schema theory of learning

Schema Theory of Schema Theory of LearningLearning

Dr. K. A. KorbDr. K. A. Korb

University of JosUniversity of Jos

OutlineOutline

Overview of Schema TheoryOverview of Schema Theory

Properties of SchemasProperties of Schemas

Functions of SchemasFunctions of Schemas

Application of Schemas to InstructionApplication of Schemas to Instruction

Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos

MemoryMemory

Memories tend to include much inaccurate Memories tend to include much inaccurate informationinformation Inaccuracies in memory are systematic and Inaccuracies in memory are systematic and

predictablepredictable Memories depend on prior experienceMemories depend on prior experience

Illustration: Memory for people in attendance at Illustration: Memory for people in attendance at lecturelecture


Freeman, Romney, & Freeman (1987)Freeman, Romney, & Freeman (1987)

Memory for classroom attendanceMemory for classroom attendance Who was at last week’s lecture?Who was at last week’s lecture?

Error rate 50%Error rate 50% People actually in class but forgottenPeople actually in class but forgotten

In-group: 4.7 peopleIn-group: 4.7 peopleOut-group: 8.1 peopleOut-group: 8.1 people

More organized schema for in-group resulted in more accurate More organized schema for in-group resulted in more accurate recall recall

People not in lecture but recalled as presentPeople not in lecture but recalled as presentIn-group: 2.8 peopleIn-group: 2.8 peopleOut-group: 0.4 peopleOut-group: 0.4 people

More typical schema for in-group resulted in more false More typical schema for in-group resulted in more false attendancesattendances


MemoryMemory

Recall depends on:Recall depends on: Quality of schema organizationQuality of schema organization

Better quality, better memoryBetter quality, better memory How typical the eventHow typical the event

More typical, more errorsMore typical, more errors


Pompi & Lachman (1967)Pompi & Lachman (1967)

Chief Resident Jones adjusted his face mask while Chief Resident Jones adjusted his face mask while anxiously surveying a pale figure secured to the anxiously surveying a pale figure secured to the long gleaming table before him. One swift stroke of long gleaming table before him. One swift stroke of his small sharp instrument and a thin red line his small sharp instrument and a thin red line appeared. Then an eager young assistant carefully appeared. Then an eager young assistant carefully extended the opening as another aid pushed aside extended the opening as another aid pushed aside glistening surface fat so that vital parts were laid glistening surface fat so that vital parts were laid bare. Everyone present stared in horror at the ugly bare. Everyone present stared in horror at the ugly growth too large for removal. He now knew it was growth too large for removal. He now knew it was pointless to continue.pointless to continue.


1.1. DoctorDoctor2.2. NurseNurse3.3. BloodBlood4.4. ScalpelScalpel5.5. OperationOperation6.6. BlueBlue7.7. PianoPiano8.8. BeautifulBeautiful9.9. ThinThin10.10. PushedPushed11.11. SecuredSecured12.12. SurfaceSurface13.13. SurveyingSurveying

1.1. NoNo2.2. NoNo3.3. NoNo4.4. NoNo5.5. NoNo6.6. RedRed7.7. InstrumentInstrument8.8. UglyUgly9.9. FatFat10.10. YesYes11.11. YesYes12.12. YesYes13.13. YesYes

Pompi & Lachman (1967)Pompi & Lachman (1967)


SchemaSchema

Schema: Schema: Structure for representing concepts in Structure for representing concepts in memorymemory Schemata: PluralSchemata: Plural Schema: SingularSchema: Singular

Schema Theory: Schema Theory: Theory of how knowledge is Theory of how knowledge is represented and how the representation of represented and how the representation of knowledge guides the application of knowledgeknowledge guides the application of knowledgeIncoming information from the environment is Incoming information from the environment is organized around previously developed schemaorganized around previously developed schemaGist:Gist: Central idea Central idea


SchemaSchema

Schemas are like:Schemas are like: Dramas: Dramas: Schemas provide the script where Schemas provide the script where

the variables (aka characters, setting, and the variables (aka characters, setting, and action) are unique to each performanceaction) are unique to each performance

Theories: Theories: Interpret phenomenon and make Interpret phenomenon and make predictions about unobserved eventspredictions about unobserved events

Procedures/Algorithms: Procedures/Algorithms: Evaluate new Evaluate new information to determine the fit to the schema information to determine the fit to the schema and then directs future behaviorand then directs future behavior


Properties of SchemasProperties of Schemas

Schemas are developed by prior knowledge and Schemas are developed by prior knowledge and experience experience Actively build schemas and revise in light of new Actively build schemas and revise in light of new informationinformationInformation from the environment is processed and Information from the environment is processed and transformed depending on prior schemastransformed depending on prior schemasSchemas help people understand, interpret, and Schemas help people understand, interpret, and remember incoming informationremember incoming informationFacilitates memory because it is easier to remember Facilitates memory because it is easier to remember schema than detailsschema than detailsCulture influences schemasCulture influences schemas

Memory for knowledge or an event is determined by the cultural Memory for knowledge or an event is determined by the cultural context in which it takes placecontext in which it takes place


Bransford & Johnson (1972)Bransford & Johnson (1972)


Bransford & Johnson (1972)Bransford & Johnson (1972)

If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't be able to carry If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a string could break on the additional problem is that a string could break on the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face to face contact, the least number of problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong things could go wrong


About the James headache woman her About the James headache woman her asked.asked.

James asked the woman about her James asked the woman about her headache.headache.


Schemas and Schemas and Information ProcessingInformation Processing

Perception:Perception: Attaching meaning to a stimulus Attaching meaning to a stimulus Bottom-Up : Notice separate defining features and Bottom-Up : Notice separate defining features and

assemble them into a recognizable patternassemble them into a recognizable pattern Top-down: Perceive based on the context and the Top-down: Perceive based on the context and the

patterns you expect to occur in the situationpatterns you expect to occur in the situation



Schema Theory proposes an interaction Schema Theory proposes an interaction between bottom-up and top-down processingbetween bottom-up and top-down processing Incoming information activates a schemaIncoming information activates a schema

Bottom-upBottom-up

Facilitates activation and modification of old schema or Facilitates activation and modification of old schema or generation of new schemageneration of new schema

Once appropriate schema is activated, schema fills in Once appropriate schema is activated, schema fills in necessary but not explicit details with assumed valuesnecessary but not explicit details with assumed values

Top-downTop-down


Schema and Schema and Information ProcessingInformation Processing

Concept:Concept: General category whose General category whose members share certain properties.members share certain properties.

Prototype:Prototype: Best representative of a Best representative of a concept.concept. Prototypes result from experiences with many Prototypes result from experiences with many

exemplars of the conceptexemplars of the concept Incoming information is compared to the Incoming information is compared to the

prototypical schemaprototypical schema



If incoming information matches the script, If incoming information matches the script, schema is strengthenedschema is strengthened

If incoming information does not match the If incoming information does not match the script, search for more accurate schemascript, search for more accurate schema

Information that does not fit into any Information that does not fit into any schema likely to:schema likely to: Not be comprehended or Not be comprehended or Comprehended incorrectlyComprehended incorrectly



Information Processing:Information Processing: Incoming Incoming information matches outgoing informationinformation matches outgoing information Memory matches the environmentMemory matches the environment

Schema Theory:Schema Theory: Active attempt to Active attempt to understand information based on prior understand information based on prior knowledge and experiencesknowledge and experiences Memories are shaped by prior knowledge and Memories are shaped by prior knowledge and

experiencesexperiences


Functions of SchemaFunctions of Schema

Organize knowledgeOrganize knowledge

Assist recallAssist recall

Guide behaviorGuide behavior

Enable predictionsEnable predictions

Make sense of current experiencesMake sense of current experiences


Learning New KnowledgeLearning New Knowledge

Three reactions to new information:Three reactions to new information: Accretion:Accretion: Incorporate new information to Incorporate new information to

existing schemata without making changes to existing schemata without making changes to the schematathe schemata

Tuning:Tuning: Modify schemata to be more Modify schemata to be more consistent with experienceconsistent with experience

Restructuring:Restructuring: Create a new schemata Create a new schemata because of inconsistency between old because of inconsistency between old schemata and new informationschemata and new information


Benefits of SchemaBenefits of Schema

Benefits of connecting new information to Benefits of connecting new information to prior knowledge:prior knowledge: Better retention of informationBetter retention of information Better ability to access information in Better ability to access information in

authentic situationsauthentic situations


You have been employed by a manufacturer of educational You have been employed by a manufacturer of educational materials to ensure that the cards in one of their materials to ensure that the cards in one of their educational games have been correctly produced. The rule educational games have been correctly produced. The rule governing the production of the card states that if the card governing the production of the card states that if the card has the letter S on one side, then it has the number 3 on has the letter S on one side, then it has the number 3 on the other.the other.

Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other. Indicate which cards you definitelyother. Indicate which cards you definitely need to turn over, need to turn over, and only those cards, to determine whether the rule is and only those cards, to determine whether the rule is broken in the case of any of these four cards.broken in the case of any of these four cards.

S Q 3 7


You are the Housemaster at a boarding school. It is your You are the Housemaster at a boarding school. It is your responsibility to ensure that the students keep their rooms responsibility to ensure that the students keep their rooms tidy, so you introduce a rule which states that if a student tidy, so you introduce a rule which states that if a student eats biscuits then their room must be tidy.eats biscuits then their room must be tidy.

Each card represents one student. One side states whether Each card represents one student. One side states whether or not the student’s room is tidy. The other side details or not the student’s room is tidy. The other side details whether they have been eating cookies. Indicate the cards whether they have been eating cookies. Indicate the cards you definitely need to turn over, and only those cards, to you definitely need to turn over, and only those cards, to determine whether the rule is broken from any of the four determine whether the rule is broken from any of the four students.students.

Ate cookies

No cookies

Messy room

Tidy room


Expert and Novice SchemaExpert and Novice Schema

Watson Selection Task (Watson, 1966)Watson Selection Task (Watson, 1966) Cheater Detection Task: Cheater Detection Task: Second Second

contextualized itemcontextualized item

Learning is easier in contextLearning is easier in context

Expertise in a domain influences Expertise in a domain influences performanceperformance


Expert and Novice SchemaExpert and Novice Schema

Experts: Complete and comprehensive Experts: Complete and comprehensive schemataschemata Recognize a pattern related to a developed Recognize a pattern related to a developed

schemaschema Enable to reason using specific, domain-Enable to reason using specific, domain-

based strategiesbased strategies Use automatized skillsUse automatized skills

Novice: Incomplete schemataNovice: Incomplete schemataUse general problem solving strategiesUse general problem solving strategiesGreater load on working memoryGreater load on working memory


Goal of EducationGoal of Education

Students construct and apply appropriate Students construct and apply appropriate schemata to solve practical problems in schemata to solve practical problems in various domainsvarious domains Become “expert” problem solvers in school Become “expert” problem solvers in school

coursescourses

Instructional StrategiesInstructional Strategies Reduce extra cognitive load – Irrelevant tasksReduce extra cognitive load – Irrelevant tasks Increase relevant cognitive loadIncrease relevant cognitive load


Identifying Students’ SchemasIdentifying Students’ Schemas

ObserveObserve

Ask for explanationAsk for explanation

Ask to make predictionsAsk to make predictions

Ask to teach another studentAsk to teach another student


Teaching StrategiesTeaching Strategies

Connect new information to prior knowledgeConnect new information to prior knowledge Advanced Organizer:Advanced Organizer: Bridge between new Bridge between new

information and prior knowledgeinformation and prior knowledge Schema Signals: Schema Signals: Indicate the schema that students Indicate the schema that students

should use to approach the new informationshould use to approach the new information

Make instructional materials meaningfulMake instructional materials meaningful Concept Maps: Concept Maps: Diagram showing the relationship Diagram showing the relationship

between conceptsbetween concepts Identify and correct schemas that are contradictory, Identify and correct schemas that are contradictory,

wrong, or unnecessarywrong, or unnecessary

Directly teach transferDirectly teach transfer


Developing an Advanced OrganizerDeveloping an Advanced Organizer

List major principles of new lessonList major principles of new lesson

List knowledge or skills necessary for List knowledge or skills necessary for understanding new materialunderstanding new material

Assess students’ understanding of prerequisite Assess students’ understanding of prerequisite materialmaterial

Re-teach knowledge and skills if necessaryRe-teach knowledge and skills if necessary

Write the advanced organizer that illuminates Write the advanced organizer that illuminates the similarities between old and new conceptsthe similarities between old and new concepts


Present Advanced OrganizerPresent Advanced Organizer

Present contentPresent content Use examples beginning from simple to Use examples beginning from simple to

complexcomplex

Relate content back to the Advanced Relate content back to the Advanced OrganizerOrganizer

Using Advanced OrganizersUsing Advanced Organizers


Advanced OrganizersAdvanced Organizers

Checklist for good Advanced Organizers:Checklist for good Advanced Organizers: Does the organizer allow students to discover Does the organizer allow students to discover

the logical relationships in the lesson?the logical relationships in the lesson? Does the organizer relate unfamiliar material Does the organizer relate unfamiliar material

to existing knowledge?to existing knowledge? Is the organizer easy for the learner to use?Is the organizer easy for the learner to use?


Advanced OrganizersAdvanced Organizers

Cognitive theories focus on cognitive processes.Cognitive theories focus on cognitive processes.Before Spring Break, we discussed reasoning. Today we Before Spring Break, we discussed reasoning. Today we are going to discuss teaching methods.are going to discuss teaching methods.When discussing the Deviation IQ in the chapter on When discussing the Deviation IQ in the chapter on intelligence, I introduced you to a standard deviation. intelligence, I introduced you to a standard deviation. Standard deviations represent the variance of a variable. Standard deviations represent the variance of a variable. When one has calculated the variance of multiple When one has calculated the variance of multiple variables, then factor analysis can be used to determine variables, then factor analysis can be used to determine the communality of each variable.the communality of each variable.Bruner’s teaching method consisted of having students Bruner’s teaching method consisted of having students generalize a rule from examples. Ausubel, on the other generalize a rule from examples. Ausubel, on the other hand, viewed effective learning as typically taking place hand, viewed effective learning as typically taking place when teachers present the general rule first, and then when teachers present the general rule first, and then examples later.examples later.


PositiveReinforcement

NegativePunishment

SchemataSchemata

Behaviorism

ClassicalConditioning:

Involuntary behavior

OperantConditioning:

Voluntary behavior

UnconditionedStimulus

ConditionedStimulus

UnconditionedResponse

ConditionedResponse

Punishment:Behavior stops

Reinforcement:Behavior is repeated


NegativeReinforcement

PositivePunishment

Remove

Present

Developing Concept MapsDeveloping Concept Maps

Place the main idea in a circle in the centerPlace the main idea in a circle in the center

List all concepts to include in the concept mapList all concepts to include in the concept map

Group the concepts by higher-order topicsGroup the concepts by higher-order topics

Place the higher-order topics in circles linked to Place the higher-order topics in circles linked to the main ideathe main idea

Link the concepts around the higher-order topicLink the concepts around the higher-order topic

Verify the connections on the concept map and Verify the connections on the concept map and change if necessarychange if necessary


Concept MapsConcept Maps

Benefits of Concept MapsBenefits of Concept Maps Hierarchical structure helps organize major Hierarchical structure helps organize major

conceptsconcepts Cross-links between concepts helps to see Cross-links between concepts helps to see

how different concepts are relatedhow different concepts are related


Classroom ImplicationsClassroom Implications

Prior knowledge influences what and how a student Prior knowledge influences what and how a student learnslearnsWhat is remembered is largely a function of what was What is remembered is largely a function of what was understood to begin withunderstood to begin withStudents learn best when they link new information with Students learn best when they link new information with related existing ideasrelated existing ideas

Information is forgotten unless integrated into existing schemataInformation is forgotten unless integrated into existing schemata

The schemas of students are different from each other The schemas of students are different from each other and from the teacherand from the teacherBoth understanding and memory are driven by meaningBoth understanding and memory are driven by meaningLearning should occur in the context in which it will be Learning should occur in the context in which it will be usedused


Schema Theory OverviewSchema Theory Overview

Results: Organized representation of knowledge in memory Means: Comparison of new information to previously developed schemas

Accretion Tuning Restructuring

Inputs: Information that fits into previously developed schemas


Schema Theory OverviewSchema Theory Overview

Learning Outcomes: Schema, Organized body of knowledge used to interpret new informationRole of the Learner: Apply previously existing schema to new problems and modify schemas as appropriateRole of the Instructor: Identify students’ previously developed schema

Integrate new information with previously developed schemas Correct inaccurate schemas

Inputs for Learning: Link between new information and previous schemasProcess of Learning: Accretion, tuning, and restructuring of schema


RevisionRevision

What are schemas and how do they What are schemas and how do they influence perception?influence perception?How does top-down and bottom-up How does top-down and bottom-up perception influence the application and perception influence the application and development of schemas?development of schemas?What are the three ways that schemas are What are the three ways that schemas are developed?developed?How does schema theory influence How does schema theory influence education?education?


schema theory of learning

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korbuniversity of josfreeman

peoplemore typical schema

schema theory of learningdr

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prior knowledge

representation of knowledge

eventmore typical

schemasapplication of