2003).Highlymo-biledeck-orski-boatsareusedtotargethakeinwatersuptoamaximumof100m,fre-quentlyoperatingovernightorforuptothreedaysbeforelandingthecatchatthenearestportorharbour.Themobilityoftheski-boatsinparticular,allowthefisherstooperatefromlandingsitesclosesttowherethefisharereportedtooccur(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Thefishinggeargenerallyconsistsoflargefishingreelsandheavilyweightedsinglemonofilamentline,baitedwithpilchard.Therelativelylowcapitalinvestmentrequiredtoparticipateinthehakehandlinefishery,alongwiththeforeignrevenuegenerated,makesthissectorappealingformanyfishers.Strongcurrentslimittheareasinwhichhandlinefishingisconducted.ThehakehandlinefisheryhasnotcommencedintheWesternCapere-gion,primarilybecausethelucrativehakefish-inggroundsareindeeperwaters,toofarfromtheportsforaccessbydeck-andski-boats.

HandlinehakeismanagedaspartoftheglobalhakeTAC,with10%ofthetotalhakequotasharedbetweenhandlineandlongline.Attheonsetofthehandlinefisheryinthe

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late1980s,catcheswereestimatedtobe±150tons(Saueret al.2003;www.feike.co.za,May2007).Theyear1996sawthestartofanincreaseinhakehandlinelandings,withatotalof1500tonsreported,increasingstead-ilytoamaximumof5500tons(theTACforhandline)landedin2001(Saueret al.2003).Anestimateof7000tonswerelandedin2001(Saueret al.2003,www.feike.co.za,May2007)takingintoaccountanaverageof30%under-reportingofthecatch.In2000,thesameyearthatthehandlinefisherywassplitfromotherlinefishsectors,atotalap-pliedeffort(TAE)limitationwasimplementedforthehakehandlinefishery(maximumof130vesselswith785crew)withaprecaution-arymaximumcatchlimit(PMCL)of5500tons(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Since2003,theglobalhakeTAChasbeendecreasedbybetween2000and4000tons,resultinginadecreaseinthehandlineTAC.

Biodiversity impactsThehighlytargetednatureofthehandlinehakefisheryresultsinlowlevelsofbiodiversityimpactfromthisfishingsector,althoughinci-dentalcatchesofotheroverexploitedlinefishspecies(e.g.sparids)couldcontributetofur-therpopulationdeclinesofthesethreatenedspecies(Japp2004).Anchoringofdeck-orski-boatscanhavesomelevelofdisturbanceanddamageimpactontheseafloorhabitats.

Issues of conflictApotentialforconflictbetweentheinshorehaketrawl,longlineandhakehandlinesectorsexists(Saueret al.2003).Allthreeofthesefishingsectorsgenerallyoperateinshallowinshoreregionsalongthesouthcoastandwithadeclineinavailabilityofhake,territorialityoffishinggroundscoulddevelop.Bycatchoflinefishinthehakehandlinefisheryisalsoprob-lematicforlinefishstocks,whicharemostlyoverexploited,resultingincross-sectorconflict(Japp2004).Thereisalsopotentialforconflictwithdemersalsharklongliningwithrespecttooverlapintargetspecies.

Midwater trawlOverviewThemidwatertrawlfisheryisdefined(accord-ingtotheMLRA)as‘anynetwhichcanbedraggedbyafishingvesselalonganydepthbetweentheseabedandthesurfaceoftheseawithoutcontinuouslytouchingthebottom’.Horsemackerel(maasbanker),Trachurus tra-churus capensis, isthetargetspeciesofthemidwatertrawlfisheryinSouthAfrica.Bycatch

speciescanincludemanydemersalfish(e.g.shallow-waterhake)butislargelymadeupofmeso-pelagicspeciesthatmigrateverticallyinthewatercolumnandhorizontallyaroundthecoast,suchaschubmackerel(Scomber japonicus)andribbonfish,Lepidopus cauda-tus(Saueret al.2003).Thetargetspecies,horsemackerel,arecaughtinthreemainfishingsectors:

Pelagic—inshorepurse-seinelargelytarget-ingjuvenilehorsemackerelintheearlypartoftheyearalongthewestcoast;

Midwaterdirectedtrawl—focusedontheAgulhasBanknearthecontinentalshelfbreaktargetinglargelyadulthorsemack-erel;

Hakedemersaltrawlasbycatch—largelyfromthewestcoastregionandseldomexceeding5000tonsperannum(Hamp-tonet al.1999).

ThehorsemackerelfisheryinSouthAfricahashistorically,neverbeenconsideredasignifi-cantdirectedfishery,althoughithasalwaysformedanimportantbycatchcomponentofthehaketrawlfishery(Saueret al.2003).Between1950and1969themajorityofhorsemackerelwerelandedthroughthesmallpelagicfisherywithapeakof118000tonsin1954(Saueret al.2003).Environmentalper-turbationsobservedsubsequentto1969arethoughttohaveresultedindecreasedhorsemackerelcatchesthroughthepelagicfishery,butwereaccompaniedbyaconcomitantin-creaseincatchesasbycatchinthedemersaltrawlfishery(Saueret al.2003).Foreignves-sels(largelyJapaneseandPolish)participatedinthemidwatertrawlfisheryinSouthAfricauntil1977,whenhorsemackerelcatcheswere94000tons(Saueret al.2003).SubsequenttothedeclarationofSouthAfrica’s200-nauti-calmileEEZin1977,foreignfishingeffortwaslargelyeliminatedandalocalmidwatertrawlfisherywasinitiated(Saueret al.2003).TheformationoftheSouthAfricanMidwaterTrawlingAssociationin1990sawthefirstquotasforthissectorissuedtoninecompa-nies,withthefisheryfocusedontheeasternAgulhasBank(Hamptonet al.1999).Themidwatertrawlfisherygrewthroughoutthe1990swiththetotalquotaallocationsrangingbetween17998and27894tons(Saueret al.2003).Limitedknowledgeoftheresourceandchangingenvironmentalvariablesstronglyinfluencingthepelagicstocks,haveledtothehorsemackerelfisherybeingmanagedintermsofaprecautionarymaximumcatchlimit(PMCL)thathasfluctuatedbetween22000

•

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and54000tonssince1990(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Thecatchofjuvenilehorsemack-erelbythepurse-seinefisheryonthewestcoastofSouthAfricaislimitedto5000tonsperannum,asaprecautionarymanagementmeasure(Griffithset al.2004).Theremain-derofthePMCLoriginatesfromtheeasternAgulhasBankregionandislargelymadeupofadultfish.

TheCapehorsemackerelisahighlynomadicspecieswithitsdistributionslargelydrivenbyenvironmentalconditions.Theshoalsareusu-allyconcentratedinasmallareaandmigrateseasonally(Saueret al.2003),greatlylimitingthisfishery.Juvenilesarelargelyplanktivorous,feedingoncopepodsinthewatercolumnnearthesurface(capturedinthepelagicseine-netfishery),whereasadultsareopportunisticfeederspreyingoneuphasids,polychaetes,crustaceansandothersmallfishinthemidwa-terandbenthicenvirons.HorsemackerelandCapehakesofsimilarsizefeedonsimilarpreyitemsresultinginthepotentialforinterspecificcompetitionbetweenthesespecies(Hamptonet al.1999).ThemidwatertrawlfisheryisfocusedontheAgulhasBank,particularlyontheshelfedgeonthesouthandeastcoasts.Itisonlyintheseareasthatviablecatchesofhorsemackerelaremade(Saueret al.2003).Themidwatertrawlfisheryisusuallyoperatedinconjunctionwiththehakedemersaltrawlfisheryasthevesselandgearrequirementsareverysimilar.Midwatertrawlnetsarerequiredtobeaminimumof75mmstretchedmeshandusually,vesselscarrybothmidwateranddemersaltrawlgear,allowingoperatorstoselecttheappropriatetargetgeardepend-ingontheavailabilityandmarketpriceofthefish(Saueret al.2003).Smallertrawlves-sels,suchasmedium-sizedfreezers(40–50m)orwetfishtrawlers(30–50m)frequentlyhavebothdemersalhakeandmidwaterhorsemackerelquotas,targetinghorsemackerelwhenavailable(Saueret al.2003).

Togainaccessintothemidwatertrawlfishery,aconsiderableamountofcapitalinvestmentintheformofafreezertrawlerand/orland-basedprocessingfacilitiesisrequired,henceafurtherbenefitofcombiningwithademersalhakequota.Thehorsemackerelfisheryonitsownhas,nonetheless,provedtobeviablebyutilizinglow-costEastern-blockmidwatertrawl-ers,processinglargevolumesonboardandkeepingthecostofthecatchataminimum(Saueret al.2003).Thevalueofthecatchiscomparativelylow(R3.20/kgin2001)drivenbyafluctuatingCentralandWestAfricanmar-ket,resultinginthisfisherybeingeconomicallymarginal(Saueret al2003).

Biodiversity impactsMidwatertrawlfisheriestowatahigherspeedthandemersaltrawlandforthisreasonhavehigherpotentialforentanglementofseabirds,sharks,dolphinsandsealswhennearthesurface(Nel2004).Seabirdsandsmallmammalsareknowntoforageonfishescap-ingfromtrawlnetsandfrequentlygettangledinthenetasitisbeinghauled(Nel2004).Sunfish,Mola mola,arealsoknowntobecapturedinmidwatertrawlnetsasbycatch,althoughcurrently,verylittleinformationexistsonthefrequencyandextentofimpactthishasonsunfishpopulations(Nel2004).Themid-watertrawlfisheryisnotconsideredtohavesignificantimpactsonbenthicbiodiversity,providedthetargetedfisheryadherestothedefinitionofmidwatertrawlingbynotcomingintocontactwiththeseafloor.Fluctuationsinabundanceofthetargetspecies(horsemack-erel)arethoughttobelargelydrivenbynaturalenvironmentalvariability,similarlyimpactingonsmallpelagicspecies.

Issues of conflictThemidwatertrawlfisheryoverlapsinareainboththedemersaltrawlfisheryandthesmallpelagicsfishery.Potentialexistsforconflictamongthesedifferentfisherysectorsshouldthequotaholdersbeexclusive.Inmostcases,however,smallpelagicquotaholdersalsohavequotasforjuvenilehorsemackerelanddemersaltrawlfishersalsohavequotasforhorsemackerel.Thisallowsswitchesinthetargetspecieswhenconditionsareviableforhorsemackerelandlimitsconflict,astheyareessentiallythesamefishers.

Hakearealsocaughtasabycatchinthemid-waterhorsemackereltrawlfishery.However,amanagementmeasureofreserving500tonsoftheannualhakequotaforincidentalcatchesinthemidwaterfisheryhasmitigatedthispotentialconflictissue(Japp2004).

Traditional line fishOverviewLinefisheriesinSouthAfricaincludecommer-cial,recreationalandsubsistencesectorsthatoperatealongtheentirecoast.Thecommer-ciallinefisheryistheonlysectoraddressedinthisreport.ThisfisherydevelopedinthewesternCapefromthefishingactivitiesofEuropeanseafarersinthe1500s(Saueret al.2003).Bythemid-1800stheboat-basedlinefisheryhadgrownintoaprosperousindus-tryusingsailandrowboats.TheCapefisherygrewsubstantiallywiththeconstructionof

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smallboatharbours(1932–1950)andfishersswitchedtomotorizedvessels.Boat-basedcommerciallinefishinginKwaZulu-Natal(KZN)commencedinthelate1800s,makinguseofsteam-powereddeck-boatsthatoperatedoutofDurbanharbour(Penneyet al.1999).Overtime,thesewerereplacedbydiesel-poweredvesselsbetween10to35mlong,havingadistancerangeofupto1000nauticalmiles.Initially,mostboatsfocusedtheireffortontheshallowerreefsalongthecentralKZNcoastbuteffortincreasinglyshiftedsouth,totheformerTranskeicoast,asthecatchratesinthecentralregiondeclined(Penneyet al.1999;Saueret al.2003).AftertheSecondWorldWar,anumberoffactorscontributedtomarkedchangesinthenatureofthecom-merciallinefishingsectorinKZN,andlater,inthewesternCape.Theintroductionof4–6mmobileski-boats,facilitatedlaunchingfrombeachesandrivermouths,whichsignificantlyincreasedfishingaccessandexpandedeffort.Italsosignificantlyloweredinputcoststothefisherysothatmanymorepeoplecouldenterthefishery(Saueret al.2003).Thenumberofboatsincreasedfrom10in1910to140in1995inKZNalone(Penneyet al.1999).Dur-ingthe1990s,theaveragenumberofactivecommercialvesselsinthewesternCapewere577,whileinthesouthwesternCapetherewere986(Griffiths2000).Themobileski-boatwasintroducedfromtheKwaZulu-NatalregionintothewesternCape,wheredeck-boatshadpreviouslydominated,againfacilitatingtheexpansionofthefishery.Inthemid-1980s,largefreezervessels,subsidizedbythesquidandtunaindustries,wereintroduced(Saueret al.2003).Theconcomitantevolutioninlinefishinggear,commercialecho-soundersandelectronicnavigationsystems,havecontinuedtocontributetoincreasedfishingeffortinthelinefishery(Penneyet al.1999;Griffiths2000).

TheSouthAfricancommerciallinefisherystretchesfromPortNollothonthewestcoasttoCapeVidalontheeastcoast,andthereforeincludesbothcooltemperate(westcoast)andwarm-temperate(eastcoast)biogeographicre-gions.CommerciallinefishingisonlyexcludedinsomeMPAsincludingtheMaputalandandStLuciaMPAs,Tsitsikamma,DeHoopandsmallno-takezoneswithintheTableMountainNationalPark.TheCapecommerciallinefish-eryconsistsofabout2500vessels(3–15mlong),whichoperateonthecontinentalshelf(5–130mdepth)betweentheOrangeRiverintheNorthernCapeandtheKeiRiverintheEasternCapeusinghandlineorrod-and-reel(Griffiths2000).InKwaZulu-Nataltheline-

fisheryiscentredintwomajorfishingareas;anarrowzoneofscatteredreefsthatextendsalongmuchofthecoast,roughlyfollowingthe50misobathanddeeperreefs(100–200m)southofDurbanandnorthoftheTugelaRiver(Penneyet al.1999).TheareafromCapeVidaltoMozambiquefallswithintheStLuciaandMaputalandmarinereserveswherenoreeffishingisallowed.TheCapecommerciallinefisheryaccountsfor±95%oftheSouthAfricanlinefishcatch(Saueret al.2003).Ow-ingtothelargenumberofusers,launchsites,speciestargeted,andthewideoperationalrange,thelinefisheryismanagedonaneffortbasis,ratherthanonacatchbasis.Therearecurrentlyabout450vessels(3400crew)op-eratinginthecommerciallinefishery(C.Wilke,MCMpers.comm.).Baglimitsalsoapplytothecommercialcomponentforsomespecies.Linefishersarerestrictedtoamaximumof10hooksperline(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Saueret al.(1997)notedinaccuraciesincom-merciallinefishreturnswithfrequentunder-re-portingofcatches.

Keytargetspeciesvarybyregion.Approximate-ly250specieshavebeenreportedincatches,althoughonly35speciesmakeupthemajorityofcatches.CatchesintheWesternCapearedominatedbysnoek,Thyrsites atun,withthecatchcompositionincreasingindiversityto-wardstheeast.InKZN,targetspeciesincludebothresidentreeffish(Sparidae,Serranidae),pelagicmigrants(suchasCarangidaeandScombridae)anddemersalmigrantsfromthesouth(SciaenidaeandSparidae)(Saueret al.2003).Catcheshavebeensustainedbyse-quentialtargetsswitchingfromlargeendemicreeffishsuchasseventy-four,redsteenbrasandrockcods,tosmallersparidssuchasslinger,santerandtrawlsoldier(Penneyet al.1999).Shoalingmigrantssuchasgeelbek,duskykobandkingmackerelhavealsobe-comeincreasinglyimportantinsustainingthefishery(Saueret al.2003).

Mostspeciesareseverelyoverexploited(seebiodiversityimpacts)andanewLinefishMan-agementProtocol(LMP)wasdevelopedandendorsedforthelinefisheryin1999(Griffithset al.1999).TheLMPrequiresmanagementplansforalllinefishspeciestobeimple-mented,andthestockstatusevaluated,usingbiologicallybasedstockassessmentsandhistoricaltrendsincatchandeffort.TheLMPandthespecificspeciesmanagementplansarethetwoprincipletoolsusedtomanagethelinefishresource.Linefishregulations,withrespecttotheMLRA,wereofficiallygazettedin2005(Gov.GazetteNo.27453),thereby

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legallyenforcingtheLMPandmanagementplans(C.Wilkepers.comm.).In2006,atotalof448long-termfishingrightswereallocatedforlinefish,andforthefirsttime,linefish-ingeffortismanagedgeographicallythroughimplementationofgeographicalmanagementzones(effortapportionment,C.Wilkepers.comm.).ThesezonesaredesignatedasZoneA:PortNollothtoCapeInfanta;ZoneB:CapeInfantatoPortStJohns;andZoneC:PortStJohnstonorthernKZN.VesselMonitoringSys-tems(VMS)arealsorequiredonalllinefishregisteredvesselsaspartofthenewpermitconditionsforlong-termrights.

LinefishcomprisethethirdmostimportantSouthAfricanfisherywithrespecttototaltonslandedandtotalvalue.Annualcatchespriortothereductionofthecommercialeffortwereestimatedat16000tonsforthetraditionalcommerciallinefishery(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Almostallofthetraditionallinefishcatchisconsumedlocally.

Biodiversity impactsThemostrecentevaluationofSouthAfrica’smarinefishstatushasindicatedthatupto20speciesofcommercialandrecreationalma-rinefishareconsideredoverexploitedand/orcollapsed(Mann2000).Sincetheturnofthecentury,specializedstudiesonspecificfishspecies(e.g.scotsman,englishman,belman,carpenter,redroman),furtherconfirmthecontinueddeterioratingstatusofthesespe-cies(Mann2000).Factorscontributingtothedemiseoflinefishstocksincludeincreasedcommercialandrecreationalfishingeffortandinadequateregulations,inconjunctionwithseverallifehistorytraits(predictablelocality,longevity,latematurity,sexchange,barotrau-masandestuarinedependenceforsometaxa)makingthesespeciesparticularlyvulnerabletooverexploitation(Garratt1985;Griffiths2000).Thereisaproblemwithserialoverfish-ingofbothspeciesandareas(Penneyet al.1999;Booth&Hecht2000).Serialoverfish-ingisthephenomenonwhere,oncefishershavedepletedaresidentstock,theyshifttheirfishingeffortontoanotherspecies(Booth&Hecht2000).Thiscangivetheimpressionofthefisherymaintainingstablecatchperuniteffort(CPUE)andbeingsustainablewhen,infact,fishersaresimplyshiftingtheireffortontoanotherspecies.Inaddition,fishersseriallyexploitdifferentareasashighlyresidenttaxaaredepletedfromheavilyfishedsites,thenmoveontopreviouslyunfishedreefs(Penneyet al.1999).

OneofthemoststrikingchangesintheKZNlinefisherywasthenear-disappearanceoftheendemicsparid,Polysteganus undulosus(seventyfour).ThisspeciesusedtoaggregateontheIllovoBanksandwasrapidlyoverex-ploited(VanderElst&Garratt1984).Theseventyfourhasbeenspeciallyprotectedforthepasttenyearsanditspotentialrecoveryiscurrentlyunderassessment.Speciescur-rentlyconsideredtobeoptimallyexploitedaresnoek,Thyrsites atun,andyellowtail,Seriola lalandii(Mann2000),carpenter,Argyro-zona argyrozona,redroman,Chrysoblephus laticeps,elf/shad,Pomatomus saltatrix,andhottentot,Pachymetopon blochii,aresomeofthespeciesconsideredtobeoverexploited,whilesomeofthoseconsideredtobecol-lapsedaresilverkob,Aryrosomus inodorus,whitesteenbras,Lithognathus lithognathus,redstumpnose,Chrysoblephus gibbiceps,andslinger,Chrysoblephus puniceus(Mann2000).Thestatusofthefisheryofthekob,Argyrosomus japonicusandA. inodorusisofparticularconcern(Griffiths1997a,b).Thestatusofrockcodsisalsoofconcernastheseslow-growing,residentfisharevulnerabletooverexploitation,andpoorspeciesidentifica-tionandmulti-speciestargetingresultsinpoordataforassessingstockstatus(Mann2000).Theconservationstatusofsomespecieshasbeenassessedandseveralspecieshavebeenred-listed[InternationalUnionfortheConser-vationofNatureandNaturalResources(IUCN2007-06-18).Theendemicwhite-edgedrock-codEpinephelus marginatusandthebrindlebassE. lanceolatusarelistedasVulnerable,whereastheyellowbellyrockcod,E. margina-tus,isEndangered.

Theimpactofoverfishingreefassociatedpredators(e.g.redsteenbras)hasnotbeenex-amined,buttheirdeclinesmayhaveaffectedthelinkbetweenthereefecosystemandthepelagicfoodweb(Attwoodet al.2000).Theremovaloftoppredatorsinrockyreefecosystems(i.e.linefish)canhavefar-reach-inginfluencesonpredator-preyinteractions,implicationsfortoppredators(sharksandothers)andimpactontheproductivityofreefs(C.Wilkepers.comm.).Anchoring,particularlyondeepreefsmaycauselocalizeddamagetonoblecorals,blackcorals,gorgoniansandotherslow-growingreefbiota.Thereareanec-dotalreportsofsuchtaxabeingretrievedonanchors(K.Sinkpers.comm.).

Advancesintechnologyduringthepastdecadehaveaffordedimprovementsontherangecapabilitiesofsmallski-boatsmostfrequentlyusedforlinefishing.SinceVMShas

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becomearequirementforallfishingvessels,theoperationalrangeforsmallski-boatshasbeenquantifiedtobeasfaroffshoreas40nauticalmilesontheAgulhasBank.Fisher-menarenowabletotargetlinefishspeciesoccupyingoffshorereefenvironments(e.g.AlphardBanks).Speciesofgreatestconcernonoffshorereefsincludesharks,redsteen-bras,redstumpnoseandgeelbek(C.Wilkepers.comm.).

TheLinefishManagementProtocol(LMP)implementeddrasticreductionsineffortandstringentbaglimits.However,thelife-his-torytraitsofmostlinefish(slowgrowth,sexchange),stronginter-sectorcompetitionandineffectiveenforcementofregulationscontin-uestocontributetotheoverexploitedstatusofmanylinefishspecies.Itislikelythatthemaintenanceofanumberofadequatelylarge,well-situatedmarinereservesoffersoneofthefewpracticableoptionsofconservingtheendemicfishstocksontheeastcoast(Penneyet al.1999).

Issues of conflictInthewesternandsouthernCape,thelinefishsectorconflictswiththeinshoredemersaltrawlfisheryassnoekandsparids,targetedbylinefishers,arecaughtinthetrawlbycatch,sometimesinsubstantialquantities(seebiodi-versityimpactsoftrawlfisheries).Theareaofoperationoftheinshoretrawlfisherystronglyoverlapswithjuvenilesilverkob(Argyrosomus inodorus)nurseryareas,resultinginasignifi-cantamountofundersizedkobcontributingtothetrawlbycatch(C.Wilkepers.comm.).Thelegalsaleofsuchtrawlbycatchspeciesexac-erbatestheproblemsofconflictandpressureonlinefishstocks.ThesquidfisheryoperatesoveralargeareaoftheAgulhasBankalongthesouthcoast,whichisalsofavouredbylinefishers.Thenatureofthesquidfisheryrequirestheuseofbrightlightsprojectedontothesurfaceofthewateratnighttolurethesquidtothehooks.Linefishershaverecentlyexpressedconcernovertheimpactthatthebrightlightsmayhaveonlinefish,inparticu-lar,andotherspecies(C.Wilkepers.comm.).InKZN,thecommerciallinefishersconflictwiththeinshorecrustaceantrawlsectorduetolinefishcontributingasubstantialbycatchintheprawnfishery(Fennessy1994a).

Tuna poleOverviewTunawereconsideredrareinSouthAfri-canwaterspriorto1945anduntilrecently,fetchedarelativelylowprice(Shannonet al.

1989).Fishingeffortfortunafluctuatedinthe1960sanditwasonlylatein1979thatalargerunofyellowfintuna(Thunnus albacares)sparkedrenewedinterestintheresourceanda115vessels,includingmanyrecreationalcraft,werehuntingtunabytheendoftheyear.Thefollowingyear,effortswitchedtolongfintuna/albacore(Thunnus alalunga)offshorewhenthelargeshoalsofyellowfinfailedtoappear(Shannonet al.1989).Thebait-boatfisheryfortunainSouthAfricanwatersdevelopedin1980,andby1990about10000tonsoftuna(predominantlyyellowfintuna)werebeingcaughteachyear(Hamptonet al.1999).Catchessubsequentlydeclinedtoabouthalf(6571tonsonaveragebetween1993and1997),butreachedabout8000tonsagainin1998.Thelargepelagiclonglinefisheryalsotargetslargebigeye(Thunnus obesus)andyellowfintuna(Hamptonet al.1999).Inthe1970stunawerecaughtbypurseseinersonthesouthcoastbutasyel-lowfinshoalsweretargeted,thepermitsforthisfisherywerewithdrawnin1982(Shannonet al.1989).Thetunapolefisheryhasunder-gonemanychangesinthelastfourdecades,includingrecentchangesinthelastfiveyears.Today,thepolefisheryinSouthAfricanwatersrepresents200boats,whichmainlytargetjuvenileyellowfintuna.Thesemodernvesselsareequippedtocatchhighqualityfish,whicharekeptinaniceslurrytomaintainthequality(J.Harepers.comm.).Fiveyearsago,mostofthepolecaughttunawasexportedthroughthelonglinesector.However,thereisnowalarge,establishedlocalmarket,fuelledbyincreasingdemandforfreshtunaforsteaksandsushi.

TheSouthAfricantunapolefisherylargelyoperatesonthewestcoastofSouthAfrica,withinthe200nauticalmilefishingzone,par-ticularlybetween29°and32°S,targetingthesouthernAtlantictunastock.Tunastocksoc-curringintheIndianOceanontheeastcoastofSouthAfricaareconsideredlessabundantandthusnotfishedasfrequentlyorintenselyasthewestcoast(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Lessthan1%ofthetunapolecatchiscaughteastwardsofthe20°Elongitudeline.Thefisheryisseasonal,withcatchesonlyoccurringbetweenOctoberandJunealongthewestcoast.Variationsinenvironmentalcondi-tionsareknowntoinfluencetheavailabilityoffish,insomeyearsconcentratingthemcloseinshore.

Thetunapolefisheryhasmadeuseofseveraltypesofvesselsduringtheevolutionofthefishery.Thefirstwerelargevesselswithon-boardfreezers,capableofspendingsubstan-

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tialperiodsatseawithacrewof20ormore.Later,smallervesselsthatcarriedlessthan20crew,spendingnomorethanfivedaysatsea,weremorecommon.Inthelastfiveyears,morespecializedvesselsspendingshorterperiodsatseaandstoringtunaonice,aremorecommonlyused(J.Harepers.comm.).Thefisheryisnotcapitalintensive,butlocatingandfishingfortunausingthepolemethodrequiresaskilledcrew.Waterisoftenpumpedfromthesurfaceandsprayedalongsidetheboattoattracttuna.Thetunaarethencaughtwithbaitedhooksorluresandgaffedaboard.

Tunaareopportunisticpredatorsfeedingonfish,squidandcrustaceans.Therearereportsofyellowfintunaforagingonoffalfromhaketrawlers(Shannonet al.1989).Differentspe-ciesoftunafavourdifferentwaterdepthswithjuvenilelongfintuna(lessthan90cmlong)notedforsurfacefeedinginlargeschools,whereasadultlongfinoccurlowerdowninthewatercolumnanddonotformlargeschoolsandarethusnotavailabletothesurfacegearusedbythepolingfleet(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Bigeyetunaarealsoknowntoforageoveragreaterverticalrange.Thesemigratoryspeciesspawninmoretropicalwaters.Shan-nonet al.(1989)reportthattheCapePointValleyandtheCapeCanyon,offCapePointandDassenIslandrespectively,areimportanttunafishingareasbecauseofupwellingandthepositionoftheoceanicthermalfrontclosetothecoastintheseareas.Inthe1980s,fish-ingforlongfintunawasconcentratedoffshoreintheareabetweenStHelenaandLüderitz,withheavyeffortoutsideSouthAfrica’sEEZatTrippSeamount(Shannonet al.1989).

AlltunaspeciesarehighlymigratoryanddefinedasstraddlingstocksbytheUnitedNationsFishStocksAgreementandarethusmanagedataninternationallevel(seeLargePelagicssection).RegionalFisheriesManage-mentOrganizations(RFMOs)havebeenestab-lishedandmanageglobalfishstocksthroughvariouscommissions(e.g.InternationalCom-missionfortheConservationofAtlanticTunas(ICCAT),theIndianOceanTunaCommission(IOTC)andtheCommissionfortheConser-vationofSouthernBluefinTuna(CCSBT)).CountriesfishingthesestocksareobligedtoparticipateinRFMOswhichsetcountryquotaTACs.However,ICCAThavenotyetissuedcountryallocationsfortheSouthAtlantictunastock.TheDepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairsandTourismcurrentlymanageSouthAfrica’sAtlantictunafisherythroughatotalappliedeffort(TAE)of200vesselscarryingamaximumof3600crew(www.feike.co.za,May2007),mostlytargetingyellowfintuna.

Biodiversity impactsThetunapolefisheryisahighlytargetedfish-erywithvirtuallyzerounintentionalbycatch.Thetargetedmigratorytunaspeciesareobservedthroughinternationalorganizations(RFMO).Tunasareconsideredtobeamongthetoppredatorsofmarineecosystemsandcanbesusceptibletooverfishing.

Issues of conflictPotentialforuserconflictexistsbetweenthetunapolefishersandthelargepelagiclonglinefisherywithrespecttooverlapintargetspe-ciesandfishingareas,althoughpolefishersaregenerallyunabletoreachthemidwaterzonethatistargetedbylonglinefishers.Polefishersattracttuna(usuallyjuvenileyellowfin)tothesurfacefromwheretheyaregaffedintothevessel.Longlinerssettheirlinesdeeperinthewatercolumntargetingthelarger,adultyellowfintuna.ThetunapolesectorreportsthattheCapeCanyonareaiscriticaltotheirindustry,wherethetunafollowhaketrawlvesselsandfeedoffdiscards(J.Harepers.comm.).

Large pelagicsOverviewTheSouthAfricanpelagiclonglinefisherydatesbacktotheearly1960s,whenthefisherytargetedalbacore(Thunnus alalunga),southernbluefintuna(Thunnus maccoyii)andbigeyetuna(Thunnus obesus)inasmallcapacity(Petersenet al.2007).Towardsthelater1960s,JapaneseandTaiwanesevesselsestablishedbilateralagreementswithSouthAfricaandfishedextensivelyfortunaandswordfishinSouthAfrica’sEEZ(www.seis.sea.uct.ac.za,May2007).Followingthesuccess-fuloutcomefromajointventurebetweenaSouthAfricanandJapanesevesselin1995,theSouthAfricangovernmentissued30experimentallonglinepermitstoSouthAfricanflaggedvesselsin1997(Petersenet al.2007)toprimarilytargettuna.Attheinceptionofthisexperimentalfishery(between1997and1999)swordfishwerethemostabundantspeciescaught,comprising70%ofthelandedcatch(Kroese1999).Thecatchcompositionchangedduetolocaldepletionofswordfishandasfleetsmovedintotemperateandoffshorewaters,moretemperatetunawerecaught,suchthatswordfishcomprised21%ofthecatch(Govenderet al.2002).Increas-ingpressurefromtheSouthAfricanfishingsectortoexcludeinternationalfishinginSouthAfrica’sEEZencouragedtheMinisterofEnvi-ronmentalAffairsandTourismnottorenewinternationalfishingagreementswithJapanandTaiwanforlonglinefisheriesin2002.

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Thespeciestargetedbythepelagiclonglinefishery(tunas,Thunnusspp.andswordfish,Xiphias gladius)arenotconfinedonlytoSouthAfricanwaters,arehighlymigratoryanddefinedasstraddlingstocksbytheUnitedNationsFishStocksAgreement.Thesespe-ciescanonlybemanagedataninternationallevelthroughcountryquotaallocations,stockassessments,globalTACsanddevelopmentofcomplianceandcontrolmeasures(Japp2004).Forthispurpose,RegionalFisheriesManagementOrganizations(RFMOs)havebeenestablished,suchastheInternationalCommissionfortheConservationofAtlanticTunas(ICCAT),theIndianOceanTunaCommis-sion(IOTC)andtheCommissionfortheCon-servationofSouthernBluefinTuna(CCSBT).InaccordancewiththeUnitedNationsFishStocksAgreement,countriesfishingthesestocksareobligedtoparticipateintheRFMOsresponsibleformanagementofthespeciesinquestion.Catch(TAC)andeffort(TAE)limitsforthesehighlymigratoryspeciesarethereforesetbytheRFMOsandinordertosecurequo-tasforsuchspecies,SouthAfricaisrequiredtoparticipateandimplementrecommenda-tionsmadebytheseorganizationsindevelop-ingandmanagingthisfishery.

TheexperimentalpelagicfisheryinSouthAfrica(1997–2004)providedthecountrywithanopportunitytoestablishaperform-ancehistoryinthefishery,thusincreasingthelikelihoodofbeingallocatedacountryquotafortheseinternationallygovernedspecies(e.g.albacore,swordfishandbluefintuna).Thesuc-cessoftheexperimentalfisherydemonstratedthatSouthAfricahadtheexpertiseandskillrequiredtofishfortunaandswordfishandin2005thesectorwasformalizedintoacom-mercialfishery(C.Smithpers.comm.).Fiftycommerciallargepelagic,long-termfishingrightswereallocated(30tuna-directedand20

swordfish-directed),althoughsomeoftheserightsholdersemployedAsianvesselsunderjointventures(Petersenet al.2004).Permitholdersprimarilytargetlargetuna(bigeye,Thunnus obesus andyellowfin,Thunnus albacares)fortheJapanesesashimi market,andswordfish(Xiphias gladius)forfresh(iced)export.Manyofthesevesselsfishneartheedgeof,oron,thecontinentalshelf(~200mdepth),wherebycatchesofsharksareoftenalsosignificant(Petersenet al.2004;Saueret al.2003;seePelagicSharklonglinesection).

SouthAfricanlonglinefishersareexpand-ingtheareainwhichpelagiclonglinefishingoccurs,astheirexperienceinthisfisheryincreases(Saueret al.2003).Thepelagicfisherystronglyfollowsthe200misobathoffshoreofEastLondonalmosttotheOrangeRiverborderinthenorth(Saueret al.2003).YellowfintunaandswordfishcatchratesarehighestinthewarmerAgulhascurrentwaters,whereasbigeyetunatendtobemoreabun-dantatoceanicfrontsbetweentheAgulhasCurrentandcoolerwater,furthertothesouthorwest(Saueret al.2003).Morerecently,longlinefishersarebeginningtoexploitfishingareasinHighSeasthatarefishedbyinterna-tionalfleetsfromSpain,TaiwanandJapan,e.g.themid-AtlanticRidgeandWalvisRidge(Saueret al.2003).

Avarietyoffishingvesselsareusedforthepelagiclonglinefishery,rangingfromcon-vertedbeamtrawlerstocharteredlongliners,between30mand54minlength(Saueret al.2003).Ingeneral,vesselsfishinginSouthAfri-canwatersareriggedwithmonofilamentfish-inggear(polyestersyntheticfibre)comprisedof20mlongbuoylinesand20mlongtracelines(snoods),towhichahookisattachedandbaited(Figure3.5.,Saueret al.2003).Thetracelinesandbuoylinesareattachedto

FIGURE3.5.—Schematicillustrationofpelagiclonglinefishingactivity,showingfishinggeardeployedinwatercolumn~40mdepth(source:D.Japp).

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themainlinebyasnapclip(Figure3.5).Lightsticksarefrequentlyattachednearthehookwhentargetingswordfish(DEAT2002Policyfortunalongline).Thegearisriggedsuchthatthebaitedhooksaresuspendedatdepthsof±40mandaretypicallydeployedatnight,be-inghauledthefollowingmorning.Thelengthofthemainlinerangesbetween35–40nauticalmilesperset,eachhavingbetween750and1500hooks(Saueret al.2003).

Pelagic shark longline fishery—soon to be incorporated with the pelagic longline fisheryThepelagicsharklonglinefisheryaroseasaconsequenceofsharkbycatchfromthepelagiclonglinefisherytargetingtunaandswordfish.Sharkspeciestargetedbythisfisheryaremainlypelagicsharkspeciessuchasmako(Isurus oxyrinchus)andbluesharks(Prionace glauca).Thepelagicsharklonglinefisherywasmanagedseparatelyfromtunaandswordfishfromtheearly1990suntil2006.Thegearandvesselsusedinthepelagicsharkfisheryareverysimilartothoseusedinthetunaandswordfishfishery,andthebycatchvs.targetspeciesoverlappedsignificantlyinthesefisheries.Therefore,in2006,amanagementdecisionwastakentomanagebothsectorsaspartofthelargepelagiclonglinefishery(C.Smithpers.comm.,www.sharklife.co.za,May2007).Thisdecisionwasprimarilybasedontheprecautionaryapproachtofisherymanage-mentwithconcernforthehighlevelofunder-reportingofsharkcatchesbyallcountriesandtheillegaltradeofsharkfins(C.Smithpers.comm.).From1January2006,thepelagicsharklicenseholderswereadvisedtoapplyforentryintothepelagiclonglinefisheryandthepelagicsharkfisherywassupposedtocease.Noprovisionwasmadetoscorepelagicsharkfisherswithrespecttoentryintothelonglinefishery,resultinginonlyonesuccessfulap-plicationfromaprevioussharklonglinefishery(C.Smithpers.comm.).Arevisionoftheap-plicationandrightsallocationscoringprocessforthissectoriscurrentlyunderwayandisexpectedtobeimplementedtowardstheendof2007.Untilthistime,however,exemptionshavebeengrantedtosharklonglinefisherswhohavedemonstratedpelagicsharkcatchperformance(C.Smithpers.comm.).Thiswillfacilitatethemanagementofsharkscaughtbylonglineaspartofthebycatchquotafortunaandswordfishlonglining.

Biodiversity impactsTheSouthAfricanpelagiclonglinefisherytargetingtunaandswordfish,isestimatedto

catch±200turtlesand200seabirdseachyear(Petersenet al.2007).Thecriticallyendangeredleatherbackturtle(16%ofthe200turtles)andtheendangeredloggerheadturtle(60%ofthe200)aremostfrequentlycaughtasbycatchinthisfishery(Petersenet al.2007).Asmanyas22000pelagicsharksarecapturedasbycatchinthepelagiclonglinefisheryeachyear.Speciesmostfrequentlyencounteredareblue(84%)andmako(10%)sharks(Petersenet al.2007).Interactionsbetweenlonglinerstargetingswordfishandkillerwhaleshasresultedinconcernforthesemarinemammalsthathavebeenchasedorshotattopreventstealingofbait(Govenderet al.2002).

Decliningcatchratesofswordfish(upto70%)alongthewesternedgeoftheAgulhasBankhaveresultedinconcernforthesustainabilityofthisspeciesinthepelagiclonglinefishery(DEAT2002Policyfortunalongline).ThecatchratesforswordfishintheSouthAfricanfisherywererelativelyhighattheinceptionofthefishery(1997to1998)withanaverageCPUEof3.4kg/hookrecorded(Kroese1999).InotherareasoftheSouthAtlantic,CPUErarelyexceeds0.3kg/hook(Govenderet al.2002).CPUEinSouthAfricahassincedeclinedtowellbelow1.0kg/hook,aseffortreachedsatura-tionlevelsinthemainfishingareas(Kroese1999).TheIndianOceanTunaCommission(IOTC)hasexpressedseriousconcernoverthedeclineinswordfishcatchesinthesouthwestIndianOcean(C.Smithpers.comm.).Conversely,theInternationalCommissionfortheConservationofAtlanticTunas(ICCAT)cur-rentlyconsidersswordfishinthesouthAtlanticoceantobeunderexploited.

Issues of conflictDuetothenatureofgeardeploymentinthepelagiclonglinefishery,conflicthasarisenwiththisfisheryandtrawlfisheriesaswellaspetro-leumexplorationsurveys(seeHakedeep-seatrawl,inshoretrawlandpetroleumsections).Thelonglinefisherytypicallysetstheirlinesatnight(orearlyhoursofthemorning)whichthendriftwiththecurrentovertheAgulhasBank,movingfromtheshelfedgetotheshal-lowerregions(CCA&CMS2001:vol.2).Thelinescanbemanykilometresinlength,arenotreadilyvisibleandtheirmovements,beingprescribedbythecurrents,areunpredictable.Entanglementofsuchdriftinglonglineswitheithertrawlgearorseismicsurveygearhasresultedinconflictbetweentheseindustries(CCA&CMS2001:vol.2).

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Small pelagicsOverviewThesmallpelagicfisherywasfoundedinStHelenaBay,SouthAfrica,shortlyaftertheendofWorldWarII,withfishingactivitiestargetingsardine(Sardinops sagax,alsoknownlocallyasPilchard)andhorsemackerel,Trachurus trachurus capensis(Griffithset al.2004;Saueret al.2003)usingpurse-seinefishingtechniques.Arapidincreaseineffortinthisfisheryresultedinapeakcatchofalmost500000tonsin1962,80%ofwhichwassardine(Crawfordet al.1987).Catchesofbothsardineandhorsemackereldeclinedrapidlyafter1962,thisbeingattributedtooverfish-ingandvariablerecruitmentsuccess(Grif-fithset al.2004).In1964,theSouthAfricanpelagicfisheryreducedthemeshsizeofitsnets(from32mmsardinemeshto13mmanchovymesh)totargetthesmalleranchovy(Engraulis encrasicolus),thisbeinghighlysuc-cessful,resultinginanchovyreplacingsardineasthedominantspeciesofthesmallpelagicfisheryforthenext20years.Anchovylandingscontinuedtoincreaseuntilreachingapeakofnearly600000tonsin1988,followedbya50%decreaseinthecatchthefollowingyear(Saueret al.2003).Theannuallandingsofanchovygenerallyhoveredaround40000tonsthereafter,whereasthatofsardineaveraged100000tonsuntil2000.In2004,sardinecatchesbegantoshowsignsofrecov-erywithlandingsof373000tons(Hamptonet al.1999).Large-scalefluctuationsinsmallpelagicspeciesabundanceanddistributionaretypicalofupwellingecosystems(Griffithset al.2004).

AdultsardineandanchovyaggregateontheAgulhasBankduringsummerwherethey

spawn.Eggsandlarvaearetransportedupthewestcoast,movingintotheproductiveinshoreregionsandthenmigratingsouthwards,backtowardstheAgulhasBankbythefollowingsummer(Saueret al.2003).Anchovyreachspawningmaturityafteroneyear.However,sardineonlyreachspawningmaturityafterthesecondyearandithasbeenrecommendedthattheyshouldnotbeexploiteduntilthen(Saueret al.2003).Adultsandjuvenilesofthesetwospeciesshoaltogethermakingeitheroverexploitationofsardineorunder-exploitationofanchovylikely(Saueret al.2003).Jointmanagementofthesespeciesischallenging;however,managementcannotbeconductedindependently.Asubstantialcatchofwestcoastred-eyeroundherring(Etrumeus whiteheadi)sincethe1980s—asmuchas76000tonsin1995(Hamptonet al.1999)—inthesmallpelagicfishery,hasledtosomeattemptstotargetadultsofthisspeciesalongthewestcoast.Thisspeciesisbelievedtobeunderexploitedandanannualprecau-tionaryuppercatchlimitof100000tonsisseteachyear(C.vanderLingen,MCM,pers.comm.).Thislimithasnotyetbeenreachedinthisfishery.Anothervaluablebycatchofthepurse-seinefisheryischubmackerel(Scomber japonicus).However,targetingofthisparticu-larspeciesinthepurse-seinefishery,isnotconsideredeconomicallyviable.

Thepurse-seinefishingmethodaimstotargetshoalsofsmallpelagicfishvisiblenearthesurfaceatnight(Armstrong&Thomas1989).Onceashoalhasbeenlocated,thenetissetaroundtheshoalwiththebottomofthenetbeingpulledclosedwithafootrope(Figure3.6.;Armstrong&Thomas1989).Thenetisbroughtalongsidethevesselandthefisharetransferredintotheholdwithasuctionpump.

FIGURE3.6.—Illustrationoftypicalpurse-seinegeardeployment.Thefisharecircledandthenetpursedandshortenedbeforepumpingonboard(source:D.Japp).

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Thefisharekeptinchilledseawaterorbrinesolutionuntilthevesselcapacityisreached.Thefisharelandedataprocessingfactorywheretheyareagaintransferredfromtheves-selholddirectlyintothefactoryandprocessedintofishoilorfishmeal(majorityofthecatch),andcannedorfrozenforbait(largeadultsardine).Mostpelagicfishingvesselscatchtheircarryingcapacityovernight(averageof200000tons)andlandtheircatchesearlyinthemornings,preparingtofishagainthefol-lowingnight.

Thesmallpelagicfisheryiscurrentlymanagedthroughquotaallocationsatthreelevels,TACforadultsardine,apreliminaryTACforancho-vyandforsardinebycatch,thisbeingrevisedaftersixmonthsandre-allocated.AcousticsurveysconductedinNovember-Decembereachyearestimatetherecruitmentpotential(spawnerbiomass)forthefollowingyearandTACsforsardineareset.PreliminaryTACsarealsosetforanchovyandsardinebycatch,butasecondacousticsurvey,conductedinMay-Juneeachyear,estimatestheactualrecruit-menthavingtakenplaceandthisisusedtomodifytheanchovyandsardinebycatchTACs,ifnecessary(Saueret al.2003).TheadultsardineTACisnotmodifiedafterthesecondsurveyastheadultfishwillhavespawnedandarenotthoughttobevulnerable.

Thecommercialsmallpelagicsfishingindus-tryhashistoricallyconcentratedonthewestcoastofSouthAfrica,specificallyinStHelenaandSaldanhaBay.Thereisalsoasubstantialpelagicfisheryalongthesouthcoast,centredaroundMosselBayandPortElizabeth,target-ingjuvenilerecruitsontheAgulhasBank(Grif-fithset al.2004).

ThesmallpelagicfisheryisSouthAfrica’shigh-estproducingfisheryintermsoflandedmassandisthesecondmostvaluablefishery(Fish-ingIndustryHandbook2006),worthapproxi-matelyR800millionperannum(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Pelagicvesselsareeitherwoodenorsteel-hulledpurse-seinersranginginlengthfrom11to48m.Thisisacapital-in-tensivefisheryrequiringexpensivevesselsandspecializedequipmentwithnet-replacementcostinguptoR1.5million(Saueret al.2003).

Biodiversity impactsPurse-seinefishingoperationsarehighlyselec-tiveandtargetshoalsoffishnearthesurfaceofthewatercolumn.Onlyaverysmallamountoflandedbycatchspeciesisnotprocessed.Biodiversityconcernsarecentredaroundtheimportantrolethatthesefishplayinmarine

foodwebs.Overfishingandtargetingjuveniles(especiallysardine)inthesmallpelagicfisheryareconsideredtohavesubstantialimpactsontheecosystemstructureandfunctioninginal-teringthecompositionandspatialdistributionofthesepopulations(Griffithset al.2004).Curyet al.(2000)alsosuggeststhatintensefishingofsmallpelagicpopulationscanleadtoreducedintraspecificdiversity.Smallpelagicfisharerankedatanintermediatetrophiclevel,but,havinglargepopulationsizes,exertatop-downcontrolonzooplanktonandabottom-upcontrolofpredators(otherfishandmarinebirds).Thesespeciesplayacrucialroleinthetransferofenergybetweenupperandlowertrophiclevelsandtheirabundancecanhavesubstantialimpactsontheecosys-tem(Curyet al.2000).Anexampleofthisisshownwiththecollapseofthesardinestockduringthe1960sbeingfollowedbyacollapseofAfricanpenguincoloniesalongthewestcoastofsouthernAfrica(Griffithset al.2004).Smallpelagicfisharerecognizedasimportantpreyforseabirdsandthereisthusacurrentinitiativetoidentifyandprotectimportantbirdfeedingareas.Pelagicfisherieswouldbeexcludedfromtheseareas(R.Crawford,MCM,pers.comm.).

Issues of conflictThereispotentialforconflictintheareatar-getedforfishingbypurse-seinersonthesouthcoastandinshoredemersalandmidwatertrawlfisheries.AllthreeofthesefisheriesconcentratearoundtheinshoreareaofMos-selBay,PlettenbergBayandPortElizabeth.Althoughtargetingdifferentspeciesoccupyingdifferentecosystemniches,anoverlapinfish-inggroundsmayresultinconflict.Themid-watertrawlfisherylargelytargetsadulthorsemackerel,whileitisthejuvenilehorsemack-erelthatshoalwithothersmallpelagics.Thereislimitedspeciestargetingoverlapbetweenmidwatertrawlandsmallpelagicfisheries.Thepurse-seinefisheryisalsofrequentlyaccusedofoverfishing,resultingindeclinesinseabirdpopulations(e.g.Africanpenguinandgan-nets).Whilethisdoesnotresultinconflictovertargetspecies,thereispotentialforconflictaroundquantitiesandareasfished.

SquidOverviewThechokkasquid,Loligo vulgaris reynaudii,hasbeentargetedinSouthAfricaformanyyears.ThehistoryofsquidfishinginSouthAf-ricaisreviewedbyAugustyn&Smale(1989).Priortothedevelopmentofthejigfishery,chokkasquidhasfeaturedinthecatchesof

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trawlfisheriesandwascaughtforuseasbaitbylinefishers.Inthe1960sand1970s,thesquidresourcewasheavilyexploitedbyforeigntrawlfleetsbutthiswasphasedoutinthelate1970sandearly1980sfollowingSouthAfrica’sdeclarationoftheEEZ.However,squidandothercephalopodscontinuedtobetakenasbycatchbySouthAfricantrawlers(200—600tonsperannum,Saueret al.2003).TheSouthAfricanlinefisheryforsquiddevelopedalongthesouthcoastintheearly1980swherespawningaggregationsbetweenPlettenbergBayandPortElizabethweretargeted.

Loligo vulgaris reynaudiiisfoundbetweenNamibiainthewestandtheWildCoastintheeastandspawnsontheseabed,usuallyininshoreareas,butisknowntospawnindeepwaterontheAgulhasBank.MostfishingtakesplacebetweenPlettenbergBayandPortAlfredbetween20mand120mdepthbuteffortishighestinwatershallowerthan30m(MikeRoberts,MCM,pers.comm.).

Thelinefisheryforsquidisajigfisheryoper-atedbyhandlines.Hand-heldjigsareusedasjiggingmachinesprovedunsuccessful(Saueret al.2003).Squidboatsrangefromsmallski-boats(theseinitiallydominated,butfewareleftintheindustryatpresent)tofairlylargedeckboatsmorethan20mlong(Saueret al.2003).Thisfisheryissomewhatseasonal(mainseasonOctober—March)targetingadultsquidinspawningaggregations.Inwinter,squidfishingtakesplaceindeeperwaterwheretheuseoflightsisemployed.Atthistime,thesquidaredispersedovertheentireAgulhasBankandcatchesarelower.Stockas-sessmentsareconductedonanannualbasis(MikeRobertspers.comm.).Squidisfrozenatsea,usuallyin10kgblocksandisconsideredahighqualityexportproductofinternationalstandard.CatchesareusuallylandedatharboursbetweenPlettenbergBayandPortAlfred.Between1986and1988,alicensingsystemwasintroducedwithaviewtolimit-ingthenumberofvesselsparticipatinginthefishery.Thefisheryisnowregulatedintermsofatotalappliedeffort(TAE).Since1988,thefisheryhasbeenclosedonceayearforfourweeksinanattempttocountertheeffectsof‘creepingeffort’(Saueret al.2003).Creepingeffortreferstoincreasedefficiencyincatch-ingbecauseoftechnologicaladvancesandincreasedexperienceintargetingthisspecies.

In2005therewereapproximately125rightsholderswith136vesselsand2422totalcrewactiveinthefishery(FishingIndustry

Handbook2006).Thejigfisheryregistereditshighestcatchof±12000tonsin2003/2004(Petersen&Nel2007).Averagecatchesinthe1990swerebetween6000and7000tonsperannum(Roelet al.1998).Theabundanceofchokkasquidfluctuatessubstantially.Theeffectsoffluctuationsinpredation,preyavaila-bilityandthephysicalenvironmentarequicklyreflectedinsquidstocksduetotheirshortlifespan(±twoyears)thusprovidinglittleinter-an-nualcontinuity(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Presently,chokkasquidabundanceisatnear-recordhighlevels,butexperiencesuggeststhatsubstantialdeclinescanbeexpected(Petersen&Nel2007).

In2002,whentheSouthAfricanRandwasatitslowestlevelagainstmajorinternationalcur-rencies,thepriceofsquidrosetoalmostR50perkg.Theaveragepriceofsquidin2004wasR30perkg.Thechokkasquidfisherypro-videsemploymentfor±3000people,includ-ingland-basedpersonnel.ThelandedcatchisworthmorethanR180millionperyear.Thesquidjigfisherymakesasignificantcontribu-tiontotheeconomyofthesoutheasternCapecoastregion.

Biodiversity impactsThesquidjigfisheryhasrelativelylittleimpactonotherspeciesandthisfisheryisconsideredtohaveverylowimpactsonbiodiversityoverall(Petersen&Nel2007).Benthichabitatsarenotdamagedandbycatchisnegligible.Thereisconcernaboutpotentialtrophicimpactsonsquidpredatorpopulations(seals,linefish,ce-taceans,sharksandseabirds).Plasticpollu-tionfromsquidboatshasalsobeenraisedasaconcern.Someconcernhasbeenexpressedbythelinefisherythattheuseoflightscouldhavenegativeimpactsonmarineecosystemsandtherehasbeenarecommendationtore-ducetheintensityoflightsusedinthisfishery(C.Wilke,MCM,pers.comm.,www.feike.co.za,May2007).

Squidlicensedvesselshavebeenreportedtoillegallyharvestsquidfromwithinthebounda-riesoftheTsitsikammaMarineReserve(Lemm&Attwood2003).

Issues of conflictThisfisheryhasexperiencedconflictwiththedemersaltrawlsectorwhooccasionallyalsotargetsquid(Saueret al.2003).Squideggsarevulnerabletoanchordamagefromlinefishingandotherboats(Sauer1995).

Coastalresidentssometimescomplainaboutthebrightnessofthelightsusedbysquidfish-ersatnight.Thiseffectonothercommercially

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importantspeciesandthemarineecosystemingeneral,isnotcertain.However,somecon-cernhasbeenraisedbylinefishersoverthispotentialimpact.

Crustacean trawlOverviewSouthAfrica’scrustaceantrawlfisheryiscon-finedtotheprovinceofKwaZulu-Natal(KZN)althoughthisfisheryextendedintosouthernMozambiqueinthe1970sandearly1980s.Duringthistime,SouthAfrican,Spanish,SovietandEastGermantrawlerstargeteddeep-waterprawns,langoustinesandrocklob-stersinthearea(DeFreitas1989).Thefisherybeganinthe1970swithsporadicfishingbe-tween1976and1983,afterwhich,awell-or-ganizedfleetbeganmoreintensecommercialoperations(DeFreitas1989).InitialeffortinKZNwasfocusedondeep-waterrocklobsters(Palinurus delagoae)andanecdotalreportsindicatethatduringtheearlyyearsofthefish-ery,onlyrocklobsterswereretained,withtheremainderofthecatchbeingdiscarded(Toma-lin1988;Forbes&Demetriades2005).ThepotentialinshoreprawnresourcewasknownbyfishersbuttheypreferredtotargetmorelucrativespeciesindeeperwaterandhadalsoexperiencednetdamageduetotreedebrisontheTugelaBanks(DeFreitas1989).Inshoreprawntrawlingbeganinearnestin1983butsporadicfishingtookplaceonthebankssince1976.Theinshoreandoffshorefisheriesareseparatesectorsthattargetdifferentspecies,indifferentareas,usingdifferentgear.

Theinshorecrustaceantrawlfisheryoperatesprimarilyinwater20–45mdeepandiscon-finedtotheareawithin0.5to7nauticalmilesoftheshore(Fennessy1999).TheTugelaBankistheprimaryinshoretrawlarea,ashal-lowareabetweenShaka’sRockandMtunziniwherethecontinentalshelfwidensandthebottomischaracterizedbymuddysediments.OthermorerecentlydiscoveredinshoretrawlareasincludeareasoffRichardsBayandStLucia.Theenvironmentalconditionsoftheseinshoreareasaresimilartothatofestuarineenvironmentswithmurkyturbidwater,highconcentrationsoffoodandshelterfromstrongcurrents.Theseconditionsaresuitableforpe-naeidprawnsandalsoserveasnurseryareasforjuvenilefishthattakeadvantageofthegoodfoodsupplyandcanavoidpredatorsinthemurkywater.Inshoretrawlingisseasonal,withsummercatchesoffStLuciaandeffortconcentratedontheTugelaBankfromMarchtoAugust(Fennessy1999).

Theinshorefisherytargetswhiteprawns,Fen-nereopenaeus indicus,brownprawns,Metap-enaeus monoceros,tigerprawns,Penaeus monodonandbambooprawns,Marsupenae-us japonicus,ontheshallow-watermudbanks(Forbes&Demetriades2005).Theseprawnspeciesgrowfastandhavealife-spanof±oneyear.Penaeidprawnfisheriesaredependentonestuarinehabitats.Prawnlarvaeenterestu-arieswheretheygrowintojuvenilesandthenmoveoutofestuariesandrecruitontothemudbanks,wheretheymatureandreproduce(DeFreitas1989).Theinshoretrawlcatchrangesbetween17—122tonsperyear(Forbes&Demetriades2005).Targetedspeciescon-stituteabout20%ofthecatchbymass,with±10%retainedbycatch,and70%discardedbycatch.Bycatchincludesothercrustaceans,cephalopods,linefishsuchasgrunterandkob,elasmobranchsandturtles.RetainedbycatchincludesTugelaswimmingcrab,Portu-nus sanguinolentus, octopus,squid,cuttlefish,andlinefish.Theaverageamountofbycatchdiscardedhasbeenreportedas400tonsperyear(Fennessy1994a).Thepredominanceofsquaretailkob,Argyrosomus thorpei (animportantlinefish),intrawlcatches,ledtotheclosureofprawntrawlingontheTugelaBankinlatesummer.Atonestage,spottedgrunter(Pomadasys commersonnii)caughtasby-catch,couldbesoldbutthisledtotargetingofthisimportantlinefishandwassubsequentlybanned(Forbes&Demetriades2005).Thereare±10000sharksandrayscaughtperyearasbycatchintheprawntrawlfishery(Fen-nessy1994a,b)andthisisofgreatconcernforbiodiversity.Prawnabundancefluctuateswithrainfall(Fennessy1999)andtherecentreductionininshorecatchescouldbelinkedtothedroughtintheareaandprolongedclosure(fiveyears)oftheStLuciaestuary.Catch-mentdevelopments,particularlyforestryandagriculture,threatenthenurseryroleoftheestuarinesystemsthatsupporttheinshoreprawnfisheryinSouthAfrica.

Thedeep-watercrustaceantrawlfisheryoper-atesoffshore,ontheedgeofthecontinentalshelfinwater100–600mdeepfromPortEdwardtoCapeVidal.OffshorepermitholdersmaynotfishwithinsevennauticalmilesoftheshoreintheareabetweenCapeStLuciaandGreenpoint(thisexcludestheTugelaBanksandinshoretrawlgroundsoffRichardsBay,MtunziniandDurban).Approximately350tonsofcatcharelandedannuallywith1700tonsofbycatch(Fennessy&Groeneveld1997).Thisfisherytargetslangoustines,Metaneph-rops andamanicus and Nephropsis stewarti,pinkprawnsHaliporoidestriarthus andNataldeep-waterrocklobster,Palinurus delagoae

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(Saueret al.2003).ConsiderablequantitiesoftheEastcoastredcrab,Chaceon macpher-soni,arealsoretained.Pinkprawns,langous-tineandredcrabarefoundmostlyatdepthsgreaterthan300m,whereasrocklobstersoccurmainlyinthe100to300mdepthrange(Groeneveld&Melville-Smith1995).Slipperlobsters(Ibacus novemdentatus andScyllar-ides elizabethae)alsoconstituteacomponentoftheretainedbycatch.Theoffshorecrusta-ceanspeciesareprobablyslow-growing,withaslowpopulationturnoverandarethereforevulnerabletooverexploitation(Saueret al.2003).Retainedteleostsincludelongfinkob,deep-waterhake(Merluccius paradoxus),greeneyes(Chlorophthalmus punctatus)andjohndory(Zeus spp.,Saueret al.2003).Smallquantitiesofjacopever(Helicolenus dactylop-terus)andbluefingurnard(Cheilidonichthys kumu)arealsoretained.Thecephalopodby-catchincludesdeep-wateroctopus(Veladona togata)andcuttlefish(Sepia officianalis, Sauer et al. 2003).Thediscardsoftheoffshorefisheryhavenotbeenformallyinvestigated,butarethoughttocompriseabout70%ofthetotalcatch(Fennessy&Groeneveld1997).Fishesthatarecurrentlynotmarketable,suchasgrenadiers(rat-tails),dominatethedis-cards,followedbycrustaceans,asteroidsandmollusks,havingnocommercialvalue(Saueret al.2003).

TheKZNprawntrawlingindustryusesves-sels24to40minlengthandgenerating500–1000horsepower(Saueret al.2003).Thetrawlersmostlyusesingleottertrawlsdeployedfromthestern,althoughvesselswithtwobeamsdeployingtwonets,havealsobeeninuseandtriplenetsarenotexcluded.Trawlnetsizesrangefrom25–72mfootropelength,withaminimumof50mmmeshsizemeas-uredfromknottoknot,specifiedinthe2007permitconditions.‘Tickler’chains,attachedtothefootrope,areusedtodisturbtheprawnswhentrawling,causingthemtoleavethesub-stratum(Forbes&Demetriades2005).Heavydoorsorboomskeepthenetspreadopenandbuoysareusedtokeepaheadlineafloat,whereasaweightedfootropeisusedtoposi-tionthenetasitisdraggedalongtheseabed(Fennessy1999).Trawlspeedsarebetweentwoandthreeknotsandtheaveragedragdurationisfourhours.Thetrawlerscanstayoutatseaforthreeweeksandhaveacrewof12–20men.Catchesaresize-sorted,graded,packedandblast-frozenatsea.CatchesarelandedatRichardsBayorDurbanharbour.EffortlevelsintheTugelaBankprawnfisheryhavebeenvariableovertheyears,beingde-terminedbyavarietyoffactorssuchasprawn

abundance(influencedbydrought),seawor-thinessoftrawlersandliquidation/changeofownershipoftrawlingcompanies(Fennessy1999).

Thefisheryismanagedusingatotalappliedeffortstrategy(TAE)limitingthepermittednumberofvessels.ATAEofsevenfishingpermitshasbeenenforced,reducingthemaxi-mumnumberoffishingpermitsoverthepasttenyears,byone(www.feike.co.za,May2007).FishingontheTugelaBankisprohibitedfromSeptembertoFebruarytoprotectkob.Thesectoriscapital-intensiveanditsinfrastruc-ture,marketingandproductdistributionaredominatedbyestablishedcompanies.

ValueThelandedcatchintheKZNprawnfisheryisworth±R21millionperannum(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Althoughthefisheryissmallintermsofnumbersofvessels(eight)andtotalretainedcatch(~350tons),itisofcon-siderablelocalimportance,botheconomicallyandsocially(Saueret al.2003).

Thefisherymaybeonlymarginallyeconomi-callyviable,henceover-allocationofeffortmayreducecatchpervesselandthereforerevenue(Saueret al.2003).Thisistheopinionofoneofthecompaniesthathasbeenoperat-inginKZNforseveralyears.Theeconomicinformationsuppliedbythepermit-holdingcompaniesseemstosupportthisassertion,withnetannualprofitbeforetax,beingintheregionofR250000foratypicalvesselworthR5000000,andwithfixedandoperationalcostsofR5000000peryear.

Biodiversity impactsThecrustaceantrawlfisherieshavepotentialimpactsontheirtargetspecies,onbycatchspeciesandonthesoft-sedimentandshelfedgehabitatswheretheytrawl.Stockassess-mentsoftargetedprawnshaveneverbeenundertakenandnostudiesofbenthicimpactsofcrustaceantrawlinghavetakenplace.Littleisknownaboutthebiologyofthedeep-waterprawnsandlangoustinesbutthedeep-watercrustaceansareslowgrowingandthelobstersarelikelytobevulnerabletooverfishing,par-ticularlyintrawlfisheries(Berry1969;Pollock1989).Preliminaryassessmentsforlangous-tinesandpinkprawnsin1997indicatedthatlangoustineswereunlikelytobebiologicallyoverexploitedatcurrentlevelsofeffort,whilefurtheranalysisonstock-recruitrelationshipswasrequiredbeforechangesineffortforpinkprawnscouldberecommended(Tomalin1998citedinSaueret al.2003).

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ThereareonlythreemainareasthatprovidesignificanthabitatfortheinshoreprawnsinSouthAfrica;theTugelaBankandareasoffRichardsBayandStLucia.TheinshoreprawnhabitattypeisnotcurrentlyrepresentedinanyMPAs.Atpresent,trawlingisnottakingplaceoffStLucia(probablyduetothedrought)butcommercialprawntrawlingisnotprohibited.Forbes&Demtriades(2005)reportedthatthecontinuationoftrawlingofftheStLuciaEstuarymouthshouldbecarefullyconsidered,asalthoughcurrentknowledgeislimited,thefaunaofthisareaareverydifferentfromtheTugelaBank,andthetrawlgroundsfallwithintheGreaterStLuciaWetlandParkWorldHerit-ageSite(Saueret al.2003).Theoffshoresec-toroperatesinanareawherebiodiversityispoorlyauditedandrepresentativeshelfhabi-tatsmayormaynotbeincludedinthegreaterStLuciaWetlandPark.Thereisconcernthatdemersaltrawlerscouldbecausinghabitatdamageincludingshelfslidesandslumping.Thebycatchofthecrustaceantrawlfisheries,particularlyinnurseryareas,isthegreatestbiodiversityconcernatpresent.Prawntrawl-ingisoneoftheglobalfishingsectorswiththehighestdiscardedcatch,accountingforonethirdoftheglobaldiscardedcatch(Alversonet al.1994).Subtropicaldemersalcommuni-tiesarespeciesrichandendemicandotherelasmobranchs,teleostsandinvertebratesfeatureintrawlerbycatchesontheTugelabank(Fennessy1994a,b,1995,1999)andtheoffshoresector(Saueret al.2003).Offshore,elasmobranchsanduniquefaunalassemblagesontheslopesarepotentiallyveryvulnerable(Stevenset al.2000).Asidefromtheconsiderablebycatch,theimpactofinshoreprawntrawlingonnurseryhabitatsisalsoofconsiderableconcern.TheareaoffshoreofStLuciaisaspawningareaforspottedgrunter,Natalstumpnose,perchandmulletandservesasanurseryareaformanyspeciesofteleosts,elasmobranchsandinvertebrates(Wallace1975;Whitfield1998;Hutchingset al.2002).Thesespeciesdofeatureinprawntrawlcatches.Fennessy(1994a,b)reported26elasmobranchspe-ciesintrawlbycatcheswithlargediscardsofnewbornscallopedhammerheadsharks,Sphy-rna lewini,byprawntrawlersontheTugelaBank.Catchesforthisspeciesrangefromanestimated3288sharksin1989to1742in1992(Dudley2003).ItisunknownwhethertheTugelaBankistheonlynurserygroundforS. lewiniofftheSouthAfricaneastcoast.Ifthisisthecase,theimpactoftheprawntrawl-ersonthisspeciesmaybesubstantial.Sharks

andraysappeartobeparticularlyvulnerabletooverexploitationbecauseoftheirK-selectedlife-historystrategy(Stephens et al.2000).Theecologicalconsequencesofthisbycatcharedifficulttoassessbutitcouldhavesignificantimpactsonecosystemfunction.

ArecentproposalbytheOceanographicRe-searchInstitute(ORI)recommendsthattrawl-ingontheTugelaBankonlybeallowedfromMarchtoAugust,whichwouldfurtherreducetrawl-inducedmortalitiesofS. lewini.TheuseofbycatchexcludersisunderinvestigationbytheOceanographicResearchInstitute.Theexcluderdevice,asquaremeshpanel,signifi-cantlyreducedquantitiesofdiscardedcatch,buttheeffectonlossesoftargetspecies(prawns)couldnotbeadequatelyassessed,owingtothetimingofthesamplingtrip(S.Fennessy,ORI,pers.comm.).Theprojectprovedtobelogisticallydifficulttoundertake,owingtoashortageofsuitabletrawlerstoconductexperimentaltrawling.Thesquaremeshpanelmay,however,holdpromiseinreducingdiscardedcatchesbyprawntrawlers,butfurtherresearchmayberequiredtorefineitsapplication(Saueret al.2003).

Inshoretrawlersthatfishcloseinshoreatnightruntheriskofrunningaground,whichcanhaveseverebiodiversityimpactsthroughpollutionandcanresultinlossofhumanlife.Thishashappenedonatleastthreeoccasionsinrecentyears(Saueret al.2003).

Issues of conflictConflictexistsbetweenthecommercialandrecreationallinefishsectorsandtheinshoreprawntrawlsector.Thereisaperceptionamongstski-boatanglersthatinshoretrawlersareresponsiblefortheirpoorcatches.Inves-tigationsoftheTugelaBankbycatchshowedthattherewaslittleoverlapinlinefishandtrawlcatcheswiththeexceptionofsquaretailkob,Argyrosomus thorpei(Fennessyet al.1994a;Fennessy1999).TheTugelaBankhasaclosedseasonthatwasintroducedtoprotectjuvenilesofthisspecies.

West coast rock lobster (off-shore)OverviewThewestcoastrocklobsterfisheryinSouthAfrica,targetingJasus lalandii,isconsideredtobeoneoftheoldestfisheriesofthecountry,datingbacktoatleast1875whenthefirstcommercialprocessingplantwasestablished(Griffithset al.2004).Duringtheearlierpart

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ofthe1900s,thewestcoastrocklobstercom-mercialfisheryexpandedwithcatchespeak-inginthe1950sat±16000tons(Griffithset al.2004).In1946,thefirstmanagementstrategyforrocklobsterwasimplementedwithanannualquotabeingsetandaminimumlegalsizelimitof89mmcarapacelength(CL).Othermanagementmeasuresintroducedincludedprohibitionoflandingberriedfemalesorsoft-shelledlobsters,aclosedseasondur-ingwintermonths,andadailybaglimitfortherecreationalsector(Saueret al.2003).Towardsthelate1960s,catchesbegantodeclinesubstantiallyandquotascouldnotbefilled(www.feike.co.za,May2007).TheannualTACwasreducedtobetween4000and6000tons,providingsomestabilitytothefisheryuntil1990.Duringthe1990sadecreaseingrowthrateandpoorrecruitment,furtherreducedtotalrocklobsterlandings(Cockcroft&Goosen1995;Cockcroft1997),withtheTACbeingreducedtoaroundhalfofwhatitwasinthe1980s(Griffithset al.2004).Thereducedgrowthrateseverelyimpactedontherocklob-sterresource,furtherpromptingareductioninlegalcarapacelengthfrom89mmto75mmCL(Saueret al.2003).TheannualcommercialTACandlandingshavecontinuedtodeclineinsubsequentyears,indicatingthatthehighlandingsduringearlieryearsweresimplynotsustainable(Griffithset al.2004).

TheSouthAfricanrocklobsterresourceiscurrentlyestimatedtobeat5%ofpre-exploi-tationlevels(thebiomass>75mmCL)andthespawningbiomassat20%ofpristinelevels(Pollocket al.2000).Theresourceisconsideredtobeinastablestate.However,itiscurrentlymanagedintermsofprecautionarymanagementprinciples(Griffithset al.2004;www.feike.co.za,May2007).TheTACallocatedforthe2006/2007fishingseasonis2556tonswithanadditional320tonsallocatedforrecreationalfishers(P.Foleypers.comm.).OfthetotalTACallocated,theharvestof1996tonsistargetedfromoffshoreregions,whiletheremainingquotaisallocatedtonear-shoreregions(P.Foleypers.comm.).

Thewestcoastrocklobsterresourceispri-marilymanagedbymeansofannualquotasallocatedforthelarge-scalecommercialsector(offshorefisherymostlyusingtraps),aninshoresmall-scalecommercialfishery(previouslyconsideredtobesubsistence,us-inghoopnets)andarecreationalfishery.Theoffshoresectorisallocated80%oftheTACwhiletheremaining20%isallocatedtothenear-shorefishery,reflectingthedistributionpatternsandabundanceofthetargetspe-cies(www.feike.co.za,May2007).Withinthecontextofoffshoremarineenvironmentsandresourcespertinenttothisdocument,onlytheoffshorewestcoastrocklobsterfisherywillbedetailed.

FIGURE3.7.—FishingzonesforWestCoastrocklobster,Jasuslalandii(source:Saueretal.2003).

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Thecommercialoffshorewestcoastrocklob-sterfisheryquotaisapportionedintofishingzonesstretchingfromtheOrangeRivermouthtoeastofCapeHangklipinthesoutheasternCape(inshore),whichwasallocatedanannualquotain2003.TheoffshoresectoroperateinzoneB(fromthemouthoftheBrakRivertojustsouthofLambertsBay),zoneD(justnorthofDassenIslandtoCapeHangklip),andzoneE(southwardsfromthelighthousesatCapePointandCapeHangklip,seeFigure3.7,PermitConditions2006/2007DEAT).Theoffshoretrapfisherylargelyoperatesinwatersbetween30and100mdepthandisconfinedtothewestcoastofSouthAfrica.

Theoffshorerocklobsterfisherymostlytakesplaceinwatersdeeperthan30m,thusrestrictingtheuseofhoopnetsinthisfishery.Thissectorlargelymakesuseoftrapswhichconsistofrectangularmetalframescoveredbypolyethylenenettingwithatoporsideentranceandbaitedwithfish(e.g.pilchard).Thetrapsaredeployedfromvesselsranginginlengthbetween6and14m,usingpowerwinchestohaulinthetraps.Themeshsizeofthenettingisrestrictedtoallowtheescapeofundersizedrocklobsters.Trapsareusuallysetatduskandretrievedintheearlymorningandthecatchlandedduringthedayatthenearestportorharbour.

TherocklobsterfisheryisconsideredthethirdmostvaluablefisherytoSouthAfricawiththecatchvaluebeingapproximatelyR200millionperannum(www.feike.co.za,May2007).

Biodiversity impactsThesustainedincreaseinrocklobsterabun-danceeastofCapeHangklipformorethanadecade(Tarret al.1996;Mayfield&Branch2000)promptedquotastobeallocatedtotheinshorecommercialsectorinthisareain2003.Experimentalfisheriesforfiveyearspriortothishadshownthatsmallquotas(200tons)inthisareawereeconomicallyviable.However,thelong-termimpactsontheecosys-temareuncertainandthefishery,especiallyinthiszone,continuestobecloselymonitored.

Westcoastrocklobstersfeedonawiderangeofpreyitemsincludingmolluscs,sponges,seaurchinsandothercrustaceansmostlyassoci-atedwithrockysubtidalreefs.Themajorityofrocklobsterfishinggroundsarelocatedonoradjacenttorockyreefstructureswherethetraplinesareset.Thetrapsarelargeandheavyandifsetonhighprofile,sensitivereefstructures,couldcausedamagebydislodg-ingorganismsanddamagingreefs.Noknown

studieshavebeenconductedtoinvestigatetheimpactofrocklobstertrapsonbenthicbiodiversityassociatedwithrockyreefsinrocklobsterfishinggrounds.

Theslowgrowthrateanddecreaseinabun-danceoflargeindividualrocklobstersthroughoutthefishinggroundsmayhaveecologicalconsequencestobenthiccommuni-ties,particularlyrelatingtoshiftsindominantspecies.Theextentandimplicationsofthesechangesarehowever,largelyunknown(Grif-fithset al.2004).

Issues of conflictTherocklobsterfishingindustryhaspreviouslyexpressedconcernsabouttheimpactsofmarineminingonthewestcoastrocklobsterresource.However,thisislargelyrestrictedtotheinshorerocklobsterfisheryoftheNamaqualandcoast(Penny&Pulfrich2004).Thereisapparentlynooverlapinoperatingareabetweentherocklobstersectorandtherecentlycommencedoffshoreminingopera-tionsinthisregion(Roos2005).

South coast rock lobster trap fisheryOverviewThesouthcoastlobsterfisherytargetstheendemicdeep-waterrocklobster,Palinurus gilchristi.Thisspeciesoccupiesareasofrockyseabedinthe90–200mdepthrangebetweenCapePointandEastLondon(Pol-lock1989;Groeneveld&Branch2002).Suchhabitatscannotbetrawledandfishingisconductedusingtrapssetonlong-lines.Thesouthcoastrocklobsterfisherybeganin1974(Pollock1989)butdecliningcatchrateswereexperiencedattheendofthatdecade.Manylocalfishingboatswithdrewfromthefisheryascatchesandcatchratescollapsedbetween1979and1981(Pollock&Augustyn1982).In1972,thelandedcatchwas2092tons(wholemass)butthishaddroppedtoamere262and368tonsin1980and1981respectively(Saueret al.2003).Areductionofeffortandcatchesduringtheearly1980sallowedtheresourcetorecover,andin1984anannualto-talallowablecatch(TAC)of450tonstailmass(980tonswholeweight)wasintroduced.TheTACandrestrictedentryintothefisherystabi-lizedthesectorataTACof±1050tonswholelobsteruntilthe1993–1994season(Saueret al.2003).Between1989and2001,theresourcehaddeclinedby65%,largelydueto

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overfishingbyspecificcompanies(www.feike.co.za,May2007).In2002,aconservativeTACwassetat340tonstailmass(755tonswholemass),combinedwithaTAEof1922seadays.By2005,theTACwasincreasedto382tons(848tonswholemass),combinedwithaTAEof2089seadays(FishingIndustryHandbook2006).

Adult Palinurus gilchristiarefoundincommer-cialquantitiesattwolocations;ontheAgulhasBank(±200kmoffshore)andinanareabetweenMosselBayandEastLondon(2–50kmoffshore)(www.feike.co.za,May2007).TheinshoreareabetweenDangerPointandCapeAgulhasisanimportantsettlementareaforjuveniles,whichmigratetoadulthabitatsfurtheroffshore(Groeneveld&Branch2002).RocklobstersthatoccurbetweenPortAl-fredandEastLondonaregenerallysmaller,slower-growingandapparentlydonotmigrate(Groeneveld&Branch2002).

Vesselsusedtotargetsouthcoastrocklobsterarelargesteel-hulledocean-goingfishingboats(30–60mlong)specificallyriggedforlonglinetrap-fishing(Saueret al.2003).Eachboatoperateswith2000–6000barrel-shapedplastictraps,thataretiedtolonglinesinsetsof100–200traps,withalineoftrapsbeing2–3nmlong.Asmanyas12linesaresetdaily(Pollock1989).Thetrapsareusuallystackedinalargeholdingpenandvesselsareequippedwithapowerfulline-haulertohaullinesandretrievetraps,andoneortwochutesforsettingthegear.Catchesareprocessedonboardandmaybefrozenandpackedorkeptinlivefish-holdingfacilities(Saueret al.2003).Thevesselsusuallycarry28–35crewandremainatseafor2–16daysatatimeinthecaseoflivelobsterboats(dependingontheproximityofthefishinggroundstotheharbour)or28–40daysatatimeinthecaseoffreezerboats(Saueret al.2003).Boatsareatseafor180–300daysperyear.In2006,atotalof16rightsholdersweregrantedaccesstothesouthcoastrocklobsterfisherybutthisonlyconsistedof8vessels.Therearemorerightsholdersthanvesselsinthefisheryassomevessels(orcatchingcompanies)catchformorethanonerightsholderonthebasisofvesselhireorjointventureagreements(Saueret al.2003).Fishingtakesplaceyear-round(1Octoberto30September)andismanagedbyacombinationofaneffort(TAE)andquota(TAC)strategy.

Nominimumsizelimitisenforcedandrocklobstersof±60mmcarapacelengthupwardsareretainedbythefishery.Littleprotection

isthusaffordedtobreedingfemales(beingsexuallymatureat~70mmCL,Groeneveld&Melville-Smith1994)andaconservativeTAChasbeenseteachyearsince1984inanattempttoprotectsufficientbreedingadultstoensureadequateeggproductionandrecruit-ment.Femalerocklobstersinberry(havingeggs)arenotpermittedtoberetainedbythefishery.

Biodiversity impactsThetargetspeciesofthisfisherymaybevulnerabletooverfishing.Thespeciesisslowgrowingandoccursinlowdensities(Pollocket al.2000).Incidentalbycatchofthisfisheryislargelydominatedbyoctopus(Octopus vulgaris),whicharemarketed,andasmallamountofkingklipandslipperlobster(Scyl-larides elisabethae,Japp2004).Losttraps,resultinginghostfishingandpollutionoftheocean,areoccasionallyreported(Japp2004).Rocklobstertrapsmayalsocauselocalizedphysicaldamagetobenthicinvertebratessuchascorals,gorgoniansandsponges,butthishasnotbeeninvestigated(Japp2004).Thesmallerplastictrapsusedbythisfisheryarelikelytohavelessphysicallydamagingimpactthanthelargersteelcagesusedinotherlob-sterfisheries.

Therehavebeenoccasionalreportsofwhalesbecomingentangledinrocklobstertraplines.

Issues of conflictAtaskgroupwasdevelopedatMarineandCoastalManagementtodealwithentangle-mentofwhalesinlines,particularlyrocklobstertraplines(A.Cockcroft,MCM,pers.comm.).

Experimental Natal deep-water rock lobsterOverviewTheNataldeep-waterrocklobsterPalinurusdelagoaewasreportedtobefoundinmuddyandsandyhabitatsinthe180–300mdepthrange(Pollock1989;Berry1971).Twoseriesofexperimentaldeep-waterrocklobsterfisher-ies,targetingP. delagoae,havebeenconduct-edinKZN,withthemostrecentcurrentlyinprogress.Thefirstexperimentalfisheryforthisspecies,intheperiod1994–1997,suggestedthatthefisherypotentialforthisspeciesinSouthAfricawaslowduetoscarcityofsuitablehabitatanddecliningcatchrates.Therewasamarkeddeclineintheabundanceandsizeoflobsterscaughtovertheperiodoftheexperi-ment(Groeneveld&Cockcroft1997).Asec-ondthree-yearexperimentalfisheryforNatal

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deep-waterrocklobstercommencedin2006andisenteringitsfinalyearofoperation,afterwhichitwillbere-evaluatedforentryasacommercialfishery.Theexperimentalfisheryusesbaitedtrapsorpotssetalonglonglines,asdescribedforthesouthcoastrocklobsterfishery.

Biodiversity impactsThetargetspeciesofthisfisheryislikelytobevulnerabletooverfishing(Pollock1989;Groen-eveld&Cockcroft1997).Analmost50%declineintheabundanceindexandamarkeddeclineinmeanlobstersizeduringexperimen-talfishingiscauseforconcern.Despitetheseresultspublishedin1997,experimentalfish-inghaspersistedinto2007.Therehavebeenreportsofhighratesoftraplossinthisfisheryandghostfishingisaconcern(Lombardet al.2004).SomeofthehabitatoccupiedbythisspeciesisprotectedwithintheMaputalandandStLuciamarinereservesbutexperimen-talfishingacrossthesubmarinecanyonsandshelfattheboundaryofthemarinereserves,rendersmostofthehabitatvulnerabletofishingimpacts.Bycatchspeciesofthisfisheryincludesslipperlobsters(Ibacus sp. andScyl-larides elizabethae)(Groeneveld&Cockcroft1997),redcrabs(Chaecon macphersoni),spi-dercrabs,elasmobranchsandsparidssuchasChrysoblepharus coeruleopunctatus(blueskin)(K.Sinkpers.comm.).

ConflictThisfisheryhasexperiencedconflictwithrec-reationalusersintheGreaterStLuciaWetlandPark.Attheonsetofthefishery,diveopera-torscuttraplinesandremovedmarkerbuoysjustoutsidetheMaputalandMarineReserve.Thisexacerbatestraplossandhaspotentiallyseriousconsequences,increasingtheamountofghostfishingthroughthese‘lost’traps.Thelosttrapsalsocauseplasticpollution.

Exploratory fishingTheDepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairsandTourism(Branch:MarineandCoastalManage-ment)hasidentifiedpriorityindevelopmentanddiversificationofexistingfisheriesandes-tablishmentofnewfisheries(DEAT2004NewFisheriesPolicydocument).TheDepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairsandTourism’sNewFisheriesPolicydocument(2004),definesanewfisheryas‘aregulatedfisherythatexploitsaresourceorpartofaresourcethathasnotpreviouslybeenmanagedbythestateasacommercialfishery’.Thisincludes:

previouslyunexploitedresources;

underexploitedresourcesthatcontributeasbycatchinanotherfishery;

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fully/overexploitedresourcesthathavenotbeensubjecttoanymanagementcontrols.

Motivationforestablishmentofanewfisherymaybeexploredwherearesourceshowspo-tentialfordevelopment,althoughtherequiredexperimentationandresearchdoesnotguar-anteethatcommercialaccesswillbegranted.DevelopmentofnewfisheriesinSouthAfricarequiresadherencetoanoperationalprotocol,consistingofthreephases,namely:

1,informationgathering—includingdesk-topstudy,exploratoryfishing,economicfeasibility,experimentaldesignandFisheryManagementPlan;

2,implementationoftheexperimentalfish-ery—includingfisheryimplementation,datacollectionandmonitoring,independentresearch,assessmentofthefisheryandfinally,ministerialdecisiononapproval/pro-hibitionoffurthercommercialexploitation;

3,commercialfishery—includingrevisionoftheFisheryManagementPlan,allocationofcommercialfishingrights,knowledgeandskillstransfer,monitoring,andfurtherongoingindependentresearch(DEAT2004NewFisheriesPolicydocument).

Duringthefirstphaseofinformationgathering,theapplicantisrequiredtoidentifypotentialenvironmentalimpactsthefisherymayresultin,specifically,disruptionofhabitatand/ortheecosystem(DEAT2004NewFisheriesPolicydocument).

Afive-yearexperimentalfisheryforoctopus(Octopus vulgaris)hasbeenunderwaysince2004whenfifteenexperimentalpermitswereallocatedforspecificcatchzonesalongthecoastline(G.Maharaj,MCM,pers.comm.).Thisfisheryisrestrictedtoinshorerockyreefareasaroundthecoastanddoesnotinflu-enceoffshoremarineusers.Fishershaveexperiencedsomedifficultiesinsuccessinthisfisheryduetosubstantialtraploss,lowcatchratesandconflictwithotherfishingsec-torsaccessingresourcesinsimilarareas.Uptohalftheallocatedpermitholdershavenotengagedinthefisheryandtheirlicensesareintheprocessofbeingrevoked(G.Maharaj,MCM,pers.comm.).Theexperimentalfisherywillcontinuewithreducedpermit-holdersfortheremainingexperimentalperiod,afterwhichitwillbereviewedforcommercialstatus.

Anapplicationforanexperimentalfisheryfortheplough whelk(Bullia levisima)iscurrently

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pendingbutisexpectedtobegranteddur-ingthecourseof2007.Thisfishery,oper-atedthroughtheuseofhoopnetsfromsmallvessels,wouldbelocatedcloseinshoreintheWesternCaperegion,havingananticipatedbycatchofthethree-spotswimmingcrab.Thisexperimentalfisheryisunlikelytoimpactonoffshoremarineregions.

Anewexperimentalfisheryforeastcoastred-eye round herring(Etrumeus teres)waslaunchedin2007andoneexperimentalfish-

ingpermitwasgrantedforatotalof100tonsofthisspecies.TheareafishedisrestrictedtothecoastalcontinentalshelfedgebetweenDurbanandRichardsBayontheKwaZulu-Na-talcoast.Thecatchislargelysoldforbaitandisconsideredalucrativefisherywiththecur-rentvaluein2007ashighasR3.00perfish(C.vanderLingen,MCM,pers.comm.).

Anexperimentalfisheryforcaptureoffish for aquarium tradehasbeendiscussedandapossibilityexistsforfurtherinvestigationofthis.

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ShippingOverview

SouthAfricaisamaritimenationwithsev-eralmajorports.Inglobalterms,thecon-

centrationofmaritimetrafficpassingSouthAfricaisnotconsideredtobeashighasthosetraversingareassuchasthePanamaCanal,SuezCanalorStraitofHormuz(Gründlinghet al.2006).TheamountofcargotransportedaroundtheCapeofGoodHopeisneverthelesssignificant,with±1000bulkcarriers,1000cargovessels,400tankers,1000containervesselsandseveralsmallervesselspassingbyeachyear(www.environment.gov.za/soer/nsoer/index.htm:StateofEnvironmentReport1999).Thisvolumeofshippingtrafficwarrantssomelevelofregulationandcontrolmeasurestoensuresafepassageandpreventshippingaccidents.InimplementingTrafficSeparationSchemes,SouthAfricanmaritimeregulationsstipulatethatladentankersshouldmaintainaminimumdistanceof20nauticalmilesfromtheshorewhenwestbound,andaminimumof25nauticalmilesfromtheshorewheneastbound(SouthAfricanNoticetoMariners2007).VesselsarealsorecommendedtosteeracourseallowingsafeclearanceoftheAlphardBanks(35°Sand21°E)andtheMossgas(FA)productionplatformofftheMos-selBayarea.LadentankersonvoyagessolelybetweenportswithinSouthAfrica’sEEZareexemptfromthe20and25nauticalmileregu-lations;theyarerequired,however,tomaintainadistanceof10nauticalmilesoffprominentpointsofthecoast,subjecttoweather,seaandcurrentconditions(SouthAfricanNoticetoMariners2007).

Governance frameworkGovernmenthasdevolvedresponsibilityforregulationofshippingactivitytotheSouthAf-ricanMaritimeSafetyAuthority(SAMSA),whoarethuslargelyresponsibleforregulatingship-pingactivityandanyshipping-relatedincidentsarisinginSouthAfrica’sEEZ.SAMSAaimstoensurethesafetyoflifeandpropertyatsea,preventoilpollutionbyships,andpromoteSouthAfricaasamaritimenationthroughtheimplementationoftheSouthAfricanMaritimeSafetyAuthorityActNo.5of1998(SouthAfricanNoticetoMariners2007).SAMSAisresponsibleforprovidingadvicetotheMinis-terofTransportonmaritimeissuesaffectingSouthAfrica,maintainingrelevantlegislationandpolicy,liaisingwithothergovernmentand

internationalinstitutions,andmanagingpollu-tionpreventionandresponsecapacity.

OtherregulatoryframeworksthatallowforgovernanceovertheshippingindustryincludetheMARPOLProtocol(withrespecttoshippingpollution),theMarineTrafficActNo.2of1981,UnitedNationsConventionandLawoftheSea,andregulationssetbytheInternationalMaritimeOrganization,ofwhichSouthAfricaisamember(seeDumpingofWastesection).

Biodiversity impactsTheshippingindustryinSouthAfricahaspotentialtoimpactonmarinebiodiversitythroughoilspillsasaresultofshippingac-cidents,dischargeofballastwaterand/orotherwastematerialsandthroughshipstrikes(collisionsbetweenvesselsandlargemarineanimalssuchaswhales,baskingsharks).Pollutionreducesthequalityoftheocean,makingitlesssuitableformarinelife(www.en-vironment.gov.za/soer/nsoer/index.htm:StateofEnvironmentReport1999).ThedischargeofballastwaterfromshipsenteringSouthAfri-canwatersbringswithittheriskofintroducinginvasivemarinespecies.Morethan22milliontonsofballastwateraredischargedinSouthAfricanportsandharboursannually(www.mcm-deat.gov.za,May2007).Invasivespeciescanresultinseriousecologicalandeconomicproblemsinmarineenvironments,andacom-monresultastheinvasivespeciesproliferate,istheseveredepletionofbiologicaldiversity.

TheMarineEnvironmentalProtectionCommit-teeoftheInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO)hasadoptedasetofvoluntaryguidelines:Guidelines for preventing the introduction of un-wanted aquatic organisms and pathogens from ships’ ballast water and sediment discharges.IMOmemberstatesareurgedtoadopttheguidelinesuntilbettercontrolsarepassedasanannexuretotheMARPOLProtocol.SouthAfricahasnotyetimplementedtheseguidelines,butisworkingtowardsastrategyforthepreventionofaccidentalinvasions.Manycountrieshavebannedthepracticeofcleaningshipshullsatsea,whereorganismsarereleasedintothewa-

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ter.SouthAfricahasnotyetimplementedsuchaban.TheGlobalBallastWaterManagementProgramme(GloBallast)hasbeenoperationalinSouthAfricasince2000,implementingasys-tematicinventoryandmonitoringprogrammeofallharboursandportsinthecountry.Thereis,however,nolongeralocaloffice.TheGloBallastprogrammehasalsocreatedawarenessandmitigationmeasurestopreventintroductionofinvasivespecies(http://globallast.imo.org,May2007).

Issues of conflictWhilethereispotentialforconflictwithotheroffshoremarineusers,thecommercialship-pingindustryisnotanextractiveresourceuserofthemarineenvironmentandanyconflictoverareausagewouldbeconsideredmini-mal.Commercialshippingactivitiesgenerallyobservefishingandminingvesselsandavoidconflictoverareausagewherepossible.Someinstancesofvesselcollisionhavebeenknowntooccurbutthisisaninfrequentevent.

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Dumping of wasteOverview

TheearliestreferencetomarinepollutioninSouthAfricadatesfrom1811,whena

BritishsoldierstationedattheCapeofGoodHoperecordedthat‘allkindsofwastewereconveyedtotheshoreofTableBayanddepos-itedinthesurf,pollutingitforlengthyperiods’(Griffithset al.2004).DuringtheSecondWorldWar,large-scalemortalitiesofmarinebirds,asaresultofmajoroilslicks,causedconsiderableconcern.Sincethen,catastroph-icoilpollutionhascontinued,largelyunabated(Griffithset al.2004).In1945,theSouthAfricanCouncilforScientificandIndustrialResearch(CSIR)wasestablishedandmarksaturningpointinpollutioncontrolinSouthAfrica’smarineenvironment(Griffithset al.2004).TheCSIRinitiateditsfirstformalpro-grammetostudyandcombatmarinepollutionin1973andhascontinuedwiththismandateeversince(Griffithset al.2004).Marinepollu-tionandthepotentialimpactsthereofontheenvironmentarecertainlyajustifiablecauseforconcern.Griffithset al.(2004)statesthatthusfar,pollutionintheBenguelaregionasawholehashadasmallimpactontheenvi-ronment,ascomparedtotheexploitationofresourcessuchasmarineorganisms,miner-alsandpetroleum.MarinepollutioninSouthAfricaisconsideredlowincomparisontomanyotherindustrializedcountries(Griffithset al.2004).

Governance frameworkSouthAfricaisconsideredtohaveagoodlegislativeframeworkprovidingprotectiontothemarineenvironmentfrompollution.TheSouthAfricanMaritimeSafetyAuthority(SAMSA)istheleadingagentresponsibleforregulationofmarinepollutioninSouthAfrica,withgovernmenthavingdevolvedresponsibil-itytothisauthoritythroughtheSouthAfricanMaritimeSafetyAuthorityActNo.5of1998.SouthAfricaisamemberoftheInternationalHydrographicOrganization(IHO)andissigna-torytoseveralInternationalMaritimeOrgani-zation(IMO)protocols,thosemostpertinenttomarinepollutionbeingtheLondonConvention1972andProtocol1996andtheMARPOL73/78Protocol.Theprinciplenationallegisla-tivemeasuresapplicabletominimizingpol-lutioninSouthAfrica’sEEZ,asimplemented

andenforcedthroughSAMSA,areintroducedbelow:

Marine Pollution (Control and Civil Li-ability) Act No. 6 of 1981providesforprotectionofthemarineenvironmentfromoilandotherharmfulsubstancepollutionfromships.Operationaloildischargesarerestrictedtolessthan100partspermillionwithinthe200nauticalmileProhibitedZone.ThisActalsointroducescivilliabilityfordischarges(accidentalorintentional)resultinginpollutionatsea.Marine Pollution (Prevention of Pollution from Ships) Act No. 2 of 1986providesforprotectionfrompollutiondischargedfromshipsintermsoftheInternationalConven-tionforthePreventionofPollutionfromShips,1973,amendedbytheMARPOL73/78Protocol.Marine Pollution (Intervention) Act No. 64 of 1987providesnationalimplementationoftwointernationalconventionsnamely,theInterventionontheHighSeasincasesofOilPollutionCasualtiesandtheProtocolRelatingtoInterventionontheHighSeasincasesofMarinePollutionbySubstancesotherthanOil,1973.International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Coopera-tion, 1990 (OPRC)providesforstepstobetakentoprepareforandrespondtoanoilpollutionincidentthroughon-boardshipoilpollutionemergencyplans.AlthoughSouthAfricaisnotapartytothisconvention,theNational Contingency Plan for the Preven-tion and Combating of Pollution from Shipsservestherequirements.Dumping at Sea Control Act No. 73 of 1980providesnationalimplementationoftheLondonConventiononthePreventionofMarinePollutionbydumpingofwastesandothermatter,1972.Itprovidesforthecontrolofdumpingvarioussubstancesandstructuresatseaandintroducesthepre-cautionaryand‘polluterpays’principles.Schedule1oftheActrefersto‘ProhibitedSubstances’whichincludeorgano-halo-gens,mercury,persistentplasticsandhigh-levelradioactivewaste.Schedule2oftheActrefersto‘RestrictedSubstances’andincludesarsenic,lead,cyanides,fluorides,scrapmetalandammunition.

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CCHAPTER 5

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Inadditiontotheexistinglegislationtocontrolpollutionofthemarineenvironment,thePol-lutionSubdirectorateatMCMhasappliedtotheInternationalMaritimeOrganizationfordeclarationofacertainmarineareaaroundSouthAfricaasaSpecialArea.ASpecialAreadesignationwillassistincontrollingtheimpactofillegaland/orirregularoildischargesfrominternationalvesselsinSouthAfrica’smarineenvironment.TheproposedSpecialAreaincor-poratesthecontinentalshelffromthemouthoftheSpoegRiverinthewesttoimmediatelyeastoftheGreatFishRivermouthintheeastextendingouttothecontinentalshelfbreakatthe500misobath.TheareaencompassesthewholeofthecontinentalshelfregionknownastheAgulhasBankaswellasthesouthernandcentralportionofthesouthernBenguelaupwellingecosystem.DeclarationofthisSpecialAreawillassistinreducingoilpollutionrisksbyrestrictingtheallowedconcentrationsandquantitiesofdischargesintothemarineenvironmentinthedeclaredarea.SpecialAreadesignationishopedtosignificantlyas-sistSouthAfricainmeetingitsnationalandinternationalobligationsforenvironmentalpro-tectionandpollutionreductionintheregion.

TheDepartmentofWaterAffairsandForestryareresponsibleformanagementofallwastewateremanatingfromland-basedsources,transportedintothesea(Oelofseet al.2004).Anyorganizationwishingtodisposeofanysubstance,includingdredgingsedimentfromportsandharbours,mustapplyforapermittodosofromtheDepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairsandTourism:branchofMarineandCoastalManagement.TheDepartmentissuesapermitonanindividualbasis,stipulatingtheprecisequantityandlocationwherethespoilshouldbedumped.Themajorityofsuchper-mitapplicationsarefordredgingmaintenanceoperationsforharboursandportsanddredgespoilsareusuallydumpedwithinthevicinityoftheareabeingdredged.

Biodiversity impactsPollutionisconsideredtobethesecondbiggestthreattoSouthAfrica’smarineen-vironment,afterextractionofmarinelivingresources(i.e.fishing,Lombardet al.2004).Thereareseveralsourcesofoceanpollution,includingland-based(e.g.sewageoutletpipes,stormwaterrunoff),riverrunoff(nutrientloading,heavymetals),atmospheric(CO2fromburningfossilfuels)andmarine-based(www.ewt.org.za,May2007).Approximately80%ofmarinepollutionoriginatesfromland-basedsourcessuchasmarineoutfallsandpipelines

(www.mcm-deat.gov.za,May2007).Mostsourcesofpollutionultimatelyimpactontheoceansandcoastalzones.However,forthepurposesofthisreportandtheobjectivesoftheOffshoreMarineProtectedAreasproject,thissummarywilllargelyconcentrateonma-rinepollutionimpactingonoffshoreregions.TheNationalSpatialBiodiversityAssessmentProject(Sink2004,Appendix2)identifiedninecategoriesofpollutionthatthreatenmarinebiodiversityincludingoilpollution,shipping(noisepollution),dredgedisposals,plasticspollutionandghostfishing.Oilpollutioniscon-sideredtobethemostsevereandextensivethreattomarineenvironments,andonethatisongoing,asSouthAfrica’sEEZhostsasub-stantialamountofmaritimetrafficandservesasanimportantshippingroute(Sink2004;Gründlinghet al.2006).Catastrophicoilpol-lutionhasintermittentlyimpactedmarinebio-diversityinthepast50years,althoughmorerecently,improvedlegislationandmitigationmeasures,atbothnationalandinternationallevels,havereducedsuchincidents(Sink2004).Oilspillsimpactparticularlyseverelyonmarinebirdsandmammals.

Thereissomeconcernthathighdensitiesofshippingtrafficandtheresultantmarinenoisepollution,impactsonmarineorganisms,specificallymarinemammals,suchaswhalesanddolphinsthatrelyonsoundfrequenciesforcommunication(Sink2004).Alongwiththeincreaseinshippingactivitycomesthethreatofinvasivemarinespecies,whichcanbeintroducedtothemarineenvironmentthroughshipsdischargingballastwater,whenenteringaport.Asmuchas22milliontonsofballastwaterisdischargedannuallyinSouthAfrica’sportsorharbours,presentingasignificantpos-sibilityofintroducingforeigninvasivespecies(www.mcm-deat.gov.za,May2007).

ThedumpingofdredgedmaterialsatseaiscontrolledbytheDEATMCMPollutionSub-directorate,underlocallegislation(DumpingatSeaControlActNo.73of1980)andtheinternationalLondonConventionof1972.Anaverageof10permitsareissuedeachyearallowingdredgedmaterialstobedumpedatspecifiedlocations,mostlynearportsorharbours(S.Pheeha,MCM,pers.comm.).ThePollutionSubdirectorateisresponsibleforscreeningapplications,issuingpermits,estab-lishingthelocationofdumpsites,implement-ingenvironmentalmonitoringprogrammes

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andmonitoringthenatureofthewastebeingdumped(www.mcm-deat.gov.za,May2007).Dumpingofsuchdredgedmaterialscanthreatensubtidalcommunitiesandbiodiver-sitythroughsmotheringeffects,toxicityofsuspendedsedimentsandincreasedturbidity(Lane&Carter1999).

DiscardsofplasticwastematterconstitutealargeproportionofvisiblelitterinSouthAfrica’smarineenvironment.Plasticmaterialsdiscardedatseaposeasignificantthreattomanymarineanimalsthroughaccidentalcon-sumptionthereoforentanglementleadingtoinjuryordrowning.Animalsparticularlyatriskaretoppredatorssuchasdolphins,whales,seals,turtlesandseabirds(www.ewt.org.za,May2007).Discardedorlostfishinggearre-sultsin‘ghostfishing’wherefishingnets,trapsandpotsdriftwithoceancurrentsentanglingandtrappingmarinespecies.Heavilyladenfishinggearsinkstotheoceanfloor,wherethecatchdecomposes,attractingscavengers,untilthegearissufficientlylighttocontinuedriftingwiththecurrent,trappingfurtherfish.Thisongoingcycleofdestructioncontinuesforthelifespanofthefishinggearandthenega-

tiveimpactsthereofonmarinebiodiversityaredifficulttomeasure.

Theimpactsthatthesevariouspollutantshaveonmarineecosystemsdependsonthechemi-calandphysicalcharacteristicsoftheparticu-larpollutant(Moldan1989).Chemicalcharac-teristicstobetakenintoaccountincludethepersistence/degradability,accumulationinbiologicalsystemsorsediments,availabilitytomarineorganisms,thelikelihoodoftransfor-mationtomoreharmfulcompounds,adverseeffectsonoxygenbalanceandgeneraltoxicitylevels(Moldan1989).

Issues of conflictTherehavebeeninstanceswheretoxicwastedumpedatseahasbeenbroughttothesur-facebytrawlers.AdrumofmustardgaswasrecentlytrawledupontheAgulhasBankandposedasignificanthealthhazardtothecrewofthevessel(PeterSimmspers.comm.).

Sedimentplumesandturbidityofwatermayresultinashort-termdecreaseinfishabun-danceintheimmediatearea,impactingonfishingactivities.

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Submarine cablesOverview

Servicescarriedthroughunderseacablesincludeinternationaltelecommunications,

emails,internettrafficandtelevisionservices.UnderseacablesareanessentialcomponentinSouthAfrica’sstrategicmixofsatelliteandcabletelecommunicationlinkswiththerestoftheworld.Submarinecablesprovidefasterdatatransferthansatellitesystems(www.safe-sat3.co.za,May2007).Thespeedofdatatransmissionalongthecableisthesameassatellitesystems,butthedistancedatamusttravelismuchshorterthroughasubmarinecable.Geostationarysatellitesfortelecom-municationsareplacedsome37000kmabovetheearth,whichmeanstransmissionstravelalmost74000km,fromtheearthtothesatelliteandbacktoearth.Cablesalsohaveshorterhearingdelays,higherqualityofdatatransmissionandlowercosts(www.safe-sat3.co.za,May2007).Furthermore,submarinecablesystemsarenotaffectedbybadweath-er.Thisisimportantforconnectionsbetweencountries,suchasMauritiusandReunionthatloseinternationalconnectivitywhentheyareforcedtosuspendsatellitetransmissionsdur-ingroughstorms(www.safe-sat3.co.za,May2007).

SouthAfricahasonedefunctandthreeactivesubmarinecablesthatpassthroughtheEEZ(Figure4Source:http://eassy.org,May2007):

SAT1.ThisisadefunctTelkomcablethatcomesashoreatMelkbosstrandalongwithSAT2.Thiscableiscurrentlyontheseabedbutithasbeensoldandwillberecovered(J.P.Thomas,Telkom,pers.comm.).

SAT2.ThisisanactiveTelkomfibre-opticcablethatcrossestheAtlanticandcon-nectsSouthAfricatowesternEuropeviatheSAT3cableattheCanaryIslands.

SAT3/WestAfricanSubmarineCable(WASC).Thisactivecable,installedin2001,runsfromMelkbosstrandtoMtun-ziniandconnectstotheSAFEcable.

SouthAfrican/FarEast(SAFE).Asitsnamesuggests,theSAFECableprovidesacon-nectionbetweenSouthAfricaandtheFarEast.ThiscablehaslandingpointsatMelk-bosstrandandMtunziniinSouthAfrica.

SouthAfricainitiatednegotiationstodevelopasubmarinecablesystemin1964.TheSAT

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1cablewasplannedasasystemcapableoftransmitting360simultaneoustelephonecalls!SAT1wasreplacedbySAT2in1993toworkintandemwiththeexistingsatellitesystem.SAT2cancopewith5360simultane-oustransmissionsinseveraldifferentforms,includingvoice,television,anddatatransfer.Atthetimeitwasplanned,SAT2wasex-pectedtocaterfortelecommunicationrequire-mentsforthenext20years.However,demandsoonescalatedtothepointwhereSAT2wasapproachingcapacity.TheSAT3/WASC-SAFEnetworkprovidesanunderwaterglobalinfor-mationhighwayforthesouthernhemisphere.Ithasthepotentialtoaccess90%ofAfrica’sexistingsub-Saharantelephonemarketinwhich72%ofthesub-Saharanpopulationlives(www.safe-sat3.co.za,May2007).AfourthnetworktermedtheEastAfricanSub-marineCableSystem(EASSY)isplannedtocompletetheopticfibreringaroundAfricainconjunctionwithotheropticfibresubmarinecablesystems(SAFE,SEA-ME-WE3and4,SAT3).ThiscablewouldallowseveralcountriesinEastAfricaaccesstobroadbandandiscon-sideredacriticalelementinAfrica’seconomicandsocialdevelopment.ThecablewouldrunfromMtunzininorthwardsandwouldconnectwiththeSAFEandSAT3links(http://eassy.org, www.eafricacommission.org,May2007).

SAT1andSAT2fromwesternEuropearelaidontheseafloorfollowingapproximatelythe3000misobath.TheyrunuptheCapeCanyontolandatMelkbosstrand,severalkilometresnorthofCapeTown.TheSAT3cablelinksPortugaltoSouthAfricawitheightAfricanlandingpointsalongthewaywhiletheSAFEcableconnectsCapeTowntoIndiaandMalaysiaviaMauritius.Thesetwocablesconstitute28800kmofcable.Afurther25landlockedAfricancountriescanlinkintotheSAT3/SAFEnetworkthroughterrestrialandsatellitefacilities,extendingitsmanybenefitsintotheheartofthecontinent.FromPortugal,onwardconnectivitylinkssub-SaharanAfricawiththeAmericasandtheMiddleEast,andfromMalaysia,onwardcommunicationispro-videdtoAustraliaandtheAsianPacificRim.

Cablesarelaideitherontheseabedorburiedjustbelowtheseafloor.TheSouthAfricansec-tionsofthecableslieontheseafloorandare

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notburied.Thegreatestcabledepthis6000m(J.PThomas,Telkom,pers.comm.).Buryingthesecablescaninvolvetheuseofasub-marinecableploughtocleartheseabedorapre-laygrapneltoclearthecableroute(MENZ2005).Mostcablesarelaidusingaspecial-izedcableinstallationship.Toavoiddisrup-tiontotheline,specificallywhereithasnotbeenburied,anactivityexclusionzoneofonenauticalmileeachsideofthecableisappli-cableinwhichnoanchoringispermitted(CCA&CMS2001).Itwasplannedthatwhereseafloorconditionspermit,theSAT3cablewouldbeburied0.7mbelowtheseafloorfromthelandingpointsto1000mwaterdepth.

Cableinstallmentrepresentsaveryexpensivecapitalinvestmentinthecableandassociatedelectronicinfrastructure.Thisisrecoveredbylowcost,highvolumereturns.Cablefailurecarriessignificanteconomicrisk.Allsubma-rinecanyonsareindicatedonSANnaviga-tionalchartsandmarkedwithawarning.IntheWesternCape,SAT2andSAT3cablesaremonitoredattheMelkbosstrandCableTer-minalStationwherea24-hour,computerizedradarsurveillancesystemmonitorsallship-pingactivitiesnearthe‘anchoringandtrawlingprohibitedzone’ofonenauticalmileoneither

sideofthesubmarinecables.TheInternation-alCableProtectionCommitteealsopromotesthesafeguardingofsubmarinecables.Thecommittee,whichhasmembersfrommorethan44countries,isaforumfortheexchangeoftechnicalandlegalinformationaboutsub-marinecableprotectionmethods.

ValueSubmarinecablesareusuallyownedbyconsortia.ThecostofthenewEASSYcableproject(asystemfromSouthAfricatoDjibou-ti),isestimatedatUS$200million(US$170millionfortheSystemSupplyandUS$30mil-lionforprojectmanagement).TelkominitiatedtheUS$639million,three-yearprocessoflayingthecableandsettinguplandingpoints.TelkomcontributedaroundUS$85milliontotheproject,butownsaproportionallylargerpercentage(16%)oftheconsortiumthatownsthecable,andwillhaveaccesstoathirdofitscapacity.Theeconomicbenefitsofsub-marinecablesaredifficulttoquantifybutthecommunicationslinksthesenetworksprovidearecriticaltoSouthAfrica’smoderneconomy.

ThelastsubmarinecablefailureinSouthAf-ricatookplacein1993whenadraggingship’sanchorbrokeacableonthewestcoast.AsnocablelayingshipwaspresentinSouthAfricaatthattime,considerableexpenseswere

FIGURE4.—LayoutofsubmarinecablesservicingSouthAfrica(source:http://eassy.org).

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incurred,litigationtookplaceandthevesselownerhadtocoverthecostsofre-routingdataviasatelliteandrepairingthecable(J.P.Thomas,Telkom,pers.comm.).

Biodiversity impactsLayingsubmarinecablescancauselocalizeddisturbanceofmarinesediments,benthicmacrofaunaandfish(MENZ2005).ThecablesonSouthAfrica’sseafloorarecurrentlynotburied.ThecableofficewasnotawareofanyenvironmentalauthorizationproceduresforlayingcablesinSouthAfrica’sEEZ.

Issues of conflictSubmarinecablescanbedamagedbyotheroceanusers.Fishingandanchoringcandam-

agecablesparticularlywhenskippersareunawareofthelocationofcables,anchorsdragwithinprohibitedzones,fishingacces-soriessuchasotterboardsandattachmentsarepoorlymaintainedortrawlnetssnagonbrokencablearmour-wires(www.safe-sat3.co.za,May2007).Thestabilityofavesselattemptingtoliftacablecanbeaffectedandraisingcablescandamagethem.Cablescanposeserioussafetyhazards(e.g.ifcutwhenundertension)whenhandledbyuntrainedpeople.ModerncablescanalsocarryhighDCvoltage.AnchoringandtrawlingareprohibitedwithinonenauticalmileoftheSAT2,SAT3andSAFEsubmarinecables.Somedemersaltrawlskippersreportthattheytrawloverthesecablesbyliftingtheirgear.

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CCHAPTER 7

Region Name and area Type of naval activity

WesternCape,westcoast PAPENDORPDoringbaai Anti-aircraftweapons

LANGEBAANROADRANGESaldanha

Airtoairweapons

SALDANHASaldanha Airtoairweapons

NORTHHEADSaldanha Weapons

TOOTHROCKSaldanhaCircle AirtogroundweaponsJacobsReefbombingTestfiringofilluminants

WesternCape,CapePoint WESTERNCAPECapePoint Navalexercises

BELLOWSROCKCapePoint Navalweapons(rockastarget)

WesternCape,FalseBay GARDENNO.1FalseBay Soundtestingrange

GARDENNO.2FalseBay Soundtestingrange

PROOFNORTHFalseBay Proofrange

PROOFSOUTHFalseBay Proofrange

LOWERNORTHFalseBay Weaponstesting

STRANDFONTEINFalseBay Proofrange

SWARTKLIPFalseBay Proofrange

MACASSARFalseBay Anti-aircraftweapons

SIMON’STOWNFalseBay Shallowwaterdemolitionrange

SIMON’STOWNFalseBay Deep-waterdemolitionrange

SouthernCape,CapeAgulhas

DEHOOP(POTBERG)CapeAgul-has

Weaponstestingrange

EasternCape,PortEliza-beth

CAPERECIFEPortElizabeth Riflerange

Natal,Durban DURBANDurban Navalweapons

NorthernNatal,StLucia STLUCIAStLucia Navalweapons

Table7.1inSouthAfricanNoticetoMariners(2007)—SummaryofpracticeandexerciseareasforNavalactivitiesinSouthAfrica,2007

Naval activities

Navalmilitarypracticeandexercisesarenecessaryforthesafe,efficientand

effectiveoperationsoftheSouthAfricanNavy(SAN).ThenatureofservicesrequiredbytheSouthAfricanNavyimplythatmilitarypracticeandexercisesarerequiredtobecarriedoutinvariousareasofthemarineenvironment.

Theseactivitiesgenerallyincludeweaponstestfiring,usingprojectingrocksatseaastargets,soundtesting,demolitionareas,proofrangetesting,airtoairweapontestingandairtogroundweapontesting(SouthAfricanNoticetoMariners2007).

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Internationalchartspecificationsrequirethatmilitarypracticeandexerciseareasberemovedfromnavigationalcharts(SouthAfri-canNoticetoMariners2007).TheareasaredemarcatedonthePEXASANchartseries,andtheSouthAfricanNationalHydrographicOffice(SANHO-21)document,SailingDirectionsVol-umeI,containsrelevantinformationonrangesafetywarningsignalsandsafetyofnaviga-tioninmilitaryexerciseareas(SouthAfricanNoticetoMariners2007).WhenevermilitaryexercisestakeplaceinSouthAfricanwaters,coastalnavigationwarningsarebroadcast,issuingdetailsthereof,exceptinthevicinityofSwartklip,FalseBay(34°04’.5S,18°41’.2E),wheretestfiringofminorilluminants,withorwithoutparachutes,frequentlyoccurwithoutsuchwarnings(SouthAfricanNoticetoMari-ners2007).

Practiceandexerciseareasfornavalactivi-tiesinSouthAfricaarepublishedintheSouth

AfricanNoticetoMarinersannuallywithasummaryofgeneralareasprovidedinTable7.1(SouthAfricanNoticetoMariners2007).Acomprehensivelistofareaspublishedin2007,withdetailedco-ordinates,isprovidedasAnnexureAtothisreport.

Therelativelysmall-scaleandconfinedareaofnavalactivitiesarenotconsideredlikelytohavesevereimpactsonmarinebiodiversity.ThereisconcernaboutweaponstestingortargetpracticeinexistingMPAs(e.g.atBel-lowsRockintheTableMountainNationalParkMPA).

Someincidencesofconflicthavebeenre-portedbetweenthenavyandcoastalfishingoperations—however,thesearelargelyrestrict-edtoinshorecoastalareas.TherehavebeensomereportsofconflictbetweenthetunapolesectorandnavalactivitiesintheCapeCanyonregion.

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Scientific researchOverviewAfascinationwiththeoceansandthecrea-turesthereinhasformedapartofSouthAfrica’shistorylongbeforetheimportanceofscientificresearchwasevident.ThenativesofSouthAfrica’scoasthadvastknowledgeoftheseaanditsresources,manyofwhomreliedonitsharvestforsurvival.Theearliestknownwrittenrecordsofmarineobservations,withextractsfromdiariesandlettersoftendetail-ingsuchevents,occurredafterthearrivalofEuropeanexplorersandsettlers(Brown1997).SimonvanderSteldiarizedanoutbreakofredtideinTableBayinthe1680sandby1811thefirstconcernsofmarinepollutionintheBaywerenoted.ManyexplorersvisitedtheCapeand,althoughmostlyinterestedinterres-trialplantsandanimals,somerecordsofma-rinespeciesweremadewithsomespecimensevenmakingtheirwaybacktoEuropetobedescribedbyexpertsthere(Brown1997).Sev-eralmarineexploratoryexpeditionscalledinattheCape,withtheBritishvessel,Challenger,conductingthefirstexplorationofSouthAfri-canwatersfromthecoasttodepthsbeyondthecontinentalshelf,measuringoceano-graphicandbiologicalaspectsofthesewaters(Brown1997).Bytheendofthe19thcentury,afairamountofknowledgeofSouthAfrica’soceanshadaccumulated,butthisinformationwasunsystematicandfragmentary(Brown1997).TheappointmentofDrJohnDowFisherGilchrist,asthefirstmarinebiologistoftheDepartmentofAgricultureoftheCapeColonyin1895,wasthestartofdedicatedmarineresearchinSouthAfrica(Brown1997).

Thefirstresearchvesseldedicatedtoexplor-ingtheCapewaterswasthatofthePieter Faure,atrawlerbroughtoutfromScotlandbyGilchristin1897(Brown1997).TheseearlyvoyagesanddiscoveriesaredocumentedintheReportsoftheMarineBiologist(1896–1900)andtheReportsoftheGovernmentBiologist(1901–1908).GilchristwassoonrequestedtoexpandhisexplorationsintoNa-talwaterstoo,whichhedutifullydid.Gilchristwasageneralscientistandtookgreatinterestineveryaspectoftheoceananditsnumerousspecies,extendinghisresearchtoencompassnotonlyspeciesofcommercialvaluebutallspeciesthatappearedinhistrawlnets,includ-ingbenthicfauna.ThegovernmentbuilthimSouthAfrica’sfirstaquariumatStJamesin

thewesternCapein1902,whichhousednotonlyaworkinglaboratory,butalsoadisplayopentothepublic.Thebuildingserveditspur-posewellbutwaseventuallyclosedin1936andlaterdemolished.Thefoundationsmaystillbeseenontheseawardsideoftherailwayline,some50msouthofthepresentStJamesbathingboxes(Brown1997).

EarlymarineresearchinSouthAfricawasdisruptedduringtheFirstWorldWarwhenthePieter FaurewascommandeeredbytheRoyalNavy(Brown1997).Gilchrist,however,usedthisperiodtopublishmuchofhisresearch,mostlyonfish,butalsoonthereproductionofPhoronopsis,anewspeciesofBranchiostoma,hemichordatesandseveralothergeneraandspecies(Brown1997).Inthe1920s,Gilchristacquiredaconvertedwhalingvessel,thePickle,fromwhichhecontinuedhismarinesurveys,extendingintoMozambiqueandNamibia(Brown1997).Gilchrist,teamedwithKeppelBarnard,thetaxonomistattheSouthAfricanMuseum,continuedhismarinere-searchuntilhisdeathin1926(Brown1997).GilchristwasundoubtedlythepioneerofsouthernAfricanmarineresearchandconsid-eredatrulygreatscientist(Brown1997).

ScientificresearchinsouthernAfricanwaterscontinuedtogrowandexpandwithfrequentvisitsfrominternationalvesselsandmarinescientists.In1950,SouthAfricacommis-sionedtheF.R.S.Africana II,astate-of-the-artscientificresearchvessel,dedicatedtocon-ductingresearchinSouthAfrica(Lutjeharms&Shannon1997).In1966,theUniversityofCapeTowncommissioneditsowncustom-designedresearchvessel,theThomas B. Dav-ie,whiletheCSIRbuiltthecoastalresearchvesseltheMeiring Naudé.Withthegrowingfleetofresearchvessels,SouthAfrica’soff-shoreresearchcontinuedtoexpandintoeverincreasinglyunexploredwaterswithcontinualdeploymentofoceanographicequipmentandsampling,largelythroughtrawling,providingmuchsought-afterknowledgeofouroceans.

Amultitudeofscientificresearchcruisescon-tinuetotakeplaceeachyearinSouthAfrica,providingnewsamples,speciesandinforma-tionfromthedepthsoftheoceans.Scientificsampling,bioprospectinganddeployment

CCHAPTER 8

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ofavastarrayofhigh-techoceanographicequipmentcontributetoacquiringnecessaryinformation,essentialforsoundmanagementofourmarineresources.Itis,however,con-sideredessentialthateachoftheseactivitieshaveclearobjectiveswithrespecttotheirsam-plingdesign,arewellmanagedandshouldnotthreatenmarinebiodiversity.

Bioprospectingreferstothesystematicsearchforpotentiallyusefulbiochemicalcompounds.Organismsarescreenedforcompoundsthatmaybeusedinmedicine(e.g.thecureforcancer),traditionalhealing(e.g.fertilityen-hancers)andindustrialapplications(e.g.bio-adhesives).AfewpharmaceuticalcompanieshavebioprospectedinSouthAfrica’smarineterritoryandsomeofthesecollectionpro-grammeshavehadscientificbenefits.Collec-tionsofftheeasternCape,forexample,haveledtothediscoveryofecologicalrelationshipsandimprovedtaxonomicrecords(Attwoodet al.2000).ThemarinebioprospectingindustryispoorlyregulatedinSouthAfrica.PermitsarerequiredfromMarineandCoastalManage-ment.

Biodiversity impactsCollectorsmaythreatenraretaxasuchasthecoelacanth,Latimeria chalumnae(Attwoodet al.2000).CoelacanthsarespeciallyprotectedinSouthAfricaandamanagementplanex-istsforthepopulationintheGreaterStLuciaWetlandPark.Noreportsonthebiodiversity

impactsofbioprospectingwerefound.Researchfocusedonstockassessmentsforfisheries,wherethesamemethodastherelevantfisheryisemployed(e.g.trawling),canbeexpectedtohavesimilarimpactsasthosefisheries(e.g.researchtrawls).Scientistswouldarguethattheseareofasmallerscaleandthusinflictcomparativelylessimpact.However,researchtrawlscananddotakeplaceinareaswherefisheriescannotoperateandthesemayhaveadditionalbiodiversityimpacts.Muchoftheoff-shoreresearchishamperedbyalackofprotect-edoffshorecontrolareaswhichareessentialinassessinganyimpactsofoffshoreactivities,asnotedbyAttwoodet al.2000.Theimpactsofscientificresearch(sampling,bioprospectingandequipmentdeployment)onoffshorebio-diversityarecurrentlynotconsideredtobeofsubstantialconcern,althoughcautionshouldalwaysbeexercisedintheextentofimpactin-flictedduringeachinvestigation,especiallyinareasthathavenotpreviouslybeenaccessibletoeithercommercialactivitiesorresearch.

Issues of conflictThereareseldomcriticalconflictissuesbe-tweenscientificresearchandotheroffshoreusers,withahealthyrespecthavingdevelopedbetweenthesectors.Nonetheless,thecon-tinuedpursuitforrepresentative,unexploitedmarineareasforcomparativescientificre-searchmayposeapotentialforfutureconflictbetweenresearchandoffshoreusers.

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Annexure APracticeandexerciseareasforNavalactivitiesinSouthAfrica,2007(SouthAfricanNoticetoMariners2007)

Name and area Type Latitude & longitude

PAPENDORPDoringbaaiClosedarea

Anti-aircraftweapons 31°42’.418°11’.731°37’.518°05’.031°44’.018°02’.031°50’.018°06’.031°52’.018°13’.531°43’.518°12’.531°42’.418°11’.7

LANGEBAANROADRANGESaldanhaClosedarea

Airtoairweapons 32°45’.017°40’.032°45’.017°49’.032°58’.017°55’.033°06’.017°56’.033°08’.217°58’.033°14’.918°05’.833°21’.018°09’.033°29’.018°04’.533°27’.017°59’.033°00’.017°40’.032°45’.017°40’.0

SALDANHASaldanhaClosedarea

Airtoairweapons 32°45’.017°49’.033°26’.018°05’.033°29’.017°54’.032°48’.017°38’.032°45’.017°49’.0

NORTHHEADSaldanhaClosedarea

Weapons 33°03’.0117°54’33°03’.0117°53’.2333°00’.7017°53’.1333°01’.2317°54’.2533°03’.0117°54’.51

TOOTHROCKSaldanhaCircle Airtogroundweapons,JacobsReefbombing.Testfiringofilluminants

radius3.5nauticalmilescentredat32°59’.0S,17°51’.0E

WESTERNCAPECapePointClosedarea

Navalexercises 34°15’.018°23’.034°24’.017°44’.5Arcofcircle,radius50nauti-calmiles,centredat33°58’.1S,18°36’.0Efrom34°24’.0S,18°36’.0Eto17°44’.5E34°44’.0S,19°00’.0E.34°30’.019°00’.0.34°30’.018°48’.034°15’.018°48’.034°15’.018°28’.334°15’.018°23’.0

BELLOWSROCKCapePoint Navalweapons(rockastarget)

34°23’.318°29’.6

GARDENNO.1FalseBayClosedarea

Soundtestingrange 34°08’.6018°27’.0834°08’.6218°28’.2534°09’.6018°28’.2234°09’.5718°27’.0534°08’.6018°27’.08

65


GARDENNO.2FalseBayClosedarea

Soundtestingrange 34°10’.8618°27’.1134°10’.8818°27’.1434°10’.8818°27’.0134°10’.9018°27’.1234°10’.8618°27’.11

PROOFNORTHFalseBay Proofrange 2.2nauticalmiles(4000m)from34°11’.13S,18°26’.32Ebetweenbearings235°and243°

PROOFSOUTHFalseBay Proofrange 8.5nauticalmiles(15500m)from34°11’.13S,18°26’.32Ebetweenbearings265°and275°

LOWERNORTHFalseBay Weaponstesting 11nauticalmiles(20384m)from34°10’.50S,18°25’.75Ebetweenbearings254°and283°

STRANDFONTEINFalseBayClosedarea

Proofrange 34°05’.5018°32’.0034°04’.5018°41’.5034°05’.5018°47’.7534°15’.0018°44’.0034°16’.5018°31’.5034°05’.5018°32’.00

SWARTKLIPFalseBay Proofrange 34°04’.4018°42’.1034°05’.0018°41’.0034°18’.0018°44’.0034°18’.0018°48’.0034°05’.0018°45’.0034°04’.5018°43’.90

MACASSARFalseBay Anti-aircraftweapons 8nauticalmiles(14830m)from34°04’.4S,18°42’.2Ebetweenbearings314°20’and046°20’

SIMON’STOWNFalseBayClosedarea

Shallowwaterdemolitionrange

34°11’.26618°26’.65034°11’.31718°26’.99134°11’.41718°26’.94034°11’.38318°26’.70034°11’.26618°26’.650

SIMON’STOWNFalseBayClosedarea

Deep-waterdemolitionrange 34°11’.318°30’.034°11’.518°32’.034°10’.018°32’.0Arcofcircle,radius1nauticalmile,centredat34°09’.0S,18°32’.0Efrom34°10’.0S,18°32’.0Eto34°09’.25S,18°30.’85E.34°09’.518°30’.034°11’.318°30’.0

DEHOOP(POTBERG)CapeAgulhasClosedarea

Weaponstestingrange Seaareaatrightanglestocoastfordistanceof500mfrom34°30’.47S,20°26’.93Etothepoint34°35’.08S,20°21’.83Eandseaareathatrunsatrightanglesfromshorefordistanceof5000m(5km)fromthelatterpointto34°38’03”S,20°16’10”E’

66


CAPERECIFEPortElizabethClosedarea

Riflerange 34°01’.025°39’.034°01’.025°40’.034°03’.025°40’.034°03’.025°39’.0

DURBANDurbanClosedarea Navalweapons 29°51’.9031°03’.8729°47’.6031°20’.4030°00’.0031°18’.8030°08’.2031°07’.7029°53’.7531°02’.4829°51’.9031°03’.87

STLUCIAStLuciaClosedarea Navalweapons 27°42’.9532°37’.7527°40’.3332°31’.0027°52’.5832°24’.2027°55’.5832°24’.5028°03’.8332°23’.0028°05’.0032°27’.8228°05’.5032°29’.6328°06’.6732°33’.5828°07’.3332°48’.0027°38’.0032°54’.0027°38’.0032°45’.7527°42’.9532°37’.75

SANBI Biodiversity Series

SANBI B i o d i v e r s i t y Se r i e s

2008

SANBI Biodiversity Series

Other technical publications by the South African National Biodiversity Institute

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Flowering Plants of Africa, a serial presenting colour plates of African plants with accompanying text.

Flora of southern Africa (FSA), taxonomic treatises on the flora of South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia and Botswana. Contributions also appear in Bothalia.

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1. Conserving South Africa’s plants: a South African response to the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. 2006. C.K. Willis (ed.). ISBN 1-919976-28-0.

2. The Convention on Biological Diversity: biodiversity, access and benefit-sharing. A resource for teachers (Grades 10–12). 2006. A. Solomon & P. le Grange. ISBN 1-919976-30-2.

3. The Convention on Biological Diversity: biodiversity, access and benefit-sharing. A resource for learners (Grades 10–12). 2006. A. Solomon & P. le Grange. ISBN 1-919976-31-0.

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5. A plan for phylogenetic studies of southern African reptiles: proceedings of a workshop held at Kirstenbosch, February 2006. 2006. W.R. Branch, K.A. Tolley, M. Cunningham, A.M. Bauer, G. Alexander, J.A. Harrison, A.A. Turner & M.F. Bates.ISBN 1-919976-33-7.

6. Invasive alien flora and fauna in South Africa: expertise and bibliography. 2007. C.F. Musil & I.A.W. Macdonald. ISBN 978-1-919976-35-8.

7. Project planning: tools for biodiversity conservation and development projects. 2007. Cape Action for People and the Environment. ISBN 978-1-919976-37-2.

8. Bird Checklist for South Africa’s National Botanical Gardens. 2008. C.K. Willis, O.E. Curtis & M.D. Anderson (compilers). ISBN 978-1-919976-41-9.

9. Guidelines for Offshore Marine Protected Areas in South Africa. 2008. K. Sink & C. Attwood. ISBN 978-1-919976-43-3.

10. User profiles for the South African offshore environment. 2008. L. Atkinson & K. Sink. ISBN 978-1-919976-46-4

sanbi biodiversity series 10 · sanbi biodiversity series the south african national biodiversity...

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