school entry assessment of indigenous students · 2013-08-07 · indigenous students to ensure the...

SScchhooooll EEnnttrryy AAsssseessssmmeenntt ooff IInnddiiggeennoouuss SSttuuddeennttss

SScchhooooll EEnnttrryy AAsssseessssmmeennttooff IInnddiiggeennoouuss SSttuuddeennttssfor South Australian Independent Schools

Catherine Dinos

and

Jay Marshall

Acknowledgements

This paper was developed as a part of the National Indigenous English

Literacy and Numeracy Strategy (NIELNS) ‘First Years Initiative’ Project.

The work of the following schools and consultants who participated in the

project and provided support in the development of the guidelines is

acknowledged:

Murray Bridge Christian College

Portside Christian School

Southern Vales Christian College

Sunrise Christian School, Fullarton Campus

Trinity College, Gawler River Campus

Trinity College, North Campus

Crossways Lutheran School

Dr Linda Westphalen – Literacy Consultant

This project was funded under the National Indigenous English Literacy and

Numeracy Strategy (NIELNS) administered by the Commonwealth

Department of Education, Science and Training.

GUIDELINES FOR SCHOOL ENTRY ASSESSMENT OF INDIGENOUS STUDENTS

This paper has been developed to complement the School Entry Assessment IssuesPapers that are included in the ‘Literacy and Numeracy School Entry Assessment forSA Independent Schools’ folders published by the SA Independent Schools TargetedPrograms Authority in 2001

ASSESSING THE LANGUAGE, LITERACY ANDNUMERACY SKILLS OF INDIGENOUS STUDENTS IN THEFIRST YEAR OF SCHOOLING AND BEYOND

The assessment of all students early in their schooling is effective in theidentification of students at risk of not succeeding at school without theprovision of appropriate early intervention programs.

Completing the school entry assessment process with Indigenous studentsrequires specific knowledge and strategies. It is crucial that the collection ofSchool Entry Assessment (SEA) information from Indigenous students shouldtake into account their cultural and linguistic backgrounds and recognise theskills they have already developed as they start school. This applies to allIndigenous students from urban, rural and/or remote backgrounds.

For Indigenous students, the skills and literacies valued and developed in thehome may be different to those of the school. Consequently, Indigenousstudents may be disadvantaged by the SEA process due to a lack of:

• familiarity with test content including subject matter and the language ofthe tests

• familiarity with the testing or assessment approach employed• recognition of home literacies and other skills the students may have

acquired.

These Guidelines contain broad statements about Indigenous students.However, as each student is different, these guidelines should be treated as ageneral introduction to working with Indigenous students. It is the individualstudent and their family who will provide the most relevant and importantinformation to support the assessment of literacy and numeracy levels in thestudent’s first year at school.

Catherine Dinos

and

Jay Marshall

SScchhooooll eennttrryy aasssseessssmmeenntt 1

SScchhooooll EEnnttrryy AAsssseessssmmeenntt ooff IInnddiiggeennoouuss SSttuuddeennttss

PREPARING FOR SCHOOL ENTRY ASSESSMENT OFINDIGENOUS STUDENTS

To ensure the SEA process is inclusive of Indigenous students, and thatstudents are provided with the best possible chance to demonstrate theirlevels of ability and understanding, the following five strategies will assistteachers in the successful completion of School Entry Assessments ofIndigenous students:

1. Develop Relationships with families

Variations between Indigenous families mean it is more appropriate to developlinks with each family rather than generalising information about Indigenousculture, society, language and learning. Indigenous peoples represent diversecultures and communities and have diverse beliefs and experiences. It iscritical to establish relationships with the Indigenous families in eacheducational setting and develop partnerships with the key caregivers in thesefamilies. Key caregivers may not just be Mum or Dad but may include Aunties(who often have an important parenting role), Uncles and Grandparents. Allthose involved in the care of the student should be welcomed at the school andinformed of the student’s progress. The idea is to create a sense between schooland family/community that ‘we’re a team’ working together to support thestudent.

Relationships with families are best developed through informal contact,avoiding the ‘interview’ scenario. Strategies include:

• inviting parents by phone to a coffee morning, a cup of tea after school orBBQ; this event may not happen at school but be organised at a moreneutral venue

• organising an open classroom session• encouraging informal chats at the start and the end of the school day• maintaining telephone contact with families • sending home a welcome letter to the new student starting Reception• discussing the establishment of an ASSPA (Aboriginal Student Support and

Parent Awareness) committee with interested parent/s.

Visiting the homes of Indigenous families can be used as a strategy wherefamilies have indicated that they are comfortable with home visits. Home visitsshould always be pre-arranged with permission, kept informal and providedas an option, not an expectation.

SScchhooooll eennttrryy aasssseessssmmeenntt2

2. Develop positive teacher/student relationships

One of the most critical prerequisites to successful learning identified byIndigenous families is developing rapport and an ongoing trusting relationshipwith the student. This may take time and is not always straightforwardbecause of cultural and language differences. Teachers can be supportive of thisprocess by:

• Developing an understanding of differences in social language and communicationpractices

By the time they start school Indigenous students frequently have welldeveloped social skills, however these may not be the practices of the school.Initially in the classroom, some students present as extremely shy because theenvironment of school is so foreign to them that it feels like another world.This is regardless of whether the student is from an urban, rural or remotebackground. They often react in ways similar to students learning English as asecond language where they stand back and observe, not willing to participateuntil they believe they can take a risk without making a mistake.

Indigenous students may have been given much autonomy at home and havebeen encouraged to make their own decisions. They may expect to be able tovisit the toilet or a sibling in a different class without first seeking permission.Explicit teaching of the expected social rules may be required.

Communication rules like answering straight away, watching the speakerwhen listening or direct questioning, a particular feature of Western teachingpractices, are not standard Indigenous communication practices. Indigenousstudents and families may think of direct questioning as rude behaviour.Consequently, Indigenous students may not use direct questioning as alearning strategy to seek help or clarification, a technique commonly expectedof students in mainstream classrooms.

• Being sensitive to situations that may induce a sense of shame

Indigenous students generally do not like to be singled out for positive ornegative behaviour. Being singled out can induce a sense of shame to the pointthat the student may not wish to participate in the class anymore, leading toillness or absenteeism.

Shame is a complex cultural notion related to Indigenous social practiceswhere social cohesion is valued and encouraged above individual


achievement. Therefore singling students out may cause them to feel extremelyuncomfortable and induce a state that they identify as shame. This reactionmay not be the case for all students because some do enjoy accolades andattention. It reinforces why a teacher needs to get to know individual studentswell.

Once a teacher has developed a trusting relationship with the student, and thismay take time, the student may feel more comfortable about participating inrisk taking or individualised behaviour such as receiving an award or speakingin front of the class. The student may then also accept being singled out fordisruptive behaviour.

• Understanding social beliefs about fairness

Indigenous students have a profound sense of fairness that they feel forthemselves as well as others. They are often extremely sensitive to accusationsbeing fair and that the punishment fits the crime. If they sense unfairness, it cansignificantly tarnish their perception of the teacher and schooling in general.An Indigenous student will decide whether a person in authority is worthy oftheir respect not grant respect automatically.

Including Indigenous students in the negotiating of class rules allows them toexpress their beliefs and explicitly learn what the rules of the class are and theirpurpose. When conflicts arise, discuss the situation with all students involved(and families if possible) and negotiate a solution and consequences should thesituation arise again.

• Valuing Indigenous culture and fostering inclusive classroom practices

Acceptance of a range of views, opinions and cultural perspectives can supportan Indigenous student to feel welcome in the classroom. If an Indigenousstudent does not see or feel anything familiar in the classroom, they maywonder if they actually belong there.

For this reason, it is important to make the school and classroom a place whereall cultures are welcomed and celebrated across the curriculum throughout theschool year. Ensure that contemporary Indigenous views are represented andnot only traditional or stereotypic views of Indigenous cultures. A classroomwhere an Indigenous student sees their culture reflected is more likely to feelthey belong in that classroom. Learn as much as possible about the localIndigenous communities and the communities to which the Indigenous


students in each school belong as Indigenous people represent not one singleculture but a diversity of cultural backgrounds.

3. Recognise the student’s and family’s use of Aboriginal English

Many Indigenous children and students speak a dialect of English labelled bynon-Indigenous researchers as Aboriginal English. Many Indigenous studentsspeak Aboriginal English at home but code switch to some degree and withdiffering degrees of mastery to Standard Australian English when in theclassroom.

There exists a misperception that Aboriginal English is pidgin or a simplifiedattempt at speaking English. However, as a dialect of English, AboriginalEnglish is as equally complex and linguistically sophisticated as StandardAustralian English. Standard Australian English is a neutral term used todescribe the dialect of English used in Australia in business, law, media,government and schools. Its use in these contexts is what makes it thelanguage of power in our society.

While differences in dialect exist, students speaking Aboriginal English areusually not aware that they speak a dialect of English that differs significantlyfrom the teacher and other students. Indigenous students tend to get veryfrustrated when they do not understand the teacher or when the teacher doesnot understand them. Developing a relationship with the home is crucial tounderstand the language or dialects used in the home. While many Indigenousfamilies may not identify that they speak Aboriginal English, it is a feature ofmany Indigenous homes.

Indigenous students, whether they come from an Aboriginal Englishbackground or speak an Australian Indigenous language, have similar needs tothose students identified as English as a second language learners: a need todevelop Standard Australian English in addition to maintenance of their firstlanguage. Maintenance of Aboriginal English when spoken will be importantfor students to ensure they are not marginalised by their own community.While Indigenous people generally accept that proficiency in StandardAustralian English is important for their children’s academic success and toprovide a greater degree of access to mainstream opportunities, this should notbe at the expense of their Indigenous status and language.

4. Expose Indigenous students to Standard Australian English

Exposure to standard Australian English and Western literacy practices willvary between Indigenous families. Research suggests that one of the greatest


predictors of a student’s achievement at school is whether they are experiencedand well practised with Western literacy practices prior to schooling.Indigenous students who require exposure to, practise with, and explicitteaching of, Western literacies should be identified so they are notdisadvantaged in the education process.

Students with home experiences that have familiarised them with the literaciesand language of the school are advantaged when they enter the schoolingsystem. Such students are described by Green (2003) as those students withinsider experiences. Indigenous students frequently enter the schooling systemas an outsider to this system. Insider students, through their knowledge of andexperience with school language and literacies, have what is termed ‘culturalcapital’, and:

• already understand the social and language rules of school• are well practised in the Western ways of learning through questioning as

opposed to other approaches• have been trained in the art of Western narrative (story grammar)• have been exposed to a variety of Western literacy and numeracy practices.

Insider students are at a socio-linguistic advantage from the beginning of theirschooling. In many cases, outsider students are never able to fully grasp thelanguage and culture of school and too frequently are failed by the educationsystem.

Indigenous students need to understand and be proficient in StandardAustralian English to achieve success in school. They need to develop StandardAustralian English as one of their language and communication codes so theycan access the full curriculum and gain more power in society. To achieve thisthey require explicit teaching and understanding of what can seem to be a‘secret code’, Standard Australian English.

5. Investigate the possibility of Conductive Hearing Loss

Ongoing fluctuating conductive hearing loss is a significant issue forIndigenous students. Ear health and hearing problems are statisticallyprevalent in the Indigenous community and may begin when babies are onlyweeks old and can be a significant health and hearing problem for many years.The disruption to hearing, learning and general wellness felt by manyIndigenous students significantly affects their education and health outcomes.

Children learn language and pre-literacy skills in their early years. If they have


ongoing or fluctuating ear health and hearing issues during this time, it cansignificantly impact on their development of these specific skills. Phonologicalawareness does not easily develop if a student has fluctuating conductivehearing loss and significant numbers of Indigenous students have problemsdeveloping phonological awareness skills in the early years of school becauseof hearing problems.

It is imperative that hearing tests are conducted whilst recognising that hearingand hearing levels can vary from day to day and may not maintain a consistentlevel. Ask the family about any history of ear problems and information aboutpast and present medical management e.g. grommets, burst ear drum,frequency of glue ear, hearing better or worse in one ear and so on.

SPECIFIC GUIDELINES FOR THE COLLECTION OFSCHOOL ENTRY ASSESSMENT INFORMATION FROMINDIGENOUS STUDENTS

Once contact has been established with the family and the student feelscomfortable in the school and classroom environment, having had someexperience of classroom activities, procedures and expectations, the systematiccompletion of school entry assessment is appropriate. School EntryAssessments of Indigenous students should involve:

A. Observation of the student by the teacher

Observation is an important tool for collecting information about any studentin their initial stages of schooling. In the early weeks, an Indigenous student,like all students, will be adjusting to their new environment. Systematicobservation of the student across a variety of settings will provide criticalinformation about how well they are settling in and the skills the studentbrings with them to the classroom. This period of assessment may require thefirst 1-2 terms.

Observations could consider if the student is:

• Managing class routines?• Speaking to the teacher?• Speaking to other students in the class? Which students?• Demonstrating an understanding of instructions or are they imitating what

other students are doing?• Comfortable in the class or are they seen on the outskirts of the action?


Observations may also consider:

• Does the student’s way of communicating and sentences seem unusual?Can you describe this?

• When does the student seem most confident and least confident? Forexample, is the student most confident during free play activities or in theyard with their siblings? Or least confident in class sharing or when askedquestions to check understanding, do they lower their head and refuse tointeract?

B. Student familiarisation with the assessments and assessmentprocess

The use of formal assessments in cases where students have not had exposureto the language and social practices of school needs to be used with caution.Many Indigenous students fail assessment tasks designed using StandardAustralian English and which are structured in terms of Western literateeducation practices. These assessments use language content, structure andadministration techniques that are unfamiliar to these students. When thesestudents fail, it is difficult to ascertain their actual performance level becausestudents may:

• not understand the language in the instructions• have no prior experience or practice with the language required• be unfamiliar with the content of the material• be unfamiliar with the test or tasks themselves.

Once the student has established a trusting relationship with the teacher, hadsome experience with the language and social practices of classroom, has beenexposed and de-sensitised to the testing situation, then 1:1 or small groupassessment can be used more reliably with valid results.

C. Teacher awareness of the student’s use of Aboriginal Englishand/or Australian Indigenous Language/s

When Indigenous students speak two languages or dialects of English,assessment of literacy skills should consider:

• Language and literacy skills in their first language/dialect• Language and literacy skills in Standard Australian English

Formal tests with Standard Australian English can suggest Indigenous studentshave significant learning needs. However, such tests may not take into account


a student’s bilingualism and existing non-standard Australian Englishlanguage and learning abilities. This is a deficit testing model as it has a focuson the student’s Standard Australian English language and literacy deficits.Formal assessment of an Indigenous student’s level of competency in StandardAustralian English is important to provide directions for any programnecessary for this student to acquire Standard Australian English language andliteracy skills. However, a holistic picture of the student’s languageproficiencies is required. This information can come from those who know thestudent well, including parents, other family members and other members ofthe Indigenous community.

D. Collection of information from home

Assessment must always begin with information gathered from caregivers andpeople who know the student. To collect data on a student’s language andliteracy skills in their first language/dialect, it is recommended that teachersdevelop Student Language and Learning Profile Sheets to assess a student’slevel of competence from limited through average to good and excellent.

A profile completed by parent/member of Indigenous community who knowsthe student well should cover:

• Use of first language/dialect • General behaviours, e.g. social interaction with peers or levels of

concentration that may impact on their learning progress in school.

The home profile would complement a profile completed by the student’steacher covering:

• Level of confidence with Standard Australian English: spoken,comprehension and written.

Contact the AISSA Literacy Adviser (ESL/Indigenous) for further informationand examples.

E. Collection of Samples of Familiar Language Use

Any formal assessment of Indigenous students can be complemented withlanguage and literacy samples of the student using familiar or comfortablelanguage as a comparison. Tape the student talking using a variety of stimulifor discussion: pictures, objects, photos, topics of interest, books, whateverstimulates this particular student. This form of assessment enables the studentsto express themselves without the pressure to perform using unfamiliar


language codes and structures and should be conducted informally, preferablyby the teacher with whom the student is familiar. The teacher or personconducting the school entry assessment can talk about themselves and theirfamily as a non-threatening way to start discussions. Such language samplesare an integral part of the early assessment process which provides a baselineof the student’s language abilities. Further language and literacy assessment,either formal or informal, can be compared with the language skillsdemonstrated in this language sample using the expertise of an IndigenousAboriginal English/language speaker where possible.

F. Use of the Pre-test, Teach, Post-test method

The provision of explicit instruction and opportunities to practice newlanguage and literacy skills is supportive of Indigenous students. This includespractising the behaviours associated with testing: sitting down, answeringquestions, problem solving. Ideally allow Indigenous students to practise‘testing’ in small groups and experience success in a ‘testing’ situation.

An approach like the pre-test, teach, post-test structure can be used to assess astudent’s ability to learn.

Pre-testSit next to a student, preferably in a small group, and talk through material tomonitor understanding. Exploratory behaviour, possibly guided by the teacheror support teacher, is a recognised preferred learning approach for manyIndigenous students with the opportunity to utilise repetition to supportlearning.

TeachAs Indigenous students often learn with an emphasis on observation andimitation, this supports the use of small, teacher guided activities to supportlearning while encouraging the student to be engaged in ‘doing’.

Post-testOnce this type of learning has occurred, ‘testing’ of learning may be morefruitful and a focus for post-test teaching/learning can occur.


G. Selection of appropriate test materials

Commercially produced resources for sampling language with Indigenousstudents are available. Contact the Literacy Adviser (ESL/Indigenous) atAISSA for details.

Materials used in assessment should be culturally inclusive and sensitivehowever any materials that are interesting to the student will stimulatecommunication and language. Generally available classroom and schoolresources covering, for example, shared events (e.g. going to the local park)and topics of general interest to all students (family, sport, travels) areadequate for gaining language and literacy information about Indigenousstudents.

CONCLUSIONS

Accurate assessment of Indigenous students that is valid, reliable andculturally inclusive is an achievable goal.

The many factors influencing access, participation and levels of success willimpact on Indigenous students to differing degrees. For this reason, it isessential to know the families and students well and to gather comprehensivebackground information to support assessment and decision making aroundthe needs of individual students.

Successful School Entry Assessments will result when:

• partnerships are fostered with relevant stakeholders • prior language and literacy skills and experiences of Indigenous students

are recognised and assessed• information is gathered using a variety of methods and resources to give

students the opportunity to demonstrate their true skills and abilities.

ReferencesGreen, D. (2003), ‘The nature of language: the culture of texts’ (Chapter 1). In Green, D.& Campbell, R. (Eds), Literacies and Learners: Current Perspectives, 2nd Edition, PrenticeHall, Pearson Education Australia, NSW


school entry assessment of indigenous students · 2013-08-07 · indigenous students to ensure the...

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