AMERICATHROUGHTHEKITCHENWINDOW:

MID-TWENTIETHCENTURYAMERICANCULTURETHROUGHKITCHEN

ADVERTISEMENTS,PRODUCTSANDDESIGN

by

KristenEileenSchulrud

AThesisSubmittedin

PartialFulfillmentofthe

RequirementsfortheDegreeof

MasterofArts

inArtHistory

at

TheUniversityofWisconsin-Milwaukee

May2013

ii

ABSTRACTAMERICATHROUGHTHEKITCHENWINDOW:MID-TWENTIETHCENTURY

AMERICANCULTURETHROUGHKITCHENADVERTISEMENTS,PRODUCTSANDDESIGN

by

KristenEileenSchulrud

TheUniversityofWisconsin-Milwaukee,2013UndertheSupervisionofProfessorKennethP.Bendiner

Duringthenineteen-fiftiesinAmericathekitchenspaceanditsrelated

objectscametobeemblematicoftheconcernsandidealsofAmericancultureatthe

time.Astudyoftheadvertisementsandarticlesintheperiodicalsoftheerareveals

aculturefocusedonleisure,technology,familylifeandpersonalplenty.Througha

combinedanalysisoftheimagesandtextsfoundinsurvivingvintagemagazinesof

thedecadeandmorerecentscholarshiponthepopularcultureoftheeraitcanbe

seenthattheAmericandreamofahappier,easier,morefreeandmoreluxuriouslife

wasmademanifestwithinthekitchenspace.Beyondgaininggreaterknowledgeof

theperiod,alargergoalofthisthesisistoencouragegreatersupportandrespect

formaterialcultureasbothatopicandatoolofstudy.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

Introduction……………………………………………………………………...…………………………………1

Chapter1:TheKitchenOpensUp…………………………………..…………………………………..…6

Chapter2:ToLiveandBuyTheGoodLife…………………………………………………………...25

Chapter3:ArtandtheNineteen-FiftiesKitchen:CelebratingFreedomwiththeKitchenWallpaper…………………………………………………………………………………………….43Chapter4:BeingaHousewifeintheNineteen-Fifties………………………………………..…63Chapter5:TheKitchenandtheColdWar……………………………………………………………88Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………….………..98Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………….102

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LISTOFFIGURES

Image1:Veteran’sTrailerCampattheUniversityofIowa,1947………………………….17Image2:InteriorofTrailerlivingatUniversityofIowa,1947……………………………...17Image3:LevittownHomeinProcesswithAppliancesandFixtures………………….….18Image4:LevittandSons1952FlyerfortheRancherModel………………………………...19Image5:AmericanKitchensAdvertisementfromAmericanHome,March1951…...20Image6:KitchenfromtheLevittownerModel,c.1950……………………………………..…21Image7:ReplicaoftheBauhausKitchenfrom1923…………………………………………….22Image8:MargareteSchütte-Lihoyzky’sFrankfurtKitchen…………………………………...23Image9:AmericanStandardAdvertisement,AmericanHome,April1956………….…24Image10:YoungstownKitchensAdvertisement,AmericanHome,April1956……...37Image11:FloorPlanofRe-ModeledKitchen,BetterHomesandGardens,November1953………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….38Image12:FloorPlanofRe-ModeledKitchen,BetterHomesandGardens,November1953…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………38Image13:FloorPlanofRe-ModeledKitchen,BetterHomesandGardens,November1953……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…38Image14:YoungstownKitchensAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,March1953……………………………………………………………………..…………………………………..……….39Image15:GeneralElectricAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,April1958………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….40Image16:FrigidaireAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,November1953………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….41Image17:GeneralElectricAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,November1956…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………42Image18:“TheEditor’sForecastoftheNewTasteCycle”,HouseBeautiful,October1952………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….52

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Image19:JacksonPollock,BluePoles11,1952……………………………………………..……..53Image20:WillemDeKooning,Abstraction,1949-1950………………………………….…….53Image21:FinnJuhl,The108DiningChair,1946…………………………………………...……..53Image22:ArmstrongFlooringAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,December1953…………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………....54Image23:GeorgeNelson,BallClock,1947……………….………………………………………….55Image24:ClyffordStill,1957-DNo.1,1957…………………………………………………...……..55Image25:ArmstrongSpatterAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,April1950……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....56Image26:Reader’sKitchen,BetterHomesandGardens,November1956……………...57Image27:CharlesandRayEames,MoldedPlywoodDiningChair,1946………………...58Image28:IsamuNoguchi,CoffeeTable,1948………………………………………………..….….58Image29:BarnettNewman,Concord,1949…………………………………………………………58Image30:Reader’sKitchen,BetterHomesandGardens,March1956……………………59Image31:EllsworthKelly,BlackRipe,1955…………………………………………….…………..60Image32:CharlesandRayEames,MoldedPlasticSideChairwithWireBase,1950………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….60Image33:EarlyAmericanInspiredKitchen,BetterHomesandGardens,January1955……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....61Image34:EarlyAmericanInspiredKitchen,AmericanHome,April1956………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………...61Image35:KitchenwithAbstractMural,BetterHomesandGardens,November1956………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….62Image36:InternationalHarvesterAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,April1950……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....78Image37:HotpointAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,July1951………...…79

vi

Image38:AmericanKitchensAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,July1951………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….80Image39:NorgeAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,April1950……………….81Image40:FrigidaireAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,January1957……..82Image41:FrigidaireAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,January1957……..83Image42:JosefAlbers,HomagetotheSquare:Blue,White,Gray,1951…………………84Image43:JosefAlbers,HomagetotheSquare:NightShades,1957……………………….84Image44:TappanAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,March1953………..…85Image45:TappanAdvertisement,BetterHomesandGardens,April1958…………….86Image46:IllustrationfromElectricalMerchandising,1957……………………………….…87Image47:TheGeneralFoods-Bird’sEyeDemonstrationKitchen………….……...….…...99Image48:TheRCA-WhirlpoolMiracleKitchen………………………………………………........99Image49:TheModelApartmentKitchen……………………………………………………….…100Image50:ExteriorViewoftheSplitnik…………………………………………………………..…100Image51:TheGeneralElectricKitchenintheSplitnik……………………………………….101Image52:ASovietVisitorTeststheOvenintheSplitnik…………………………………....101Image53:KhrushchevandNixonintheSplitnik’sKitchen……………………………..…..101

1

Introduction

Thefollowingthesisisconcernedwiththeabilityofeverydayobjectsand

spacestorecordmomentsintime.Bothareinformedby,andimpact,theperiodthat

theycomefrom.Toillustratethisconceptfocushasbeenplacedonmid-twentieth

centuryAmerica.Duringthenineteen-fifties,consumergoodscametotheforefront

ofpeople’slivesandtookongreaterculturalsignificancethantheyhadinprevious

decades.Theyearsfollowingthewarwereaboomperiodformostmiddle-class

Americans.Whiletheymadeup35%ofthepopulationtheyearned42%ofthe

nationalincome1.Theirspendinghabitsdominatedthedecade,withtheamount

thattheyspentincreasing60%fromwhatithadbeenpre-war2.Spendingwasthe

wayoftheeraandalargepartofearnedincomewasabletogotothepurchasingof

non-essentialconsumergoods3.

Andtherewasasuddenwealthofconsumergoodstobepurchased.

Materialsandproductionfacilitieshadbeenfreedfromtheirwartimeoccupations4.

Technologicaladvancementsdevelopedduringthewarinautomationandassembly

meantgoodscouldfinallybeproducedingreaternumber,domoreadvancedthings

andweremoreaffordablethanbefore.Thegoodsboughtbecamesymbolsofthe

Americangoodlife5.Theitemsconsumerspurchasedwereemblematicoftheir

owner’sparticipationinalifeofaffluence,freedomandease.

1ElaineTylerMay,HomewardBound:AmericanFamiliesintheColdWarEra.(NewYork:BasicBooks,1988),148.2ThomasHine,Populuxe(Woodstock:OverlookPress,1988),16.3TylerMay,HomewardBound,1474BeatrizColomina,DomesticityatWar,(Cambridge:TheMITPress,2007)3.5Hine,Populuxe,4.

2

Whiletheproductionandconsumptionofgoodsincreasedacrossvirtuallyall

realmsofconsumables,thefocusofthevastmajorityofthespendingduringthe

nineteen-fiftieswasonthehomeanditemsrelatedtoit.Intheyearsfollowingthe

war,theamountofincomespentonitemsforthehomerose240%6.Thehome

becameanalmostpatrioticsiteofspending.Thepurchasingofitemsforitwasseen

asacommitmentbythehomeownertothefamilyunitandAmericanvalues7.

Buyingitemsforthehomeenhancedthefamily’squalityoflife,wasseenasthe

exercisingofpersonalchoiceandwasanimportantwaytohelponefitintoone’s

community.

Withinthisgeneralfocusonthehome,thekitchenbecameaspecialareaof

concern.ThekitchenwasatouchstoneofAmericaduringthenineteen-fifties.A

formerlyclosedoffandutilitarianspace,itwasopenedtotherestofthehouseatthe

beginningofthedecadeanditsdesignandinhabitants(bothhumanand

mechanical)becameimbuedwithmeaningforthepopularcultureoftheera8.Both

thekitchenspaceitselfandtheobjectswithinitcannowbereadassymbolsofthe

decade.

6Comparatively,spendingonfoodincreasedonly33%.(TylerMay,148.)7Ibid.8NancyCarlisleandMelindaTalbotNasardinov.America’sKitchens.(Boston:HistoricNewEngland,2008),156.

3

Method

Studyinganactualspaceanditemsthathavenowbeenmostlylostor

replacedpresentssomechallenges.Toovercomethem,Ihavechosentoanalyzethe

articlesandadvertisementsrelatedtokitchensthatcanbefoundinthepopular

magazinesofthedecade.Ihaveacquiredthirtyvintagemagazinesfromacrossthe

nineteen-fifties.AsthekitchenareaismymainconcernIhavefocusedmyattention

onmagazinesconcernedwiththehome.Makingupthebulkofmyprimarysource

materialareissuesofBetterHomesandGardens,AmericanHome,HouseBeautiful,

Look,LivingandMcCall’s.IssuesofLifemagazinewereconsultedaswell,for

althoughLifedidnotfocusonthehome,itdidconcernitselfwiththeeverydaylife

andexperiencesofAmerica.

Whilemagazinespresentawiderangeofimagesandtextstouseasprimary

sourcestheydohavelimitationsforresearchers.Whenlookingatamagazineone

hastocontinuallytakeintoaccountissuessuchaseditorialbias,advertiser

manipulationandintendedaudience.Intryingtoviewthelifeandconcernsofthe

average,everydayAmericanthroughthepagesofamagazine,itisimportanttonot

baseanyconclusionsonsingleinstancesofanimageorstatement.WhatIhavebeen

verycarefultodoinmyanalysisistohoneinontheprevalenttrendsinitems,

information,opinionsandadvertisingthatappearacrossthedifferentpublications

andthroughoutthedecade.

Whilethethirtyissuesofmid-centuryAmericanmagazinesthathavebeen

consideredcouldnotpossiblycapturetheexactlifeexperiencesandopinionsof

everysingleAmericanduringthenineteen-fiftiestheydo,justasmagazinesdo

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today,capturethezeitgeistofthetime.Theycanactasarevelationoftheconcerns

andidealsofthemajority.

Themagazinesconsultedwereallwidelycirculatedamongthegeneralpublic

andrepresentagoodpictureofthekitchenidealsoftheera.Theyhavean

advantageoverothersourcesofkitchenimageryfromthedecade.Whilepersonal

photographsstillexistofnineteen-fiftieshomestheiraccuratedatingcanrarelybe

assured.Thoughhomesthatwerebuiltinthenineteen-fiftiesstillstand,thekitchen

spaceshaveoftenbeenupdatedwithnewappliancesandotherchangestothe

space.Theadvertisementsandarticlesfoundinthemagazinesareallsecurelydated

andallowthechronologicalchangesthatoccurredinthekitchenspacetobe

revealed.Asfortunewouldhaveitaneventoccurredattheendofthedecadethat

servesashistoricalsupportoftheAmericanculturalconcernsandidealsIhave

foundpresentedintheperiod’shomemagazines.TheAmericanNationalExhibition

inMoscowthatoccurredduringthesummerof1959utilizedpresentationsofthe

AmericanhomeandparticularlytheAmericankitchenasatooltoacquaintSoviet

visitorswiththeAmericanwayoflifeandextollitsvirtuesofpersonalfreedomand

materialaffluence.

Structurally,thisthesisisdividedintofivechapters.Thefirstchapter

recountshowthekitchenspacecametobeopeneduptotherestofthehomeasa

resultofthehousingshortagefollowingtheendofWWII.Chaptertwoconsiders

howthedesignofthekitchenandtheappliancescreatedforitmetthedesireof

nineteen-fiftiesAmericanstoactivelyandconspicuouslylivethegoodlife.Chapter

threeexplorestherelationshipbetweenmodernartandthekitchenandhowthe

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designofappliancesandthedecorationofthekitchenrelatedtoexpressingasense

offreedominliving.ChapterfourlooksattheroleoftheAmericanhousewifeand

howtheimageofherchangedinadvertisementsofthedecadefromahardworking

memberofthehouseholdtoanornamentalaccessoryofthehome.Finally,chapter

fiveconcernsitselfwiththeuseofkitchensintheAmericanNationalExhibitionin

MoscowandhowVice-PresidentNixonutilizedthekitchenasanexampleofthe

idealsofAmericansociety.

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Chapter1:TheKitchenOpensUp

“Ournation’shousingshortageposesanacuteandbitterproblemforreturningservicemen,unabletofindshelterfortheirfamilies.Thereisnospeedysolution.Authoritiesplacethenation’sneedat10,000,000newhomes;yetfewanticipatemorethan750,000willbebuiltannuallywithinthenextseveralyears.Thatmeanstemporaryshelterformany,ingarages,convertedofficebuildings,trailerhouses,evenbarns.”

“Whatifyoumustliveinagarage?”BetterHomesandGardens,March,19469

PostWWIIHousingShortages:

Duringthenineteen-fiftiesthephysicallocationofthekitchenwithinthe

homechanged.Whathadtraditionallybeenashutoffandpredominantlyutilitarian

spacewasopeneduptotherestofthehome10.Asaresultitbecameashowplaceof

thehomeowner’sengagementwiththemoderngoodlife.Thischangeoccurreddue

tonewbuildingpracticesandhomedesignthatsoughttoexpeditethecreationof

homestofilltheextremehousingshortagethatdevelopedfollowingWWII11.

Returningservicemenandtheirnewfamilieswereoftenunabletofindhousing.

Manyhadtosharequarterswithfriendsandrelationsorseekhomesinnon-

traditionalstructures,suchasconvertedgarages,grainbinsandeventrolleycars12.

InAprilof1947Lifemagazineranafeatureon“VeteransatCollege”13.The

articlefocusedontheveteransattendingschoolattheUniversityofIowa,whose

experiencesmirroredthatofthoseattendinguniversitiesacrossthecountry.

Housingforveteransandtheirfamilieswasatsuchlowavailabilitythatthe9EthelMorrisonMarsden,“WhatifyoumustliveinaGarage?”,BetterHomesandGardens,March1946,38.10CarlisleandTalbotNasardinov.156.11DianneHarris,“TheHouseILiveIn:Architecture,ModernismandIdentityinLevittown”inSecondSuburb,ed.DianneHarris(Pittsburg:UniversityofPittsburgPress,2010),202.12KennethT.Jackson,CrabgrassFrontier(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1985),232.13Life,“VeteransatCollege”,April21,1947,105.

7

universityhadtakentocreatinghousinginbothtrailercampsandQuonsethuts

(seeimages1and2).Theconditionsinthetrailercampswerecramped,butfor

“about$25amonththeygetafurnishedtrailer,electriclightandtherighttousethe

communalbathsandwashrooms.Mostofthemareonthewaitinglistforabarracks

oraQuonsethut,wheretheywillhavetheluxuryofrunningwater”14.

Toendthehousingcrisisthefederalgovernmentrespondedbyunderwriting

mortgagesforveterans.Thisprovidedameasureoffinancialsecuritythat

encouragedthelarge-scalebuildingofnewhomesbyavarietyofprivatebuilders15.

Buildersfocusedoncreatingswathsofnewhomesinplannedcommunitieson

undevelopedlandtheywereabletoacquirefairlyeconomically.Perhapsthemost

famousofthesenewsuburbancommunitiesweretheeponymousonescreatedby

LevittandSons,Levittown16.LevittandSonsactuallybuiltthreecommunitiescalled

Levittownfromthelatenineteen-fortiestotheearlynineteen-sixties,thefirston

LongIslandinNewYork,thesecondinPennsylvaniaandthethirdinNewJersey17.

Whilethecompanyhadbeganbymakingmoreluxurioushomesinthepre-

waryears,thegoalthatithadfortheirpost-warhomeswastocreatethebestsingle

-familyhomesavailableonthemarketforthelowestcost18.Thismatchedwhat

mostprospectivehomebuyerswerelookingfor.Withhomesinshortsupplynew

homebuyerswerenotoverlypicky,buttheydidwantthebesthome,fortheleast

14Ibid.15Jackson,CrabgrassFrontier,233.16DianneHarris,“ASecondSuburb”,inSecondSuburb,ed.DianneHarris(Pittsburg:UniversityofPittsburgPress,2010),2.17HerbertJ.Gans,TheLevittowners:WaysofLifeandPoliticsinaNewSuburbanCommunity,(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1967),4.18Jackson,235.

8

moneyandavailableassoonaspossible19.TomeetthisdemandLevittandSon’s

usedthelatesttoolsavailableandstreamlinedthebuildingprocessoftheirhomes

tolowercostsandbuildthemaximumnumberofunitsintheleastamountoftime.

AlmostFord-likeintheirefficiency,theconstructionofaLevittownhomewas

dividedintotwenty-sevenstepsbyworkteams.Eachteamperformedaspecific

activityateachbuildingsite,usingpreassembledpartsandrecentlydeveloped

powertools,suchaselectricsawsandnailguns20.Withthismethodthirtyhouses

couldbebuiltinaday.UsingthisprocessLevittownhomeswereveryaffordable,

withmodelsrunningfrom$9,000to$17,900andrequiringnodownpaymentfor

veterans,withothersonlyhavingtoplace$100down21.Therefusalofthecompany

tocommittousingunionlaboralsoaidedinkeepingcostslowforthehomebuyers

andspeedingupbuildingschedules22.

LevittandSonsareoftencreditedwithpioneeringthesystematicdivision-

of-laborprocess.But,inreality,theywereonlyveryskilledattheassemblyline

techniquethatotherbuildershadpreviouslydevelopedandwerealsousing23.

Levittownhomesweresimilarinsizeandcosttothehomesthatotherbuilders

werecreatingtofillthehousingshortage.LevittandSonsfocusedtheirmarketing

effortsnotjustonsellingtheirhomesaffordability,butonthekeypointsof

differencethattheyhaddecidedalltheirhomeswouldcontain.

19Gans,TheLevittowners32.20Jackson,235.21RichardWagnerandAmyDuckettWagner,ImagesofAmerica:Levittown,(Charleston:ArcadiaPublishing,2010),3.22Jackson,237.23RichardLongstreth,“TheLevitts,Mass-ProducedHouses,andCommunityPlanningintheMid-twentiethCentury”inSecondSuburb,ed.DianneHarris(Pittsburg:UniversityofPittsburgPress,2010),125.

9

ThefeaturesLevittandSonsofferedwouldnothavebeenfoundinolder

housinginthecitiesorinthetemporaryhousingthatpeoplelivedinfollowingthe

war.Thelargepicturewindowincludedineachhome,thatlookedoutoverafamily

lawn,werebothluxuriousaspectsunfamiliartomost.Newhomebuyerswereso

unfamiliarwithlawnsthattheyhadtobetaughthowtoproperlytendtheminthe

informationpacketstheywereprovidedwithwhentheymovedin24.Theopenfloor

planthatfitbestwiththespeedyandlowcostbuilding,asitrequiredminimal

buildingofwalls,waspromotedasafeature.Spacesandroomsallflowedintoone

anotherwithalimitednumberofwalls.Theopenplanconceptofthenineteen-

fiftieswasdifferentfromtheopenplanconceptoftoday.Currently,weconsiderthe

openplantohavevirtuallynowallsatall.Forthenineteen-fifties,openplanmeant

thatthepublicroomsofthehome(kitchen,dinningroomandlivingroom)wereall

fairlyinterconnectedwithhalfwallsorwallswithcutouts(suchasoverkitchen

countersorthroughcentrallylocatedhearths)thatwouldcreateasenseofseparate

areasinaopenspace.Thishelpedtodefinethedifferentareasofthehomeandyet

alsoprovidedanopennessthatwasbilledasencouragingfamilytogethernessand

unity.Whilethiswasaclevermarketingploytocoverupthequickbuilding

process,ratherthanaresponsetoanactualneed,itdidprovideapositivechange

forhomebuyers.Forthosewhohadbeenusedtocrampedone-roomlivingitoffered

asenseofprivacyandforthosewhohadlivedinhomeswithseparaterooms,itgave

asenseofmodernliving.

24WagnerandDuckettWagner,ImagesofAmerica:Levittown,39.

10

Aresultoftheopenplanwasthatthekitchenwasnowexposedand

integratedwiththerestofthehouse.LevittandSonsutilizedthisnecessary

developmentasyetafurthersalesopportunity.Thekitchenwasdesignedtobea

step-savingwonder,hadamplestorageandcounterspaceandincludedkitchen

appliances25.Thefullyloadedkitchenbecamethemainpointofdifferenceto

encouragehomesalesandahome’skitchenfeatureswerealwaysthefirsttobe

listedontheflyersforthedifferentmodelsofhomes(seeimages3and4).

Levittownkitchensweresoldaspromisesofabetterandmoremodernlifeinone’s

newhomeinpostwarAmerica.

TheRoomthatSellstheHouse:TheMid-CenturyRe-BirthoftheKitchen

Thekitchen,asmostofusknowittoday,isadirectlegacyofthenineteen-

fiftieskitchen.Situatingitsoitisopentotherestofthehome,carefullystylingand

decoratingit,addingindiningspace,usingitasasiteofentertaining,including

built-infeaturesandup-to-dateappliancesareallcommonaspectsofcontemporary

kitchensthatbecameestablishedinthenineteen-fifties.Kitchenshadtypicallybeen

consideredutilitarianspacesformostofAmericanhistory.Thesiteofheat,noise

andfoodsmells,theywerepurposefullysetofffromtherestofthehomebyallthose

thatwereabletodoso.Kitchenspacesintheyearsleadinguptothewarwerestill

veryprimitivebytoday’sstandards.In1940onlyalittleoverhalfoffamiliesin

Americahadrefrigeratorsandwashingmachinesandathirdofhomesstillused

25CurtisMiner,“PinkKitchensforLittleBoxes:TheEvolutionof1950sKitchenDesigninLevittown”,inSecondSuburb,ed.DianneHarris(Pittsburg:UniversityofPittsburgPress,2010),250.

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woodorcoalforcooking26.Oncethewarbegan(andintheyearsimmediately

followingitsend),eventhosefamilieswhocouldaccessoraffordapplianceswere

notabletoacquirethemduetotherationingofmaterialsandtheindustry’s

concentrationonwartimeproduction.

Ratherthanabackroomaffairwithnoappliances,piecemealkitchenstorage

andmixedheightworksurfacesLevittownkitchenswereorientatedtothefrontof

thehome,includedthelatestmodelsofrefrigerator,stoveanddishwasherand

seventy-fivefeetofbuilt-instorageandsingleheightcounterspace27.TheAmerican

KitchensadfromAmericanHome’sMarch1951issueoffersaglimpseofpre-war

kitchens(seeimage5).Inanattempttosellreadersonremodelingtheirkitchens

theadshowsahousewifedistressedattheideaofvisitorsseeingheroutdated

kitchen.Storageislimitedtothehutch(onwhichthecabinetdraweranddoors

refusetoclose),thesink’slegsandpipesareexposedtotheroomandatable

designedforsittinghastodoubleasabackbreakingworksurface.The‘after’kitchen

intheadisinlinewithwhatLevittandSonscreatedforthekitchenintheirpre-fab

homes(seeimage6).Acresofbuilt-instoragespace,dedicatedworksurfacesat

uniformheight,unsightlypipeshiddenawaywithincabinetryplusthelatest

appliances(whichwereultimatelyavailableinarangeofcolors)allrollouttomeet

thediningtable28.

26RuthSchwartzCowan,MoreWorkforMother,(NewYork:BasicBooks,1983),196.27Miner,“PinkKitchensforLittleBoxes”,252.28FoldingscreensthatranontracksinthefloorandceilingwereplacedinthekitchenareaintheearlyyearsofLevittownhomes,sohomeownerscloseoffthespaceifneeded.Asthedecadeprogressed,thisfeaturewaseliminated.(WagnerandDuckettWagner,43)

12

Stylistically,boththekitchenintheadvertisementandtheLevittownkitchen

arereminiscentofappliancedesignofthenineteen-thirties.Roundedcornerson

bothsinksandappliancescreatesoft,sculpturalmasses.Keepingtheirproportions

short,squatandheavyemphasizestheweightandbulkofrefrigerators.Whenfirst

popularizedinthenineteen-thirtiestheseheavyandbulbousformsactedas

manifestationsoftheneedtohavesomesortofstabilityduringanunstabledecade.

Withthestockmarketcrashof1929andthefollowingGreatDepression

compoundedwiththedifficultiesoftheDustBowl,thenineteen-thirtieswerea

difficultperiodformostAmericansinonewayoranother.Forthosewhowereable

tocreatenewkitchenspacesandbuynewappliances,manufacturersanddesigners

offeredthemsoothing,smoothlyroundedcornersandlargemassesthatactedas

reassuringanchorsofconstancy29.Whythedesignformsofthenineteen-thirties

carriedoverintothenineteen-fiftieshaslesstodowiththeseconnotationsof

strengthandmoretodowiththegapinmanufacturinganddesignthatoccurred

becauseofWWII.Withwarmanufacturingtakingovermaterialsandassembly

plants,newkitchenandappliancedesignsdidnotreallydevelopduringthewar

years,so,followingtheendofthewarmanufacturersanddesignerspickedup

wheretheylefthadoff,withthedesignsofthenineteen-thirties.30Asthenineteen-

fiftiesprogressedamoredynamicandboldstyleofsharpercornersandlessbulky

shapesdeveloped,aswillbeseenlater.29Duringthenineteen-thirtiestherewasapushtoaddbeautificationtothekitchen,throughpaintcolorsandcurtainpatterns.But,byandlarge,thekitchenspacewasstillseparatedfromtherestofthehomeandwasonlyappropriateforinformalmeals,likebreakfast.Toentertain,ordine,inthekitchenwasconsideredalowerclassactivity.(CarlisleandTalbotNasardinov.123)30Thetastesthatdefineadecadetaketimetodevelopandmanifest.WhiletheUnitedSatesdidnotenterWWIIuntiltheendof1941,norealnewdesigntrendshadyetdevelopedfortheAmericankitchenatthatpoint.

13

Muchliketheirsystematizedhomebuildingprocess,LevittandSonsare

oftengivencreditforcreatingtheefficientunifiedkitchen.Inactuality,thedesignof

theirkitchenswasanextensionofpreviouseventsandinnovationsinthekitchen

spaceduringtheearlytwentieth-century.Americasawadropinthenumberof

domesticservantslookingforworkinearly1900s,asmorewomenweredrawnto

factory,retailandclericalworkthatdidnotcreateasmuchofaburdenontheir

time.Withhousewivesnowhavingtodoworkontheirown,theredevelopedan

increasedconcernwithcreatingefficientkitchenworkspaces,withthecontents

placedinsuchamannertoeliminateunnecessarysteps.AsHouseBeautifulputitin

1915,awomanrequired“asmallspotlessspace,convenientlyplanned,withthe

toolsofheroccupationallineasyreach…aplaceplannedmerelyforonekindof

work,whichsheleaveswhenthatkindofworkisdone.”31.

Thisdesireforanefficientkitchenspaceforahousewifetoworkinonher

ownmadeitsfirstmajorappearanceinGermany.In1923theBauhaus,duringits

earlyyearsinWeimar,executedanexhibitionofitswork.Partofthisexhibitionwas

thecreationofahomethatwasfullydesignedandfurnishedbythestaffand

studentsattheschool.ThekitchenspaceintheBauhaushomewassmallinscale

andplaceddirectlynexttothediningroom(seeimage7)32.Itwas“intendedsolely

forcookingpurposes”and“featuredacontinuousworktopunderthewindow,

chairswhichcouldbefittedunderthetabletosavespaceandsurfaceswhichwere

smoothandeasytoclean.”.TheidealBauhauskitchenpresentedanalmostclinical

aesthetic.Efficiencyandhygieneweretheparamountconcernsinthechoicesofthe31CarlisleandTalbotNasardinov,124.32MagdalenaDroste,Bauhaus1919-1933,(Cologne:Taschen,1990),105.

14

L-shapedlayoutofthekitchenandthematerialsused.Thoughtheuseofecruand

slategrayinthecabinetsandcountersprovideaslightcountertothelaboratory-

likefeel,theoverallschemeofthekitchenisoneofsharpcornersandlinearity.The

round,brushedsteelcabinetanddrawerpullsprovideaslightsenseofsoftness,but

thissoftnessislargelyover-shadowedbycontrastingedgingonthecabinetsand

drawers,whichservetoemphasizetherepetitionofstrongrightangles.The

Bauhauskitchencontainednoextraspacesforentertainingoradditionalaspectsof

styleorflairtomakeitawelcomingenvironment.Itwasaspacedesignedto

facilitatetheproductionoffoodinthemostefficientwayspossible.

ThesmallandefficientkitchenthattheBauhauscreatedenteredintothe

publicrealmin1926witharchitectMargareteSchütte-Lihoyzkykitchendesignfor

socialhousingapartmentsinFrankfurt,Germany(seeimage8)33. FollowingWWI

GermanyexperiencedaseverehousingshortagesimilartotheoneAmericawould

gothroughpost-WWII.Ratherthanfocusonthecreationofsingle-familyhomesthe

Germangovernmentembarkedonasocialistprogramtocreatelarge-scale

apartmentcomplexesforfamilies.Schütte-Lihoyzkydesignedakitchenspacethat

wouldtakeupaminimalamountofthealreadylimitedapartmentspace.The

kitchenshedesignedhasarathergalley-likequalitytoit,withallstorageand

appliancesplacedinaUformationandstackedontopofeachother,minimizingthe

kitchen’sfootprintandthenumberofstepsthehousewifehadtotaketocomplete

tasks.TheFrankfurtkitchenwasbasedonaseriesofwork-stationsplacedclose

33KarenMelching“FrankfurtKitchen:PatinaFollowsFunction”,www.vam.ac.ukhttp://www.vam.ac.uk/content/journals/conservation-journal/issue-53/frankfurt-kitchen-patina-follows-function/.

15

togethersothattheprocessesofmakingfoodandcleanupcouldallbeefficiently

carriedoutinthesmallspace.Healthandhygienewereaddressedwiththekitchen

stoolbeingofanadjustableheight,thefloorsandwallstiledforeasycleaning,the

labeledstoragedrawersbeingcraftedoutofscratch-proofaluminumandeventhe

bluecoloringofthecabinetsandcountersbeingchosenasaresultofcontemporary

studies’findingthatthecolorbluerepelledflies34.TheFrankfurtkitchenwasan

evengreaterpresentationofthedesireforefficiencyandhygienethantheBauhaus

kitchen35.TheBauhauskitchendid,ultimately,becomephysicallypresentin

America.BauhausfounderWalterGropiusbuiltagalley-shaped,sharpcornered,

efficientkitchenofstainlesssteelandwhiteenamelinhisfamily’sMassachusetts

homein1937,whenhejoinedthefacultyatHarvard’sGraduateSchoolofDesign36

TheefficiencyofLevittownkitchenswasnotanoriginaldevelopmentofLevittand

Sons,itwasanextensionoftrendsalreadypresentininternationaldesign

developmentfromearlierdecades.However,theopeningofthespacetotherestof

thehometorevealthekitchen’sbuilt-incomponents,matchingcolorsandpush-

buttonconveniencesasmarksoflivingamodernandupwardlymobilelife,wasan

originalideacreatedtoappealtoAmericanconsumers37.

34MartinaHebler,“TheFrankfurtKitchen:TheModelofModernityanthe“Madness”ofTraditionalUsers,1926-1933,”inColdWarKitchen:Americanization,TechnologyandEuropeanUsers,eds.RuthOldenzielandKarinZachmann(Cambridge:TheMITPress,2009,171.35WhiletheBauhaushadembracedcleanlinessandhygieneandturneditintoacrispandclinicalaesthetic,Schütte-Lihoyzkyrejectedconcernswithaestheticsoutrightandcreatedthespacearoundwhollypracticalconcerns.(Ibid.)36CarlisleandTalbotNasardinov,42.37KaralAnnMarling,AsSeenonTV:TheVisualCultureofEverydaylifeinthe1950s,(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1994)263.

16

LevittandSonsfocusedmuchoftheirresearchanddevelopmentonthe

kitchenbecausetheyrealized,asmostbuildersoftheeradid,thatthekitchenwas

the“roomthatsellsthehouse”,notjustbecauseofitsopenplanlayout,topofthe

lineappliances,built-instorage/workspacebutbecausethecombinationofallthree

38.ThistrifectapromisedthehomeownersasliceoftheAmericangoodlifethatfew

youngmenandwomenhadhadachancetoexperienceintheirpre-marriage

years39.

Theaugmentingandstylingofthekitchen,withthelatestup-to-datetools

andinthemanneronewished,becameofparamountimportance,asithadnever

been40.A1956AmericanStandardadthatappearedintheAprileditionofAmerican

Homeillustratesthechangeofthekitchenwiththeboldtagline“Yourkitchencan

beaslovelyasalivingroom”(seeimage9)41.Nolongerinitshiddenpre-war

position,thekitchenwasnowfrontandcenterinthehomeandprivytoasmuch

decorationandscrutinyasthelivingroomwas42.

38Miner,245.39Ibid.244.40Hine,60.41AmericanStandardAdvertisement,April1956,AmericanHome,18.42Evenin1956thevestigesofthekitchendesignelementsofthenineteen-thirtieswerestillpresent.TheroundedcornersofthecountertopspersistintheAmericanStandardkitchenad.However,thecornersofthecabinetsnowcometosharpangles.Theovenisnowbuilt-intothewallandoccursinstainlesssteel,ratherthanthewhiteenamelofthenineteen-thirtiesandearlynineteen-fifties.Byincorporatingalargeareaofshinysteelintotheir1956advertisementAmericanStandardwasattemptingtoinfusethekitchenwithasenseofspaceagemodernity.

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18

19

20

21

22

23

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Chapter2:ToLiveandBuytheGoodLife

“Wehadasanationemergedfromagreatwar,itselffollowingalongandprotractedDepression.Wethought,allofus,menandwomenalike,toreplenishourselvesingoodsandspirit…”43

Viewingthehome,thekitchenandappliancesastangiblemanifestationsof

theAmericangoodlifedidnotremainexclusivetothesuburbs.Aspeoplemovedin

drovesintothenewsubdivisions,thehomestherecametobeseenasthe

fashionablewaytolive44.Whatsuburbanhomeshadwereconsideredtobethe

newestandthebest45.Manufacturersandadvertisersforkitchenitemsagreedwith,

andhelpedspread,thiswayofthinkingacrossthenation.Theybegantoselltheir

kitchenitemsanddesignsasthepathtoamoremodern,andthereforebetter,way

ofliving.Thisloveofthenewcoupledwitheffectiveandpervasiveadvertisements

spreadthesuburbannotionofthekitchenasthemarkofthehomeowner’s

participationintheAmericangoodlifeintothepopularconsciousnessoftherestof

thenation46.

AstheYoungstownKitchensadinAmericanHome’sApril1956edition

stated,addingaYoungstownKitchenwasperfect“forthatNEWhomelook”(see

image10)47.Iftheconsumerstooktheadviceoftheadanddecidedto“visitthe

modelhomesinyourcommunity”theywouldfindYoungstownKitchensin“more

finehomesthateverbefore!”.Theamplestoragespace,workcentersandyardsof

counterspacesthatoffer“somuchconvenience,suchbeautifulcolors”bearadirect

43TylerMay,49.44Hine,23.45LizabethCohen,AConsumers’Republic:ThePoliticsofMassConsumptioninPostwarAmerica,(NewYork:VintageBooks,2004),73.46Hine,64.47YoungstownKitchensAdvertisement,April1956,AmericanHome,101.

26

similaritytothehomesfoundinLevittown.InBetterHomesandGardensNovember

1953featureon“NewKitchensfromOld”thefloorplansforallthreehomesclearly

showincorporationsofaspectsfoundinLevittownkitchens(seeimages11-13)48.

Cabinetsareplacedbyformerlyfreestandingrangesandrefrigeratorstoprovide

storageandworkspace.Diningareasareaddedintothekitchenspaceitselfby

convertingpantriesandremovingwallsthatseparatedformerdiningroomsfrom

thekitchen49.Largewindowsarealsoaddedintwoofthethreekitchens,justas

wouldhavebeenfoundinLevittown.Built-incabinetsandcountersbecamethenew

normandanyonewhowasAmerican,andvaluedthefamily,triedtoopenthe

kitchenuptothediningareaor,atleast,includeatableandchairsintheirnew

kitchenplanstotryandmimictheopenplanlivingofthesuburbs50.

Thenewopenplandidhaveitsdownfalls.AmericanHome’sApril1956issue

featuredanarticleasking“What’sWrongwithWalls?”51.Ithighlightedthe

difficultiesassociatedwithopenplanlivingsuchaslossofprivacy,difficultyin

keepingspacestidywhentheyservedmultiplepurposesandincreasednoise.All

thesereasonablepointsnodoubttroubledafairnumberofAmericansintheirnew

homes,butthestylenonethelesspersistedthroughoutthedecade.IntrueAmerican

spirititevenbecameaforumforinnovationandthecreationofyetmorethingsto

buy.Armstrongadsfornoisereducingfalseceilingpanelsarepepperedthroughout

themagazinesoftheera.

48BetterHomesandGardens,“NewKitchensfromOld”,November1953,65.49Whenpossible,kitchenswerecreatedtoconformtoeitheraUorLshapedplan,tominimizethenumberofstepsthehousewifehadtotakethroughoutherday.(CarlisleandTalbotNasardinov.America’sKitchens,158.)50TylerMay,152.51EvelynBowen,“WhatisWrongwithWalls?”AmericanHome,April1956,68.

27

Outofalloftheappliancesproducedintheindustrialworldinthenineteen-

fiftiesAmericanswereresponsibleforbuyingthreequartersofthem.Appliances

didmorethancookfoodandkeepitcold.Theyrepresented“something

fundamentaltothepostwarunderstandingofnationalidentity:asenseoffreedom,

ofeffortlessease,oftechnologicalmastery,modernity,andaccesstoconveniences

formallyreservedfortheveryrich”52.Thelayeredmeaningsthatthekitchenspace,

anditsmechanicalinhabitants,tookonforAmericanscanbeseeninthedecade’s

advertisements.

Theassociationoftechnologywiththecreationofeaseisapparentin

Coolerator’sadforitsLeadershipLinethatappearedintheMarch1953issuesof

BetterHomesandGardens53.Billedas“BigNewsfor’53Kitchens!”housewiveson

thefenceaboutiftheywantedtoinvestinthelinecouldsendawayforabooklet

thatwouldtellthemallabouttheworksavingoptionstheitemsoffered:

““HowtobeaPartTimeHousewife”Sendforafreebookletwithdozensofideastosaveyoutime,workandmoney-picturesandfactsaboutCollerator’slook-to-the-futureappliances.It’sagoldmineofsuggestionsformakingkitchensbrighter-houseworklighter.”

Theultimategoalofusingtechnologytoeaseworkwasthecreationofleisuretime.

YoungstownKitchensrananadintheMarch1953issueofBetterHomesand

Gardensthatadvertisedelectricadditionstotheiralreadyamazinglyfunctional

kitchencabinetsandlayouts(seeimage14)54.Thenewdishwasherand“foodwaste

disposal”were“KitchenLuxuryyoucanafford!”.Butthevaluewentbeyondluxury:

“herearetime-saving,work-savingconveniencesthatspeedyouthroughkitchen

52Marling,AsSeenonTV,258.53CooleratorAdvertisement,March1953,BetterHomesandGardens,135.54YoungstownKitchensAdvertisement,March1953,BetterHomesandGardens,151.

28

hours,thatgiveyounewleisuretime.”Partandparcelwithallthesenewwork

easingandleisurecreatingitemswastheabilityofthebuyertoparticipateinoneof

themostvaluabletenetsofcapitalismofthedecade:theexercisingoffreechoice.

Thattherewerechoicesthatthebuyercouldmaketocustomizeitemstofittheir

needsandfancieswasparamount.Tomeetthisdesiretopersonalizeandexpress

individualchoice,appliancesstartedcomingoutinarangeofcolors,whereasbefore

theyhadall,essentially,onlycomeinbasicwhite.GeneralElectric’s1958adinthe

April1958issueofBetterHomesandGardensfeaturedakitchenfurthermodernized

byreplacingtherangewithaseparateovenbuiltinthewallandacooktopsetinto

thecounter(seeimage15)55.Eachwasavailablein“inCanaryYellow,PetalPink,

WoodtoneBrown,TurquoiseGreen,WhiteorSatinChrome.”.

Cheerfulpastelcolorsdominatedthenineteen-fifties.Thepinks,yellowsand

bluesthatappliancesnewlycameinwereechoedinmostoftheconsumergoodsof

thedecade.Clothing,paintcolorsandautomobileswerenowallproducedinarange

ofbrightlyhuedpastels.Thenewpopularcolorscapturedtheexuberanceof

nineteen-fiftiesAmericansbetterthandarkerorneutraltonesandwereableto

appearmorefrequentlyandappealinglyascolorfilmandprintingfurther

developed.Consumersalsoactivelyaskedforthegreateruseofcolorintheirgoods,

especiallyforgoodsthathadonlycomeinstandardwhiteorsubdueddarks(suchas

kitchenappliancesandautomobiles).Withinthekitchenspace,pastelcolorsalso

servedtocastaveneerofAmerican-nessonaspacethatwaslargelyareiterationof

Europeandesign.Byusingbabypinks,robin’seggbluesandsunshineyellowsfor

55GeneralElectricAdvertisement,April1958,BetterHomesandGardens,78.

29

appliances,cabinetsandcountersmanufacturerswereabletocounterthestark

Bauhaus-inspiredefficiencythatkitchenswerebasedonandaddasenseofjoyand

free-spiritednesstothekitchenspace.Pastelcolorsemphasizedthatanitem,the

consumer’slifestyleandAmericaweremodernandbetter56.

Theelementofpridewasalsopresentintheacquisitionofkitchen

appliances.Theprideaspectintheadvertisementsrevealsabitofanunseemly,yet

unsurprising,undercurrentintheoutfittingofthehome.One-up-manshipofthe

neighborsoftenguidedpurchasingofgoodsinthenineteen-fifties.Itwasnot

enoughtokeepupwiththeJoneses,onehadtotopthemaswell.Pridewasthe

mainfeatureofthetaglinetheSt.CharlesKitchen’sadintheApril1951issueof

AmericanHome:“Whowouldn’tbeproud?Whenyouknowinyourheart,it’sthe

best!”57.Muchofthispridewasgarneredbythefactthatthehomeowners

(exercisingtheirrighttofreechoice)hadhadadirecthandintheplanningofthe

kitchen,“you,yourself,guideeverystepofit’splanning,beforeyourStCharles

kitcheniseverbuilt.Youchooseitscolors,fromtenthatStCharlesoffersyou.You

selectthematerial...”.Buttherealsellingpointwasthata“StCharleskitchenwill

assureyourenduringsatisfactionandearnalltheenviousadjectivesyourfriends

canthinkof!”.Thesatisfactionofhavingthebestappearedintheadcopyfor

Frigidaire’selectricrangesintheNovember1953issueofBetterHomesandGardens

aswell(seeimage16)58.Findinganeleganceintheirnewrangewithside-by-side

ovens,createdwith“exclusiveQuick-Cleanconstruction”consumerswereaskedto

56Marling,40.57St.CharlesKitchensAdvertisement,April1951,AmericanHome,89.58FrigidaireAdvertisement,November1953,BetterHomesandGardens,27.

30

imaginetherangeintheirownhome:“JustpicturethisglamorousFrigidaireDeluxe

ElectricRangeinyourownkitchen.Youhonestlygetaglowofpridejustthinking

aboutowningit.”

Anunsurprisingresultofthisextremefocusontheability,rightandvirtual

responsibilitythatconsumershadtobuyhappinesswasthepervasivenessof

plannedobsolescenceforgoodsinthenineteen-fifties.Superficialaspectslikecolor

andpatternwereconstantlychangingtomatchseasonalcolortrendsandencourage

thematchingofappliancestoaroomthatnowregularlywentthroughre-

decoration59.Technicalinnovationofferedappliancesthatheatedmorequickly,

timedthingsmoreaccuratelyandhadmoregeneralfeatureswitheachyearly

model.Itemsandfloorplanswereneverconsideredpermanent.Anewerversion

wasalwayscomingoutandnewerwasalwaysbetter.Thingswerenotkeptuntil

theydidnotworkanymore;theywerekeptuntilsomethingbettercamealong–

whichwasoften60.

Withallthisinnovationandredesigning,thedecadesawthedevelopmentof

manynewitemsthatofferedsolutionstoproblemsthatneverexisted.General

Electricwasparticularlyattheforefrontofthecreationofuniqueitems“forwhich

nobodyhadbeenclamoringbutforwhichamarketnichemightbecarvedout”61.

TheGeneralElectrictable-toprotisserieovenadvertisedintheApril1958issueof

BetterHomesandGardenscouldroastmeatwithorwithouttherotisserie

mechanismaswellasbakeitemsandwasidealinthatitwas“wonderfullyportable

59Hine,21.60Marling,265.61Hine,59.

31

soyou’renottieddowntothekitchen…”,makingit“…Grandforentertaining

indoorsorout.”62Twoyearspriortotheiradvertisingthesolutionforthosewho

wishedtobeabletobakeasouffléoutside,GeneralElectricalsoofferedananswer

tothosewhoweretiredofhavingtoopentherefrigeratordoorandleanovertosee

whatfoodstheyhadonhand(seeimage17)63.Having“Allfoodsatyoureyelevelin

thenewGeneralElectricWallRefrigerator-Freezer”andfreed-upcounterspace

werethetoutedbenefitsofthiswallstrainerandrefrigeratorrepairman’s

nightmare64.GeneralElectricwasnottheonlytransgressorintheinnovationgone

madtrendofthenineteen-fifties.Theportableelectricskilletwasanitemthat

severalcompaniesproducedinanswertothecall,thatnoonehadmade,tobeable

tofryeggsandbaconrightatthebreakfasttable65.

InDefenseofConsumerism:

Themassiveconsumerism,encouragementofcompetitionandimpractical

gadgetryhaslentthedecadeadubiouslegacythatoftenleadstoapejorative

attitudetowardsnineteen-fiftiesAmericanculture.However,thereareseveral

pointstoconsiderthatmayamendthisharshview.Firstly,therationingofmaterial

andindustryforthewarefforthadcreatedarealvacuumofgoods.Anyitemthat

hadrequiredmetalandassemblyplantspacetomakeit,hadbeendeferredforthe

creationofitemsforthewareffort.Followingtheendofthewarandthereturnof62GeneralElectricAdvertisement,April1958,BetterHomesandGardens,56.63GeneralElectricAdvertisement,November1956,BetterHomesandGardens,36.64Theadvertisementindicatesthecloserelationshipthatmanufacturershadwithmagazinepublishersandeditors.BetterHomesandGardensproducedawidelyusedcookbookwithaverydistinctred-and-whitecheckedcover.Onthecounterintheadisaverysimilarbook.Justastoday,magazinesandmanufacturersworkedinsynchronicitytocross-promotethemselves.65Marling,267.

32

suchitemsitisnotsurprisingthatAmericanswouldfocustheirnewmonetary

wealthonreplacingandprocuringitemsthathadbeenunavailableforsolong66.In

BetterHomesandGardensApril1946issueCranemanufacturingpromised

consumersthattheywouldsoonbeabletoenjoyCraneitemsforkitchens,

bathroomsandhomeheating:“Craneisnowinproductiononnewequipmentfor

yourhome.Obviously,everyonecannotbesuppliedatonce;itisgoingtobesome

timebeforeproductioncankeeppacewithdemand…“67.Secondly,thevastmajority

ofspendingwasfocusedonthehomewiththeideathatthepurchasingofitems

wouldsupportandenrichthefamilyunit.Admittedly,almostanythingthatfamily

memberstouchedorthatsomehowelaboratedthehomecouldbejustifiedasbeing

forthefamily.Howevertheimportantaspectwasthatwhetheritwasanewstove,

refrigerator,car,boat,hi-fi,paintingorswimmingpooltheseitemswereusedbythe

familyeitherinthehomeorwhenthefamilywastogether.Byencouraging

togethernessitemswereseenasstrengtheningthefamilyunit68.

Athirdpointtoconsideriswhatanuneasyrealmthesuburbspresentedfor

theirnewinhabitants.Forthemajorityofhomebuyersinnewsubdivisions,like

Levittown,theresidentshadonlyafewthingsincommontoconnectthemselvesto

oneanother.Whilemanywerenewfamilieswithyoungchildren,andofsimilar

economiclevels,theycamefromdisparatebackgroundsandlocations.Familiesthat

movedfromthecitiesandthecountrybothleftbehindtheextendedfamiliesand

ethnicgroupsthathadguidedtheirsocialnormsandestablishedtheirstandardsof

66Jackson,23.67CraneAdvertisement,March1946,BetterHomesandGardens,81.68TylerMay,148.

33

living69.Manynewsuburbaniteshadtrulylimitedcontactwiththeirpre-suburban

familyandfriends.Frequentdrivesbackandforthwereimpracticalformostwith

theirsmallchildrenandnewhomesthatneededcaringfor.Eveninthenineteen-

sixtiesitwasconsideredalongdistancecallforhomeownersinNewJersey’s

Levittowntocallintothecity.Ifsuburbaniteswantedtospeaktotheircityfriends

orrelationsseveraltimesaweekitcouldcreateamonthlyphonebillofabout

twentydollars70,whichwouldbetheequivalentofonehundredandfiftydollars

today71.Oncetheywereintheirnewsuburbancommunities,awaytounifyandfind

commonalitywithoneanotherwasthroughconsumerism.Theprocessofpicking

outandbuyingsimilaritemscreatedasharedexperiencethathelpedpeoplerelate

toeachother72.

Additionally,withsomanyitemsforthehomeofferingtheabilitytoexercise

personalchoicethroughcustomizablestyleandcolor,whatafamilychosetobuy

couldhelptogivethemsomesortofindividualityintheoftencharacterlessworldof

suburbia.Theassemblylinesystemofrapidhomebuildingatthelowestcost

possible,thatbuilderslikeLevittandSonsused,leftlittleinthewayofstyleor

characterforthehomes.Homesonthestreetsofthenewsuburbanlandscapetook

onarepetitivecookiecutterqualityofboxyshapesallinarow73.Inaworldof

samenessoneofthefewwayspeoplecoulddistinguishthemselveswasthroughthe

objectstheychosetobuy,eveniftheywerebuyingthesameitemasalmostalltheir

69Hine,24.70Gans,242.71DaveMaunel,DaveMaunel.com,http://www.davemanuel.com/inflation-calculator.php.72Harris,“TheHouseILiveIn”,202.73Marling,262

34

neighborsbutwerejustchoosingadifferentcolorfromthesetpaletteofpastels

offered.

Therampantconsumerismandthehomogenizedqualityoflifethatwas

occurringasaresultofthespreadofsuburbanidealswerenotloston

contemporaryobservers.CriticLewisMumfordfoundLevittownandotherpost-war

subdivisionsofitsilktobe“sociallybackward”indesignand“toocongestedfor

varietyandtoospreadoutforsocialinteraction.”74.Inhis1958bookTheAffluent

SocietyeconomistKennethGalbraithstatedhisbeliefthatthebasicconcernsof

humanexistence(food,clothingandshelter)hadalreadybeenmetformostof

America.Whatwasdrivingconsumerspendingnowwasnotthemeetingof

necessaryneedsbutthemeetingoffalseneedscreatedbymanufacturers75.The

methodsofthesemanufacturershadbeenexposedtothepublicin1957inVance

Packard’sbookTheHiddenPersuaders.Packardrevealedthatadvertisersplayedon

consumersdeepseatedpsychologicalwantsandbombardedthemwithsubliminal

messagestogetthemtobuythings,that(accordingtoGalbraith)theydidnotreally

need76.

Despitethesecondemnationsandrevelations,therewasadistinctlycommon

thoughtthatconsumerismwasapositiveaspectofAmericanlife;anditdidnotneed

tobetempered.Infact,aftertheendofthewar,thepervadingsocialopinionwas

thatbybuyingnewitemsAmericanswereworkingtojump-starttheeconomy.

74Harris,206.75JohnKennethGalbraith,TheAffluentSocietyFortiethAnniversaryEdition.(NewYork:HoughtonMifflinCompany,1998),158.76DavidKushner,Levittown:TwoFamilies,OneTycoonandtheFightforCivilRightsinAmerica’sLegendarySuburb,(NewYork:WalkerandCo.,2009),75.

35

RefurnishingahomefollowingtheyearsoftheGreatDepressionandWWIIwould

stimulatemass-productionandcreatenewjobs77.Theabilitytomassproducea

wealthofitemsatalowenoughcostforvirtuallyalltoaffordthemwascausefor

celebration.TocloseouttheendofthedecadeLifededicatedtheirfinalissueof

1959to“TheGoodLife”.Totheeditorsofthiswidelyreadandhighlyinfluential

publication,Americahadreachedanapexofsuccessnotenjoyedbyanyother

nation.Thecoveroftheissuewasafold-outofamyriadnumberofshotsofpeople

swimming,iceskating,dancingandreadingtohighlighthow“zestfulAmerican’s

enjoytheirnewleisure”78.Thereasonforthiswasstatedinoneofthemainarticles

intheissue,“CauseofBreakthroughTowardsLifeofPlenty”.Thecausewasdueto

thedevelopmentofautomation,which“ForUSconsumers…hasloosenedafresh

windfallofinexpensivegoods,manyentirelynew,tobringmorecomfortand

enjoymenttodailylife.”79.Theresultofallthisnewleisure,broughtaboutbythe

nowaffordablehomegoodssuchaspush-buttonstovesanddishwashers,was

expandedoninafurtherarticle,titled“LeisureCouldMeanaBetterCivilization”80.

Whileleisurehadbeenwroughtthroughtheuseofitemsthathadculminatedinthe

developmentofaconsumer-basedsociety,Lifemagazinesawnoshameordownside

toadevotiontothingsandlivingthegoodlife.Rather,tothemleisureprovidedthe

necessarytimetodevoteoneselftothecreationofamoreevolvedcivilization:

“Isittrue,asProfessorGalbraitharguesinhisAffluentSociety,thatourlegitimatewantsarelongsincesatedandthatwearenowbeingcorruptedbyinducementstobuythingswedon’tneed...Affluencemayindeedmultiply

77Cohen,AConsumers’Republic,11378Life,“SpecialIssue:TheGoodLife”December28,1959.79Life,“CauseofBreakthroughTowardLifeofPlenty”,December28,1959,36.80Life,“LeisureCouldMeanaBetterCivilization”,December28,1959,62.

36

temptationsandtrivialities,butitalsoextendsourcommandoftheartsandproductsthatenhancelifeandadornvirtuesaswellasvice…Let’snotblameaffluenceassuch;weneedmoreofitnotless.Ourproblemisrathertotranscenditanduseitforthepurposeofourcivilization.”81

Inthemidtwentieth-centuryAmericanmindset,consumptionandleisure

werenotequatedwithideasofgreedorsloth.Rather,consumptionwastiedto

participatinginthemoderngoodlife,whereonecould,andshould,exerciseone’s

democraticrighttopickandchoosewhichbrightcandycoloredtechnological

innovationonewantedsoastoallowmorefreetimeinwhichtodevelopAmerican

cultureandcivilization.Buyinganopenplanhomeforyournewfamilyand

discussingthechoiceofapinkGeneralElectricovenorayellowHotpointwitha

neighborwasnotanactofconformingtoanadvertiser’smanipulationofpopular

tastes;itwascelebratingandhelpingAmerica.

81Ibid.

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38

39

40

41

42

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Chapter3:ArtandtheNineteen-FiftiesKitchen:CelebratingFreedomwiththeKitchenWallpaper

“AmericaisenteringanewandexcitingeraofFreeTaste.” HouseBeautiful,October195282Theartofthenineteen-fifties(thatsupposedlydevelopedoutoftheaffluence

ofthedecade,accordingtoLife)isoneoftheareasofmid-centuryculturethatis

laudedtoday.TheworkofartistslikeJacksonPollockandthemoderndesignsof

figuressuchasCharlesandRayEamesfeatureprominentlyinhistoriesofAmerican

artanddesign.Respectivelycelebratedasseminalmovementsinthehistoryofart

andreproducedasretrochicadditionstocontemporaryhomes,theartanddesigns

ofthenineteen-fiftiesstandapartfromthepush-buttonstovesandpink

refrigeratorsoftheera.Theyhaveconnotationsofbeingthe‘better’halfofthe

historyofAmericanmaterialcultureforthedecade.Ratherthanbeingindicativeof

massconsumptionandtheconformityofsuburbiatheystandforintellectualand

artisticinnovationinthewiderworldhistoryofmodernartanddesign.

Itmaysurprisesomethattheworldsofthesuburbankitchen,esotericart

movementsandgroundbreakingdesignersdidoverlapinthenineteen-fifties.

Aspectsandversionsofeachmadetheirwayintothehomesandmindsetsofthe

masses.InOctoberof1952HouseBeautifuldevotedit’sentireissueto“Whatis

HappeningToAmericanTastes?”.Oneofthefeatureswasthe“Editor’sForecastof

thenewTasteCycle”83.Baseduponfouryearsof“takingyearly‘soundings’inboth

thedirectionofchangeandtherateofchangeofpublicpreferences.”,theeditor

82ElizabethGordon,“WhatisHappeningtoAmericanTastes?”HouseBeautifulOctober1952,173.83ElizabethGordon,“TheEditor’sForecastoftheNewTasteCycle”,HouseBeautiful,October1952,182.

44

offeredapredictionofwhatfuturetasteinhomedecoratingwouldbe.Thedesign

tenetsforthecomingerawouldinvolve:“Thegreatpreferencefortexture,realor

simulated.Thegrowingloveofsoftsculptedforms.Thestrongpreferenceforthe

colorsofthelandscape.”(seeimage18).Thevisibletexture,livelycolors

(dominatedbypastels)andcurvingformsthattheeditorssawasdefiningtheera

arethesameaspectsthatcanbefoundinthemodernartanddesignofthenineteen-

fifties.ThepaintingsofJacksonPollockhaveahighlytexturalqualitytothemwhile

WillemdeKooning’sworkscontainthebrightcolorsandbiomorphicformsthat

bothFinnJuhlandIsamuNoguchialsobroughttotheirfurnituredesign(seeimages

19-21).

Thebiomorphicshapesandsenseoftexturewereultimatelyderivedfrom

Surrealistart.SurrealismhadenteredontheAmericansceneinthenineteen-

thirtiesandnineteen-fortieswhenartistssuchasDali,ErnstandRobertoMatta

begantoemigrantfromEuropetoavoidfascism.Theopen-endedbiomorphicforms

ofSurrealismostensiblycamefromtheseartists’psychologicallyrevelatorydreams.

Surrealistsusedseeminglyrandomrubbingsandamorphoussmears,created

throughsuchtechniquesasfrottageanddecalcomania,tostimulatetheir

subconscious.WhileinfluentialonthedevelopmentofAbstractExpressionism,

Surrealismwasalsostillpopularonitsownrightwellintothenineteen-fifties84.

Armstrong’sflooringandkitchendesignsofthenineteen-fiftiesshowa

strongawarenessofmoderntrendsthatHouseBeautifulascribed.Inakitchen

combiningbothmodernandtraditionalaspects,thebrickofthewallandthe

84ErikaDoss,Twentieth-CenturyAmericanArt,(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2002),124.

45

smoothnessofthewoodencabinetscreatetexturalcontrast(seeimage22).The

colorsandsplotchesinthelinoleumharkentothecolorsandformsofClyffordStill

(seeimage24).The“soft,sculptedforms”canbeseenintheroundedtriangle

shapedchairsatthecounterandtheGeorgeNelsonballclockabovethefarwall(see

image23).Similarly,Armstrong’sSpatterpatternforlinoleum(availableinseven

differentcolorbasesandofferingthe“neweststyleeffect”)hasadistinctsympathy

toJacksonPollock’sfamousdripeffectabstractworks(seeimage25).

Outsideoftheadvertisementrealm,thekitchensfeaturedinhomemagazines

alsocontainedinfluencesofthemoreprestigiousrealmsofartanddesign.A

homeowner’skitchenintheNovember1956issueofBetterHomesandGardens

featuresabreakfastbarthatundulatesoutinabiomorphicformsimilartoIsamu

Noguchi’sfamous1948coffeetablethatHermanMillerproducedforthemass

market(seeimages26and28).Placedatthebreakfastbarareroundededgechairs

withclearlyvisiblemetalrodframeswithexposedscrewssetinaTshapeonthe

backthathaveadistinctsimilaritytotheworkofCharlesandRayEames(seeimage

27).Textureand“colorsofthelandscape”arebroughtintothekitchenwiththe

cabinetshavingasketchygreenstyleofpaintingonthemthatisreminiscentofthe

colorfieldworksofabstractartistBarnettNewman(seeimage29).Thetextural

qualityofanotherreader’skitchenfromtheMarch1956issueofBetterHomesand

Gardenshadasimilarlysimulatedtexturalqualitytothefloor(seeimage30).The

tableandchairsseemtobeahybridizationoftheEames’workwithmoldedplastics

andmetalstrutting,herepareddowntoamoresimplifiedplacementofmetal

supports(seeimage32).Thewallpaperofthekitchenseemstobeaseriesof

46

brightlycoloredbiomorphicshapes,evocativeofSurrealismandthelaterworkof

EllsworthKelly(seeimage31).

Theimagesusedinearliersectionsofthisthesisalsoshowthesestylistic

concerns.TheAmericanKitchensadfromMarchof1951featuresa‘before’kitchen

withplainfloorandpinkcurtainsmatchedwithapulldownshade(seeimage5).In

the‘after’kitchen,thatwouldallowthehomemakerto“neveragainfacethe

embarrassmentoftryingtohideyouruglyold-fashionedkitchen”,theplainfloor

hasbeenreplacedwithalinoleumpatternwithasenseoftextureimpliedinitand

thecurtainsnowhaveaboldseriesofhorizontallinesandarecombinedwiththe

moremodernvenetianblinds.

ThepromotionalimageofaLevittownkitchenfromtheearlynineteen-fifties

showsasimilarloveoftexture(seeimage6).Thepatterningofthelinoleumis

virtuallythesameastheoneintheAmericanKitchensad,withitssketchyelongated

splotchesoflightercolorsonadarkbackground–muchlikeare-tooledClyfford

Stillwork.Thesmoothnessoftheenamelkitchenappliancesandcabinetsare

contrastedwithactualroughtextureofthebrickwallabovethefireplaceaswellas

thefloorssimulatedtexture.Surrealistbiomorphicformsarebroughtinwiththe

seeminglyabstractpolishedpieceofwoodthathangsabovethefireplace.

Imagessuchasthesecouldseemtoindicateacloseawarenessandinterest

onthepartofnineteen-fiftiesconsumerswiththemostup-to-dateworksinthefine

artanddesignmovements.Ostensibly,furthersupportofthistemptingconceitis

foundamongthearticlesandimagesinmagazines.Lifewouldregularlyrunfeatures

thatexposedreaderstotheworkofdesigners,suchastheirSeptember1950lookat

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CharlesEamesin“ADesigner’sHomeofHisOwn”85.BetterHomesandGardens

extolledthevalueofbringingartintothehomeinanApril1958articleonhow“Art

AppreciationBeginsatHome”,writtentorelatethebenefitofexposingchildrento

art86.

Butasappealingasitwouldbetousetheseasindicationsofaheretofore

unrealizedmassinterestbynineteen-fiftiespopularcultureinthevalueof

contemporaryartanddesignitisnotactuallypossibletodoso.JacksonPollock-like

linoleumandIsamuNoguchiinspiredformswereindeedpresentinthekitchensof

theaverageAmerican,buttheywerenottheonlystylepresent.Theywerejoined

throughoutthedecadewiththenext-doorneighbor’searlyAmericankitchen(see

images33and34).Whilemodernformswouldaboundinoneperson’shome,

copperkettles,straphingesandbrickfacadeswouldbepresentinanother’s.

Kitchenswerejustaslikelytoinvoketheponderosa,astheywerethecolorfields

anddripsofmodernart.EvenwhenoccurringwiththetrappingsofearlyAmerican

lifethebasiclayoutofthekitchenstillmaintainedtheuseofbuilt-infeatures,ample

workspaceandefficientdesignthattheBauhausandtheFrankfurtKitchenhad

established.Asbothwereregularlyincludedinthepagesofhomemagazines

throughbothadvertisementsandfeaturedreader’shomesitwouldseemthateach

wereequallystylisticallypopularandacceptable87.

Closerreadingofthearticlesthatfeaturedandcelebratedartanddesignin

magazinesrevealthatlesstextwasdevotedtotheintellectualqualitiesofcolorand

85Life,“ADesigner’sHomeofHisOwn”,September11,1950,148.86BetterHomesandGardens,“ArtAppreciationBeginsatHome”,April,1958,6.87Hine,8.

48

formorthenatureofrepresentationthanwasgiventoissuesofcommerceand

homedecoration.LifewaslessconcernedaboutEames’sprocessorthenewnessof

hisforms,butfocusedonhiscreationofitemsthatcouldbehadbyall:“…Eamesis

sointerestedinmakingtheproductsofhisdrawingboardavailableatthelowest

costthatthemodestretailpriceofhisnewestchair($32.50)bothershim…Eames

likestosayhisjobis‘thesimpleoneofgettingthemostofthebesttothegreatest

numberofpeoplefortheleast.’”88.ForBetterHomesandGardens,artappreciationat

homewasnotaboutexposingchildrentothecreationofart,theconceptsofcolor

andspaceoreventhehistoryofart.Itwasaboutrentingoriginalworksofartona

monthlybasisfromlibraries,museumsandgalleries.Creatingacomplementary

tableauofitemsaroundtheever-changingartworkwouldcontinuallylivenupthe

home,individualizeitandactasaconversationstarter:“Throughalocalartcenter,

thishomemakerselectedapaintingwhichsheespeciallyliked.Thecontemporary

paintingbecomesaconversationpiece,noticedimmediately.”89.

Infact,modernartmovementsweremetwithdistrustbymuchofthepublic

duringthenineteen-fifties.Theopen-endedformsandunclearmeaningsofabstract

artcreatedbyartistslivingthebohemianlifeisNewYorkwereseenaspossible

toolsofsubversion.90.Thefearwasthattheunclearimages,dynamicslashesof

paintandvibrantcolorswereagentsthat“threatenedtodestroyby‘designed

disorder’,‘depravity’and‘decadence’91.DespitebeingantitheticaltotheSocial

88Life,“ADesigner’sHomeofhisOwn”,152.89BetterHomesandGardens,“ArtAppreciationBeginsatHome”,6.90Doss,Twentieth-CenturyAmericanArt,133.91LisaPhillips,TheAmericanCentury:ArtandCulture1950-2000,(NewYork:W.WNortonandCompany,1999),35.

49

RealismmovementthattheUSSRmandatedasthe‘correct’formofart92,thereal

fearofmodernartwasthatitwassomehowgoingtoconvertAmericansto

communism93.Asthedecadeprogressedthisextremerhetoricbegantodiminish

onlytoresurgeagainattheendofthedecadewhentheUSSR’spowerseemedto

growwiththeirlaunchofSputnikin195794.

Thevisualeffectofthedecorationofthekitchenwasmoreimportantthan

beingtruetoartisticmovementsandthelatestdesigns.InNovember1953Better

HomesandGardensranafeatureonauniquelowerlevellivingspacein“You’d

neverGuessIt’sABasement”,ofwhichthekitchenareafeaturedahandpainted

abstractmural(seeimage35)95.Whilethemagazinedidmakenoteofthis,and

featureitasaplusfortheremodeledspace,itdidnotuseitasanexampleto

encouragereaderstocommissionoriginalworksofartontheirown.Rather,itfelt

using“apanelofinterestingwallpaper.”couldcreatethesamevisualimpact.While

consumerswouldhavehadaworkingfamiliaritywithcurrentartanddesigntrends,

thankstocoverageoftheminperiodicals,suchobjectsofstrikingsimilarityintheir

homesshouldnotbetakenasindicatingawidespreadallegiancetoanyart

movementordesignersprecepts.Themostlikelypaththatsuchinspireditemstook

togetintothehomewasthatofatrickledowneffectofmovingfromtheiroriginal

artistsanddesigners,throughthedesigndepartmentsofmassproduction

manufacturersandintothehomeofconsumers.92MichaelL.Kreen,Fall-OutSheltersfortheHumanSpirit,(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2005),156.93JackMassyandConwayLloydMorgan,ColdWarConfrontations,(Baden:LarsMullerPublishers,2008),232.94Phillips,TheAmericanCentury,38.95DorothyMiller,“You’dneverguessit’sabasement”,BetterHomesandGardens,November1953,218.

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However,thepresenceofsuchitemsinpeople’shomesindicatesmorethan

justapassiveconsumptionofthingsregardlessoftheirbeginnings.Themixof

formsandstylesthatcouldbepresentinthekitchenisindicativeoftheidealof

exercisingpersonalfreedomthatwascelebratedinthenineteen-fifties.House

Beautiful’sOctober1952issuestatesthatAmericawassettobeginaneraofan

‘anythinggoes’tastementalitythatwouldallowpeoplethefreedomtoexpresstheir

individuality:

“AmericaisenteringanewandexcitingeraofFreeTaste.Americansaredeclaringtheirindependencefromthedictatesofconventionandachievingopen-mindednessandfreedomfromrulesandclichés…sowearemixingthebestofthepastwiththebestofthepresent,creatingafree,newlook.YouwillfindinthisissuearecordandforecastofAmericantaste–yourtaste…Allthroughthemagazineyouwillrecognizeyourownpreferences,becauseyou,andonlyyouaredictatingAmericanstyle.”96

ThepreviouslyintroducedYoungstownKitchensadfromAprilof1956

exemplifiesthis“freetaste”(seeimage10).Itparticipatesinallthepredictedstyle

concernsoffouryearsprior.Thefauxbrickflooringprovidesatexturalcontrastto

thesmoothall-steelcabinets.Brightnaturalcolorsaboundwiththemixofblue,

greenandbrickred.Softlycurvingformsmeetmodernitywiththecabinetand

drawerpullsshapedintodynamicboomerangsofshinningsteel.However,thereis

notasinglestylethatdominatesthekitchen.Thewindowshavediagonalmuntins

creatingalarge-scalediamondpatternthataremostlikelymeanttoevokeideasof

colonialerahomes,asdoesthe‘brick’floor.Thelightingfixturesthatflankthesink

wouldbemoreappropriatelyseenontheoutsideofanineteenth-centurycarriage

housewhilethoseabovethediningtabledripandcurvedownwardwithfloral

96Gordon,“WhatisHappeningtoAmericanTastes?”,173.

51

aspectsmorecommontoArtNouveau.Thestripofsteelthatrimsthecountertop

stemsfromthenineteen-thirtiesbutnowcomestosharpanglesatthecornersin

themoredynamicstyleofthenineteen-fifties.

ThefollowingyearHouseBeautifularguedthatitsreadersmustholdfastto

theirrighttomixandmatchcolors,formsandstylesintheirhomesandkitchens.

TheminimalandfunctionalhomesoftheInternationalModernmovementthat

werepopularintheEuropeandesignworldwereseenasasubversivethreattothe

Americanway.SeeminglyunawarethattheystemmedfromtheverysameFrankfurt

kitchenthatinspiredAmerica’skitchens,thestarkcolorsandcleanlinesofthe

practicalandunclutteredBauhauskitchenswereseenasanoutsideinfluencetrying

toplacerulesandconstrictionsontheAmerican“freetaste”ofmixingstyles.

ItwascrucialthatAmericansmustmaintaintheirfreedomtoclashstyles

andtimeperiodstogetherandnotsuccumbtothedictatesofoutsiders:“Freedom,

yourwonfreedomofchoice–anditsconsequences–istheonlyroadtopersonal

growth.Yourreason,yourcommonsense,isthefinestinstrumentyoupossessfor

living.Don’tletthemtakeitaway.”97.Bybuyingitemsandmakingthespacesofthe

homefittheirpersonalstyleandtaste,consumerswereexercisingtheirfreedomof

choice,whichwasseenasanAmericanrightandduty.

97GregCastillo,ColdWarontheHomeFront:TheSoftPowerofMidcenturyDesign(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2010),113.

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Chapter4:BeingaHousewifeIntheNineteen-Fifties

“WhatareWomenComingto?They’llneverliftafinger–excepttopushultrasonic,electronicandpush-buttondevices…they’llputontheroastandletoutthedogfromatelephoneboothdowntown…lookatthemeatcounters,thegroceryselves;withouteverleavingtheirkitchen…they’llwavetheirlittlewhitehandsoveracountertoptoanswerthephoneacrosstheroomwithouteverpickingupthereceiver…they’llflashrecipesonacolorscreen,pushbuttonstomeasuretheingredients,cookoncoldmarbleandhighfrequencysoundwaveswillwashthedishes…That’swhatwomenarecomingto!”

AmericanHome,April195698

WhenconsideringtheAmericankitchenofthenineteen-fiftiesaninescapable

figurethatcomestomindisthenineteen-fiftieshomemaker.Sheiseasilypictured

inthemind’seye:perfectlycoiffedandmadeup,sheclicksthroughthekitchenin

herhighheels,turningoutelaboratehorsd’oeuvresandheartymaincourseswith

hercutting-edgekitchenappliancesallthewhilecaringforthechildrenandkeeping

thehouseinorder,withneveradropofsweatnorahairoutofplace.Therearetwo

waystointerprettheimageofthenineteen-fiftieshomemakerandtheydependon

whaterasheisviewedfrom.Consideredfromtoday’sperspective,sheisseenasa

symbolofoppression:awomantrappedinthedomesticrealmofcooking,cleaning

andchild-careandjudgedonherabilitytomaintainherlooks.Thisisaperfectly

understandableand,inmanyways,correctviewtotake.Situatedasweareinthe

twenty-firstcenturyandhavingknowledgeofthecomingwomen’smovement,we

knowthatthehomemakerwillstartherlongescapefromthekitcheninthe

nineteen-sixties.But,ifwetryandconsidertheimageofthehomemakerfromthe

perspectiveofamid-centuryviewerourinterpretationisdifferent.Sheisnota

98AmericanHome,“That’sWhatWomenareComingto!”,April,1956,32.

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prisonerbutaguardofthehome.Shekeepsthehomeinorder,nourishesthefamily

withfood,andinstillsvaluesinthechildren,allwhilemaintainingherfeminine

beauty.Thoughmanydifferentfactorsledtotheexodusofwomenfromthekitchen

andthehome,theadvertisementsofthedecadecanrevealthechangingviewof

womenduringthenineteen-fifties.Manufacturersandadvertiserschangedthe

imageandpopularperceptionofthehousewifeasthedecadeprogressedand,

ultimately,hadaroleinherdeparturefromthehome.

Atthebeginningofthedecadeherrolewaslaudedinpopularcultureasa

vitalforceforahappyhomeandnationalwellbeing.Shewasgiventhemostsway

inthemattersofthehomeandmanufacturersbegantocourtherasthedeciderof

whatgoodstobuy.Itemswerebuilttomeetherneeds,easeherworkloadand

provideherwithessentialleisuretime.Intheseearlyadvertisementssheappeared

asawell-puttogetherwoman;whosefashionableyetpracticalclotheswerecovered

byanapronandwhoworehighheelsofanappropriateheightforworkinginthe

home.Shewasengagedwithhouseworkbutwasenjoyingthenewappliancesthat

wouldeaseherburdens.Asthedecadewentonmanufacturersandadvertisers

seemtohavebecomecaughtupinthehypeoftheirproducts.Theymadeclaimsthat

theiritemswerenoweliminatingworkforthehousewifeall-together,ratherthan

justeasingit.Housewivesintheadvertisementsofthelaterhalfofthedecadebegan

totakeofftheirapronsandsensibleshoesinfavorofdressingliketheywerealways

juststeppingawayfromacocktailparty.Housewiveswerenolongerworkingin

theirkitchens;theywerenowbeautyqueenaccessoriestotheirpinkstovesand

refrigerators,whichdidalltheworkforthem.Theseimagesbegantopervademid-

65

centurycultureandchangehowhousewivesperceivedthemselvesandwereseen

byothers.Therespectandsatisfactionthatwomenhadreceivedfortheir

proscribedroleashomemakerlessenedandremovingoneselffromthehome

becamethegoalofmanyhomemakers.

HousewifeasaBastionofFamilyValues: Tobeahousewifeinthenineteen-fiftieswastotakeonapositionofnational

importance.FollowingtheendofWWII,socialandgovernmentexpertsencouraged

womentodedicatethemselvestodomesticityandchildrearingtoensurethe

physical,mentalandpatriotichealthofthefamily99.Bybeingpresentinthehome

Americanwomencouldfocusonaidingchildrenintheirdevelopmentalabilities,

providethewholefamilywithpropernutritionandacleanandordered

environmentaswellasupholdthegenderrolesthatwereseenasendemicand

essentialtotheAmericanwayoflife.Inthewaragainstthecommunists,stayingat

homewasawaywomencouldbesuretoteachtheirchildrenthedemocraticand

patrioticcorrectwayoflivingandthereby“defeattotalitarian,authoritarianideas”.

100.TheRedMenacethatMcCarthyismfoughtagainstalsoservedtoquellleanings

womenmayhavehadabouttryingtochangetheirsetgenderrole,lesttheywere

consideredun-American101.Homemakerswereeveninformedoftheirpreciserole

tobeplayedintheeventoftheever-loomingnucleardisaster.Womenweretold

99TylerMay,89.100SusanM.Hartman,“Women’sEmploymentandtheDomesticIdealintheEarlyColdWarYears”inNotJuneCleaver:WomenandGenderinPostwarAmerica,1945-1960,ed.JoanneMeyerowitz(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,1994),86.101Ibid,85.

66

thattheywereparticularlycrucialfortheirnaturalabilitytofocusonpreparingthe

homebystockpillingessentialgoodsandlearningtoprovidemedicalaid102.

BeyondthefearsofnuclearholocaustandtheinstillingofAmericanvalues,

housewivescouldalsobeamoreimmediateassettothesuccessofthehusbandand

thedevelopmentofaculturedfamily103.InMarchof1952HouseBeautifulranan

articletitled:“AGoodCookneedsanAudience…orshewon’tbeagoodcook

anymore”104.Itrelatesthevirtuesofahusbandtakinganinterestin,andactively

supporting,hiswifeasshedevelopsher“householdarts”,particularlyherskillsasa

cook:“Ahusbandwhodoesnotsupportandpayattentiontoherisputtingupa

veryeffectiveroadblockinthepathofhiswife’sdevelopmentofthehouseholdarts

ofgoodliving,whichcouldbeasocial,businessandpersonalassettohimifonlyhe

weresensibleenoughtoseeit.”105.Familieswithfulltimehousewiveswereseenas

indicatorsofstrongfamilyeconomics,statusandhighandhealthfullivingstandards

forthefamily.Conversely,popularopinionheldthatworkingmothersandtheir

familiesweretobepitied.Itindicatedthatthehusbandwasnotfulfillinghis

assignedgenderroleandAmericanidealofthemaleasthesupporterofthefamily.

Ahousewife’sabsencewasconsideredtocausethefamilytosufferinphysicaland

moralhealthandwellbeing106.

However,therewereacceptablewaysawomancouldworkoutsideofthe

homeinthenineteen-fiftiesandmanyofthemdid.Thepercentageofmarried

102TylerMay,90.103SylviaLovegren,FashionableFoods:SevenDecadesofFoodFads,2nded.(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2005),181.104RobertStanton,“AGoodCookNeedsanAudience”,HouseBeautiful,March1952,80.105Ibid.106SchwartzCowan,MoreWorkforMother,207.

67

womenwhoworkedoutsidethehomewentup42%duringthedecade,withmostof

thewomencomingfromthemiddleclass107.Paidemploymentcouldreasonably

occureitherbeforechildrenwereborn,oncetheywereinschoolfulltimeorafter

theyhadlefthome.However,mostdidnotdosotosupporttheday-to-dayrunning

ofthehomeandfeedingandclothingthefamily.Rather,theyworkedtohelppayfor

thenewplethoraofessentialconsumeritemsforthehome108.Sincethemoneywas

goingbackintothehometheirworkingwasseenasacceptable,becauseitwas

ultimatelygoingtofurthersupportthefamily,beanexerciseoffreechoiceand,

mostlikely,aidintheallimportantdevelopmentofleisureinsomemanner.Leaving

thehometoinvolveoneselfincivicmatterswasalsoacceptable.Becominginvolved

inlocalorganizationsorgovernmentwasseentobeparticipatinginthebenefitsof

democracy109.

Theonlyadvertisementthatdirectlyaddressedworkingwomenfoundinthe

thirtymagazinessurveyedisthePacificContourSheetsadintheNovember1953

issueofBetterHomesandGardens110.Inaseriesofphotographstheadrelatedhow

fittedsheetsaidedJeanDavis,who“worksforaNewYorkfashionmagazine”inher

morningroutine.Thefittedtopandbottomsheetsmadeitimpossibleforher

husbandtokickthemoffinthenight,makingiteasierforJeantomakethebedin

themorningasshemadebreakfastforthembothandgotherselfreadyforwork.

Jean’sworkingoutsidethehomewasacceptablebecauseitwasnotinterferingin

107Hartman,“Women’sEmploymentandtheDomesticIdeal”,86.108TylerMay,156.109JoanneMeyerowitz,“BeyondtheFeminineMystique:AReassessmentofPostwarMassCulture,1946-1958”inNotJuneCleaver:WomenandGenderinPostwarAmerica,1945-1960,ed.JoanneMeyerowitz(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,1994),240.110PacificContourSheetsAdvertisement,November1953,BetterHomesandGardens,148.

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thecareofherhusbandandherhome,thecoupleappearedtonotyethavechildren

andherjobatafashionmagazinewasadistinctlyfeminineonethatencouraged

commerce.

HousewifeasaCareer:

“Marriageismycareer,IchoseitandnowitisuptometoseethatIdothejobsuccessfullyinspiteofthestressesandstrainsoflife.”111

Themajorityofhousewivesconsideredtheirhomemakingtobeacareer,and

animportantoneatthat112.Forwomen,beingahousewifemaynothavebeenthe

choicetheywouldhavemade,givenanotheroption,buttheydidconsideritajob

untoitself.Keepingthehomeandraisingchildrenwasgivencareerstatusbythe

largedevelopmentofcollegelevelhomeeconomicscoursesinthenineteen-fifties

andtheabilitytoreceiveadegreeinthefield.Thefamiliesthatlivedinthetrailer

campsshowninLife’s“VeteransatCollege”tookturnscaringfortheirchildren

whileeachparentwenttoclassesand,whilewomentookotherclasses,itismore

thanlikelythatmanywereenrolledinhomemakingclassestohelpthemintheir

marriedlives.

Insystematizingthehomemakingprocesstoteachit,andbeingabletoranka

student’sabilitythroughgradingtestsandprojects,homeeconomicsclassesmade

homemakingintoadisciplinetolearnandafieldtomaster.Whilemanycollege

educatorswereconcernedthatwomenwerelimitingthemselveswithsucha

singularfocus,itgavethefemalestudentswhodidparticipateasenseof

111TylerMay,26.112Ibid,23.

69

accomplishmentandpridewhentheymarriedandbecamehousewives113.Even

womenwhodidnotparticipateinhomeeconomicscourseswereabletoundertake

theirnewroleofhousewifewithasenseoflegitimacy.Inmarryingandstartinga

familytheyhadacquiredemploymentandwerenowabletoimplementwhatthey

hadlearnedintheirnewposition.Theyhadaclearroledefinedforthemandwere

confidentintheirabilitytofulfillitsneeds.Forwomen,marriageandhomemaking

couldgivethema“senseofresponsibility…”ora“…feelingofusefulness…”114.

HousewifeasaMarketForce

Withtheirimportantroleinassuringfamilialandnationalwellbeing,aswell

asbecomingactiveparticipantsinthesecuringofincometobuygoods,women

becameanaturaltargetformarketinginthenineteen-fifties115.Askeepersofthe

hometheyhadadecidingvoteinbuyingitemsforthehomeaswellasthehome

itself116.LevittandSonswereinaconstantstateoftweakingandre-vampingtheir

kitchenplansandappliancestomeettheneedsofhousewives117.

Thehousewifewasnowanactive,economicallyviablefigurewhoheldajob

inherhalfofthemarriage.Theconsumer-driveneconomyturnedherintoanother

distinctfigurethathadarighttotakepartinthemid-centuryAmericancultureof

utilizingcommoditiesandconsumptiontopartakeinthe“goodlife”.Shebecamea

largetargetforadvertiserstosellobjectstothatwouldbetterherlifebyeasingthe

113Ibid,72.114Ibid42.115JuliannSivulka,Soap,SexandCigarettes:ACulturalHistoryofAmericanAdvertising,(Belmont:WadsworthPublishingCompany,1998),265.116Hine,30.117Harris,“ASecondSuburb”,11.

70

burdensofhercareerthroughbuyingthings118.Asthekitchenwasherrealmthat

waswheretheyfocusedtheirefforts.

Productsweresoldwiththeideathatthemanufacturerwastryingtomeet

thespecialneedsofwomen.Thenew1950InternationalHarvesterrefrigerators

advertisedintheApril1950issueofBetterHomesandGardenswere

“…feemineered!Womendreamedthem…homeeconomistsplannedthem”(see

image36)119.And,assuch,featured:“Exclusive!BottleOpenerpermanentlybuilt-in

onthedoorlatch.IHfemineered!Exclusive!“Egg-o-Mat”Stores16eggs;dispenses1

or2atatime.IHfemineered!Exclusive!“Diffuse-o-Lite”Lightsentireinterior

withoutglare.IHfemineered!”.Theprettysmock-wearinghousewifeintheadsmiles

delightedlyattheprospectofanoglarefridgeinterior120.InAmericanHome’sApril

1956issueCurtisKitchenscontinuedthistrend,extollingthattheynowoffered

kitchen-remodelingoptionsthatwere“woman-designed”.“Andwhatiswoman-

design?Itmeansthesecabinetsarerightforyourreach,yourwayofworking.

Shelvesrevolve…slideforward…swinginandout...areadjustable–toput

everythingrightintoyourhands.Woman[sic]homeeconomists,designers,stylists

planneditthatway.”121.

Theeasingoflaborandthecreationofleisurewasalwaysemphasized,with

kitchenmanufacturersoftenclaimingthattheirdesignswouldsavethehousewifex

numberofhourseitherperdayorweek.Withthisextratimeshecoulddevotemore118SusanE.Reid,“’OurKitcheninJustasGood’:SovietResponsestotheAmericanKitchen”inColdWarKitchen:Americanization,TechnologyandEuropeanUsers,eds.RuthOldenzielandKarinZachmann(Cambridge:TheMITPress,2009),83.119InternationalHarvesterAdvertisement,April1950,BetterHomesandGardens,95.120Notetherefrigeratorsstillhavethatroundedandlowdownqualitytothemfromthenineteen-thirties.121CurtisWoodworkAdvertisement,April1956,AmericanHome,50.

71

ofherselftoherfamilyandmaintainheryouthandbeauty.HotpointandAmerican

KitchensranduelingadsintheJuly1951issueofBetterHomesandGardens(see

images37and38)122.Hotpointclaimedthathomemakers(liketheapron-wearing

onereachingintotheoven)would“Save8hoursEveryWeekwithaHotpointAll-

ElectricKitchen”allowingthemto“feelfresherandhaveextratimeforyourfamily

aswellasthemanyaddeddutiesyou’recalledontoshoulderthesedays–because

yourHotpointKitchendoesnaturallyallofyourmosttiring,mosttimeconsuming

tasksautomatically!”123.ThoughHotpointscoredextrapointswiththeir

incorporationoftheadvancedtechnologythatwoulddoallthework

“automatically!”,AmericanKitchenswastheclearwinnerofthetwo

advertisements124.WhileHotpointmayhavegivenhousewiveseighthoursof

freedomperweek,AmericanKitchenspromised“2hoursofFreedomEveryDay!”,

clockingtheirkitchen’screationofleisuretimeatfourteenhoursperweek.They

werealsoalittleharderhittingintheirlanguage.Toappealtohousewivesonthe

groundsoffamily,alittleboyshoutsthefactthat““NowmyMomhastimetoplay

withme!”(thehusbandismoreconcernedwiththelowfinancing).Intermsof

savingone’slooksAmericanKitchensdoesnotmincewordsandrhetoricallyasks

““Whyputupwithyouth-robbingkitchendrudgerywhenyoucanhaveAmerica’s

mostbeautifullydesignedkitchen…!”.AmericanKitchensembracedthefamilyand

youthkeepingaspectsasthemainsellingpointsforkitchenfurnishing.The122Again,atthisearlypointinthenineteen-fifties,boththeHotpointandtheAmericanKitchen’smaintainasimilaritytotheappliancestylesofthenineteen-thirties.WhilethecabinetsintheHotpointkitchenhaveagreaterangularitytothem,thecountertopstillcurvesaroundthecornerwithashinysteelrimzippingaroundit.ThesamesteelrimispresentintheAmericanKitchenaswell,aroundeachtieroftheroundedshelvesthatmakeuptheendofthecounter.123HotpointAdvertisement,July1951,BetterHomesandGardens,103.124AmericanKitchensAdvertisement,July1951,BetterHomesandGardens,77.

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followingyearinBetterHomesandGardensJuneissuetheyencouragedhousewives

tosendawayforfreeinformationontheirproducts.Thehousewifeintheadfinally

succumbedtomailingherrequest“thedayJeffsaid,‘AwJimmy’smotherismore

funthanyouare!’…AndIremembertoohowrightJeffwas–Jimmy’smotherdid

havemoretimetohavefunwithJimmy–timetokeepherselflookingyoungand

fresh.WhileI,itseemed,wasalwaysstuckinthatoldworktrapkitchenof

mine….”125.

Apositiveaspectofthefocusonhomemakerasconsumerwastherealization

andvalidationthathouseworkwaswork.Whiletheadvertisementsareamusingly

lackinginsubtletytheyacknowledgethesheerphysicaleffortthatgoesintocaring

forthehomeandfamily.Houseworktooktimeawayfrom,andatollon,the

housewife.Herjobentailedarealamountofphysicallaborthatcouldbeeasedby

innovationandautomationalongwiththerestofAmericanlabor.Andwhilealow

glarerefrigeratorlightmaynothavebeenthechallengethatmostneededtobe

solved,manufacturerscreatedkitcheninnovationsthatdideasesomeactual

burdensandproblems.AdoublepageNorgeadvertisementfromBetterHomesand

GardensinAprilof1950showstheirnewlyinnovatedrefrigeratorsandranges(see

image39)126.“TheNewNorgeGolden‘50RefrigeratorwithexclusiveSelf–D–

Frostersystemdefrostswhileyousleep!”Andsavedthehomemakerfromthetime

andmessitusedtotaketoemptytherefrigerator,defrostthefreezerand

continuallyemptyoutanoverflowingdriptraythroughoutthecourseofaday127.

125AmericanKitchensAdvertisement,June1952,BetterHomesandGardens,123.126NorgeAdvertisement,April1950,BetterHomesandGardens,106.127Again,boththe1950Norgestoveandrefrigeratorarecreatedasheavy,roundedmasses.

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ThatthenewNorgeovensfeaturedmoreaccurateandevenheatingwouldhelp

eliminateovercookedfooddisasters;whichcanbe,toacertainextent,“Heartbreak

forAnyWoman!”.

HousewifeasAccessory:

Throughacomparisonoftheimageofwomenintheearlyadvertisementsof

thedecadetoimagesoftheminlateradvertisementsaclearchangecanbeseenin

theviewofthehousewife’srole.In1950thewomenbesideInternational

Harvester’s“femineered”refrigeratorandbyNorge’snewapplianceofferings

appearfashionableyetstillcapableofcompletinghousework.Acertainamountof

careinappearanceisunderstandableashousewiveswere,infact,doingajob.They

werenotloungingathomedoingnothingbuttheywereworkinghardtokeepthe

familytogether.InternationalHarvesterandNorgeeachdesignedtheirappliances

andgearedtheiradvertisingtoaidingthehousewifeinhervaluablework.

Frigidaire’s1957adfromBetterHomesandGardens’Januaryissuepresentsa

onehundredandeightydegreechangeintheimageofthenineteen-fiftieshousewife

(seeimage40)128.Apronandsensible,yetstylish,clothestoworkinhavebeencast

aside.Thishousewife,nexttothepinkrefrigerator,isdressedinayellowparty

dresswithmatchingyellowkittenheelsandacrownofflowersonherhead.Her

laborhasbeeneliminatedtothepointthatthatshecandressinthismanner.

Frigidaire’sadsellstheirnewrefrigeratortowomenwhoshouldbeequallyatease

atthispointinthedecade.Themostnotablelaborsavingsellingpointthatthenew

128FrigidaireAdvertisement,January1957,BetterHomesandGardens,60.

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leisuredhomemakersneedtomakelifeevensimplerforthemisFrigidaire’snew

“Ice-Ejector”which“delivers27cubesin4secondsflat.”.

Atthislaterpointinthedecadewecanseethattherounded,bulgingand

heavyformthatrefrigeratorstookintheearlynineteen-fiftieshasbeenreplaced.

Theexpansesoftherefrigeratorarenowflat,thecornerscometopointsandthere

isagreateruseofsteel,givingthemassasenseoflightnessandmoderninnovation.

Frigidairewasthecompanythatfirstcameoutwiththisnewstyleforappliances.

Labeled“TheSheerLook”,Frigidaireuseditontheirwashers,dryers,stovesand

refrigerators(seeimage41).“Everylineisstraight,everycornerissquare,the

wholelookissheer–tobringthebeautyofmodernsimplicity…”129.“TheSheer

Look”movedthekitchenspaceintoevencloseralignmentwiththedesignsofthe

BauhausandtheFrankfurtkitchensbutthecontinuedapplicationofcolorkeptthe

spacedistinctlyAmerican130.Thevisualeffectofthesharplyangledappliancesinan

arrayofcolorswasreflectiveoftheabstractworksofJosefAlbers,namelytheworks

fromhisseriesHomagetotheSquare(seeimages42and43).Aformerstudentand

facultymemberoftheBauhaus,AlberscametoAmericain1933andbecameheadof

theDepartmentofDesignatYalein1950.From1950to1976Alberscreated

hundredsofimagesofsquaresstackedontopofeachotherinarangeofcolorsto

studyhowcolorsinteractedwithoneanotherandtoallowviewerstoexperience

thatinteraction.

129FrigidaireAdvertisement.January,1957,BetterHomesandGardens,80.130Itisworthnotingthatatthislatedateinthedecadethecolorsusedforappliancesarebeginningtomovebeyondtherealmofbrightpastels.Image41featuresthebabypinksandsunshineyellowoftheearlierpartofthedecadealongwithaboldlyblackrefrigerator.

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Tappanadvertisementsfollowedthischangeinthepresentationofthe

housewifeaswell.A1953adintheMarchissueofBetterHomesandGardensplaces

asmallimageofawomaninanapronstandingnexttothefeaturedstovesand

smiling(seeimage44).Thead’scopyfocusesonhowTappanproducesarangeof

itemsthatwillmeeteveryhome’sbudgetandspace.Thecompany’smainimageof

thehomemakerinitsadintheApril1958issueofBetterHomesandGardensisa

totalchangefromthewomanusedfiveyearsearlier(seeimage45)131.Dressedina

fullskirted,sleevelessshimmeringbluecocktaildress,shebarelystandsinher

kitchenspace.Whichisthepointofthead’stext,thataGoldRibbonTappanisthe

keytokitchenfreedom.Stylishly“decoratedwithfleur-de-lis”theovenis“electric

andfullyautomatic–starts,cookscompletemeals,turnsoffwithoutyourbeing

anywherenear…”.

StylisticallytheadconformstothetastesandtrendsthatHouseBeautifulset

outin1952.Thehomemakerandtheadvertisedovenandrangeareplacedina

richlytexturedbrickroom.Thedressofthehomemakermatchestheaquablueof

thewalls.Inthebackgroundanabstractworkofartishungonthewall.Thebright

steeloftheovenandcooktopconnotesfuturisticdevelopmentswhilethecopper

spoonshangingonthewallreferencemoreantiquatedkitchenspaces.

ThelaterTappanadisillustrativeofthefictiveimagethatwascreatedfor

thekitchenandthehousewifeinthelaterpartofthedecade.Believingthattheir

innovationscoulddoanything,manufacturesandadvertisersinsistedthatthe

kitchenwasnowwork-free.Speedcooksettings,timers,frozenfoodandboxed

131TappanAdvertisement,April1958,BetterHomesandGardens,146.

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mixeswereallsupposedtomakeforcarefreekitchens,mealsandhousewives.But

kitchensandmealscanneverbecarefree;nomatterhowinnovativetheovenand

thenumberofpush-buttonsithas,itcannotdrivetothestore,buyandprepare

ingredientsandserveandcleanupafterameal.

EvenwiththeirGoldRibbonTappansandFrigidaireIce-EjectorsandNorge

Self–D-Frostersystemswomenstillhadagreatamountofworktodointhe

kitchen.Moreappliancesdidnotactuallyequalmoreleisuretimeforhousewives.

Theworkthattheyweredoingmayhavebeenlesslaboriousandtheywereableto

completemoretasksforeachhourthattheyworkedbuttheirtaskswerestill

numerousandtookupalloftheirtime132.Theburdenofhouseworkwasaddedto,

withthepressurethatoneshouldbeabletobenotjustpresentable,butglamorous

atalltimes133.Theviewofthehousewifeasaleisuredbeautycreptintopopular

consciousandopinionthroughtheseadvertisements.

Inutilizingadvertisementssuchasthese,manufacturershelpedtonegatethe

verycareerthattheyhadoriginallycelebratedandembracedasawaytomarket

theiritems.Theydestabilizedtheroleofthehousewifeinpopularculture.Fromthe

housewivespointofviewtheywereexpectedtomaintaintheirhealthandbeautyas

wellastheirfamilyatalltimes.Now,sinceappliancesweredoingalltheworkfor

them,theyhadnoreasontoeverhavethehomenotintopconditionandtake

perfectcareofthefamilywhilealwayslookingcocktailpartyreadythemselves134.

Theseimagesandidealsalsoimpactedhowhusbandsviewedtheirwives’rolesand

132SchwartzCowan,201.133Hine,30.134Sivulka,Soap,SexandCigarettes,253.

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workloads.Earlyadvertisementssoldhusbandsonkitchenremodelingbyclaiming

tobe“wifesavers”andarticlesfocusedonhomeconstructionprojectsthatmen

couldundertaketohelpkeeptheirwife’skitcheninworkingorder.Butwiththese

newclaimsandimagestheviewofhowmuchworkawifeactuallydidchanged.

Whereasbeforeshehadbeenconsideredanashard-workinghalfofthecoupleas

himselfshenowcameinlinewiththeimagethatappearedinan1957issueof

ElectricalMerchandisingofawomanrelaxingonachaiseloungeinherkitchen,

smokingandconsumingbonbonswhilethekitchendoestheworkforher(see

image46)135.Imageslikethese,fromtheendofthedecade,capturethechangesthat

werebeginningtofomentinthemindsofwomen136.Whiletheyhadoncebeen

willingtoaccepttheirroleaskeepersofthehome,asnecessarytofamilyand

nationalwellbeing,thecontinuedacceptanceofthisstancewasbecoming

insupportable.Theunrealisticidealsandlossofrespecttheywerenowfacing

combinedwiththeirincreasingstressorsoflackofmentalstimulationandpowerin

theirownlivesandcontributedtotheireventualexodusfromthekitchenandthe

homeinlaterdecades137.

135Miner,253.136TylerMay,37.137Marling,255.

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ChapterFive:TheKitchenandtheColdWar

Amanifestationofhowthekitchenfunctionedasapracticalfetishof

Americanlifeoccurredontheglobalstageattheendofthedecade,in1959,during

theAmericanNationalExhibitioninMoscow.WhileSovietPremierNikita

KhrushchevandAmericanVicePresidentRichardNixontouredtheexhibitionon

theofficialopeningdayinJulytheyengagedinanimpromptuheatedexchangeon

theideologiesofcommunismversuscapitalism.Thisforty-fiveminuteexchange

occurredwhilestandinginthekitchenofamodelranchhomeimportedfrom

AmericatoMoscowfortheexhibition,givingtheexchangethemonikerofThe

KitchenDebate138.Ratherthandebatingthemeritsanddownfallsofeachother’s

governmentalsystemsinthetermsofmilitaryorscientificdevelopments,thetwo

spokeintermsoftheveryitemsandindividualsthatfilledthepagesofthe

magazinesthathavebeenreviewedthroughoutthisthesis:stoves,refrigeratorsand

housewives139.WithinboththeAmericanNationalExhibition,andNixonand

Khrushchev’sKitchenDebate,thekitchen,itsappliancesandthehousewifewereall

usedasphysicalemblemsofmid-centuryAmericanculturalidealsoflivinga

modernlifedevotedtofreechoiceandleisure.

TheAmericanNationalExhibitioninMoscowwastheAmericanhalfofan

exchangeofculturalexhibitionsbetweentheUSandtheUSSR.Theagreementtothe

exchangescameaboutafterKhrushchevsurprisinglyannouncedadesireforgreater

tradeandculturalexchangebetweenthetwonationswhilebeinginterviewedon

138MassyandMorgan,ColdWarConfrontations,198.139TylerMay,10.

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CBS’sFacetheNationinJuneof1957140.Bylate1958ithadbeenagreedthateach

nationwouldstageanexhibitionontheother’ssoilthatwouldfocusonthe

“developmentofeachofitsscience,technologyandculture.”141.TheSoviet

exhibitiontookplaceintheNewYorkColiseumconventioncenterwhilethe

AmericansbuilttheirexhibitionspacefromthegroundupoutsideofMoscow,in

SokolnikiPark.

AmericanGoalsfortheExhibition

“NothinganybodywilleversayaboutfreeenterprisewillhavetheimpactofwhattheaverageRussianwillseewhenhewalksthroughtheaverageAmerican’shome.”

HerbertSadkin,All-StateProperties142

WhatKhrushchev’sgoalwasinsparkingthemovementtothesereciprocal

exhibitionsisstillnotclear.Onetheoryisthatitwastoshoreupinternalsupportfor

theproductionofconsumergoodsintheUSSRbyshowingSovietcitizensawealth

ofAmericangoods143.Anotheristhatthewholeideaofexchangeswasdoneinorder

togetaclose-handlookatAmericantechnologicalinnovations144.TheAmerican

goalsfortheirexhibitioninMoscoware,however,quiteclear.Inaninterviewwith

theNewYorkHeraldTribuneinMarchof1959exhibitionplannerGeorgeNelson

wasquotedassaying“primarily,wewanttomakeasimplesincerestatementabout

140WalterL.Hixson,PartingtheCurtain:Propaganda,CultureandtheColdWar1945-1961,(NewYork:StMartin’sGriffin,1997),151.141Ibid,161.142CristinaCarbone,“StagingtheKitchenDebate:HowSplitnikGotNormalizedintheUnitedStates”,inColdWarKitchen:Americanization,TechnologyandEuropeanUsers,eds.RuthOldenzielandKarinZachmann(Cambridge:TheMITPress,2009),65.143Hixson,PartingtheCurtain,165.144MassyandMorgan,,169.

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Americanlife.”145.Whiletherewastruthtothatstatement,itwasonlypartofthe

actualgoal.ThelargergoaloftheAmericangovernmentwastousethat“sincere

statement”asapropagandatooltounderminecommunismfromwithintheUSSR.A

declassifieddocumenttitled“SecretBasicPolicyGuidancefortheUSExhibitionin

Moscowin1959”statedthatwhilethepublicobjectivewasto“increase

understandingofthepeopleoftheSovietUnionoftheAmericanpeopleand

Americanlife”,thatgoalshouldbeachievedby“placingparticularemphasison

Americanprecepts,practicesandconceptswhichmightcontributetoexisting

pressurestendinginthelongruntowardareorientationoftheSovietsysteminthe

directionofgreaterfreedom”146.

Tomeetthepublicandclassifiedgoalsoftheexhibitionitwasdecidedto

geartheentireeventtowardspresentingtheeverydaygoodsofAmericanlife.Itwas

believedthatthismethodwouldillustratehow“Freedomofchoiceandexpression,

andtheunimpededflowofdiversegoodsandideas[are]thesourcesofAmerican

culturalandeconomicachievement”aswellasbethemostappealingandreadily

understandabletotheaverageSovietvisitortotheexhibition147.TheAmerican

exhibitwasdesignedtoawetheSovietswiththevarietyofitemsandchoices(and,

therefore,freedom)thatAmericansenjoyedineverydaylifeandcompelthe

communistcitizenstoembracecapitalism.

TocreateandoverseetheexhibitionspacetheAmericangovernmenttapped

GeorgeNelsonandhisfirm.NelsoninturninvitedCharlesandRayEamestohelp

145MassyandMorgan,167.146Carbone,“StagingtheKitchenDebate”,62.147Ibid.

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withthephysicaldevelopmentofthegroundsatSokolnikiPark148.Theirultimate

planfortheexhibitionspacewastodivideitintotwomainbuildingssurroundedby

smallerkiosks,stagesandbooths149.ThefirstbuildingthatSovietvisitorswould

enterwasageodesicdomecreatedbyBuckminsterFuller.Insideofthedomewere

sevenmovietheatersizedscreens.SimultaneouslyoneachscreenafilmtheEames’

andtheirteamhadcreatedofimagesofaweekinthelifeofatypicalAmerican

suburbanfamilycontinuouslyplayed150.Onexitingthedome,visitorswouldenter

intotheJungleGym.Asprawlingmulti-levelglasswalledbuildingdividedintocube-

likerooms,theJungleGymhousedtheplethoraofconsumeritems(manydisplayed

astheywouldhavebeenfoundinAmerica,inmockrooms,grocerystoresand

departmentstores)aswellasdemonstrationareas151.Thebuildingwasfilledto

burstingwithmodels,demonstrationsandinstallationspackedwiththeconsumer

goodsthatAmericahadtooffer:clothing,shoes,pots,pans,gardeningtoolsetc.

AnythingthatcouldbeboughtinAmericawasputondisplayinmultiplemodelsand

colorssothattheSovietscouldseejustwhattheyweremissing.Thewealthof

goodswereprovideddirectlybythebusinesscommunity,whoPresident

Eisenhowerhadpersonallycourtedandconvincedtooffersamplesofitemsto

supplytheexhibitsand(inmanycases)paythefreightcostofshippingthegoodsto

Moscowaswell152.WhiletheEames’focusedtheirattentiononthecreationoftheir

film,Nelsonandhisfirmconcentratedonthelayoutandset-upoftheJungleGym

148Colomina,DomesticityatWar,250.149Theexhibitionareatookupthespaceofapproximatelytwocityblocks.(Kreen,Fall-OutSheltersfortheHumanSpirit,156.)150Castillo,ColdWarontheHomeFront149.151MaseyandMorgan,179.152Hixson,PartingtheCurtain,169.

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anditscontents,whichNelsondismissivelyreferredtoas“thestuff”153.Itwas

behindtheJungleGymthatthemodelhomewaslocated.

ThefocusoftheAmericanNationalExhibitionwasindirectcontrasttowhat

theSovietsultimatelydidinNewYork.WhiletheSovietsdidincludedisplaysand

informationofeverydaylifeandcultureintheUSSR,mostoftheirexhibitionwas

devotedtoemphasizingtheirtechnologicaladvancementsinspaceexploration,

weaponryandheavyindustrialproduction154.Toimpresswesternerswiththeir

technologicalprowesstheyprominentlyfeatured“…threeSputniksatellites,a

modelrocketandaworkingmodelofanironandsteelmakingcomplexamongten

thousandexhibits”155.

KitchensattheExhibition

Placedamongstthedisplaysofgoods,thefashionshows,theautoexhibits,

theHelenaRubensteinmakeoverkioskandtheyoungRussian-speakingAmerican

guidesactingasambassadorsofAmericanlife,werefourdifferentkitchensin

differentvenuesthroughouttheexhibition.Threeofthekitchenswerelocatedinthe

JungleGym.GeneralFoodsandBird’sEyesponsoredthedemonstrationkitchen(see

image47)156.Russian-speakingAmericanhomeeconomistsstaffedthekitchenand

preparedsamplefoodforvisitorsusingthelatestincannedgoods,frozenfoodsand

boxedmixesfortheastoundedaudiencestotaste157.RCA-Whirlpoolhada“Miracle

153MaseyandMorgan,179.154Ibid.246.155Ibid.156Ibid,217.157Castillo,142.

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Kitchen”thatfeaturedspaceageinnovationssuchasadishwasherthatrolledona

tracktothetable,afree-rangingvacuumcleanerthathappilywhirledaboutthe

floorwithamindofitsownandcabinetsthatraisedandloweredthemselvesatthe

touchofabutton(seeimage48).NoteveryfeatureintheMiracleKitchenwastruly

functionalbuttheinstalledguidesactedasiftheywere158.

Themodelurbanapartmentofanimaginarydoctor’sfamilyfeaturedan

efficientandup-to-datespaceinwhichSovietscouldenvisiontheurbanlifeofan

uppermiddle-classAmerican(seeimage49).Themodelapartmentwasoneofthe

areasintheJungleGymthatNelsonenthusiasticallygavehispersonalattention

to159.TheapartmentwasfurnishedwiththelatestcreationsbyHermanMiller,

FrancesKnoll,PaulMcCobbandEdwardWormley.Thesetop-of-the-line

furnishingswereseenasreasonableadditionsasitwasassumedthatthefictional

familythatlivedtherehad,accordingtoNelson,“prettysophisticatedtastesanda

prettygoodincome”.Infact,thefictionalfamilyhadbeenallottedayearlyincomeof

$12,000,twicethenationalaveragein1959160.Seeminglyapet-projectofNelson,

themodelapartmentreceivedlittlepressfocusfromeithertheSovietsorthe

Americans.

Accordingtotheresultsofvotingboothsplacedthroughoutthegrounds

wherevisitorswereaskedtoranktheirfavoriteexhibits,themostpopularkitchen

attheexhibitionwastheoneinthemodelhomewhereNixonandKhrushchev

158Ibid,166.159Ibid,153.160Ibid,154.

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wouldbuttheadsonopeningday161.Thekitchenwassetinasix-roomranchstyle

homewiththedecade’stypicalopenfloorplan,liketheonesfoundinsuburbsall

overAmerica.Nelsonrelatedthatthehomewasmeanttopresenta“lessadvanced

taste”162.Clearynotconsideringthemodelhometohavethesamecachetasthe

modelapartmentNelsonhadlittletodowiththefurnishingordesignofthehome.

Thisparticularmodel(thefuturisticsoundingX-61)hadbeendonatedbytheLong

IslandbuilderAll-Statepropertiesandwasexactlyliketheonesthatthecompany

builtinNewYork,FloridaandKentucky(seeimage50).Fortheexhibitionitwas

fashionedasbelongingtoafictionalfamilyoffour,theBrowns163.Toaccommodate

thelargecrowdsofSovietvisitors,designerRaymondLoewyandarchitectAndrew

Gellerwereinchargeofsplittingthehomedownthecenterandinsertingaten-foot

widewalkwaydownthemiddle164.Thisearnedthehomethenicknameof

“Splitnik”165.

Despitethisnecessaryyetintrusiveaddition,thehomewassituatedinsucha

wayastotryandgivevisitorsanaccurateexperienceofAmericansuburbanlife.As

visitorsapproachedthehometheyhadtopassamockcurbanddrivewaywherea

StudebakerLarkandanAMCRamblerwereparked166.Theinteriorofthehomehad

beenfurnishedbyitemsallavailableforpurchasethroughMacy’s,thoughitwas

furnishedatabudgetof$5,000;almosthalfoftheyearlyincomeofamiddleclass

161MassyandMorgan,212.162Castillo,154.163MassyandMorgan,66.164JustinDavidson,“TheKitchenDebate’sActualKitchen”,nymag.com,http://nymag.com/realestate/features/commack-moscow-2011-5/.165Ibid.166Carbone,68.

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family167.The“Brown’s”kitchenwasabrightyellowandwhiteaffairdesignedby

GeneralElectric(seeimage51and52).Itwasstockedwithappliancesthatwould

havebeenincludedbackhomeinmodelX-61:“abuilt-inoven,countertopcooking

unit,dishwasher,wastedisposal,combinationwasherdryer,waterheaterand

combinationrefrigeratorfreezer”168.Itwasinthiskitchenandthroughtheseitems

thattheexhibitionsoughttoexposeSovietvisitorstoasliceofdailyAmericanlife.It

wasalsointhiskitchenthatVicePresidentRichardNixonwouldusetheAmerican

kitchen,appliancesandhousewifetoarticulatetoPremierKhrushchevtheidealsof

mid-centuryAmericanculture169.

KitchenasCulture

Nixon:“Iwanttoshowyouthiskitchen…”Khrushchev:“YouAmericansthinktheRussianpeoplewillbeastonishedtoseesuchthesethings…”

NixonandKhrushchevonenteringthe“Splitnik”170

Khrushchevseemedtobeinanespeciallycombativemoodwhenheand

Nixontouredtheexhibitiononopeningday.Neveraneasygoingman,hisirehad,

mostlikely,beenraisedonlyhoursearlierbytheactionsoftheUSCongress.Nixon’s

departurefromWashingtonDCtoMoscowhadcoincidedwithCongresspassingthe

“CaptiveNationsResolution”.UndertheresolutionthePresidentwascalledonto

issueaweekofprayerforallthosewholived“undercommunisttyranny.”171.His

167Ibid,69.168Carbone,71.169Colomina,244.170CentralIntelligenceAgency,KitchenDebateTranscript.foia.cia.govhttp://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/document_conversions/16/1959-07-24.pdf171Marling,272.

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probableirritationatthisledtoalmostanythingandeverythingthatNixonpointed

outtoKhrushchevintheexhibitionbeingmetwithdisdainfortheitemanda

condemnationforthesystemthatalloweditscreationandconsumption.

Whentheyenteredthe“Splitnik”hismoodwasnobetter(seeimage53).

ThedishwasherwasdismissedbecausetheSovietsalreadyhad“suchthings”172.The

homemayhavebeenavailabletotheaveragelaborerbutitwouldnotlastmore

thantwentyyears,whereastheSoviets“…buildfirmly.Webuildforourchildren

andourgrandchildren”.Appliancesthatweredesignedtoeasethehousewife’s

workweremeaninglesstohim,as“Yourcapitalisticattitudetowardwomendoes

notoccurunderCommunism.”.NixonfiredbackatKhrushchev’sdismissals,equally

investedinwinningtheupperhandinthissuddendebate173.

KhrushchevwasrightwhenhesaidthattheAmericanswantedtheSovietsto

be“astonished”bywhatwasinthemodelhome,andbyextensiontheentire

exhibition.Theitemsthatwereineachinstallationandmodelwerepickedbecause

theywereemblematicofthetenetsofAmericanlife,thelifetowardswhichthe

AmericansweretryingtocompelSovietcitizens.InhisresponsestoKhrushchev’s

barbsNixonhadtorevealhowtheitemsofdailyAmericanlifestoodforthe

Americanideals.ThehomethatKhrushchevdismissedasbeingpoorlybuiltwould

lastlongerthantwentyyearsbutthatwasnoreasonanyonewouldlivetherethat172Thiswasuntrue.Sovietkitchensthatappearedinexhibitionsandworld’sfairswereofteninflatedpresentationsofthekindofhomesandappliancesthateverydaySovietshadaccessto.(MaseyandMorgan,149.)173HistoryisdividedonwhetherornottheKitchenDebatewasachanceoccurrenceor,ifNixonandhisstaffplannedit.(RuthOldenzielandKarinZachmann“KitchensasTechnologyandPolitics:AnIntroduction”inColdWarKitchen:Americanization,TechnologyandEuropeanUsers,eds.RuthOldenzielandKarinZachmann(Cambridge:TheMITPress,2009),8.)

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long.Americansembracedtherighttolivethemostmodernlifeavailable:“after

twentyyears,manyAmericanswantanewhouseoranewkitchen…theAmerican

systemisdesignedtotakeadvantageofnewinnovationsandnewtechniques.”.

Nixondeflectedthestatementthateasinglaborforwomenwassomehowexclusive

tocapitalism.Americansweresocommittedtolivingthelifeofleisureforeveryone

thatitwasanyonewhothoughtdifferentlythatwasintheminority.Hetriedto

makeKhrushchevandcommunismseemoutoftouchinstatingthatthedesireto

easewomen’slabor“isuniversal”.And,astoKhrushchev’sassertionthatinRussia

everyonewasentitledtoahouseandwasgivenone,themoreimportantpointfor

Americanswastheabilitytopickone’sownhome,toexercisefreechoicefroma

widerangeofoptions:“Diversity,therighttochoose,thefactthatwehave1,000

buildersbuilding1,000differenthomesisthemostimportantthing…wedon’thave

onedecisionmadeatthetopbyonegovernmentofficial.Thisisthedifference.”

ForKhrushchev,everythingaboutthemodelhomeanditskitchenwasatrappingof

“wretchedexcessandbourgeoistrivia”174.ForNixon,everythingaboutthemodel

homeanditskitchenstoodforthebestpartsofcapitalism,democracyandAmerica

allrolledintooneroom:theabilityoftheAmericanfamilytoutilizethelatest

advancestolivealeisurelylifeoftheirchoice175.

174Marling,243.175FollowingtheKitchenDebatethemodelhomebecameatopicofpopularconversationintheUSSRandAmerica.Russiannewspaperslambastedthemodelhomeasacompletefalsehood.FromtheAmericanstandpoint,thehomewasseenasanemblemofAmericantriumph..FollowingtheopeningoftheexhibitionandtheKitchenDebate,Macy’ssponsoredthecreationofreplicasofSplitniktobedisplayedindifferentcitiesinAmerica;sothatAmericanscouldtourfirst-handwhathadsoshockedtheSoviets.(Carbone,“StagingtheKitchenDebate”,74.)

98

Conclusion:

ItisfortunatethatimagesandrecordsexistoftheAmericanNational

ExhibitioninMoscowandoftheKitchenDebate.Bothhelpincreatinganacidtestin

whichtodetermineiftheidealsofmid-twentiethcenturyAmericanculturethat

seemtoberevealedinthearticlesandadvertisementsofthehomemagazinesofthe

decadearecorrect.However,notallobjectshavesucheventsorexchangesinwhich

theyplaysuchaprominentrole.Butthisshouldnotexcludethemfrombeingthe

focusofacademicstudy.Mydecisiontostudythekitchenspaceofthenineteen-

fiftiesthroughantiquemagazineswasultimatelyduetomypersonalinterestin

both,notbecausethereweretwosignificanthistoricaleventstiedtoitthatcouldact

asverification.ThoughIdoincludethemandfeeltheyaddsupporttomy

interpretationsIwouldrathertheyhadnotoccurredsoIdidnothavetofactorthem

in.Theyactasanunfortunatesafetynetthatmoststudiesofmaterialculturecannot

provide.Thishasthepotentialtoleadtoobjectsbeingrejectedastopicsofstudy;

whichshouldnotbethecase.Withcarefulconsiderationmostobjectsofeveryday

lifecanbereadasrecords.Theycanrecordthetimeandplaceoftheirimmediate

creationanduseaswellashaveanafterlifeinwhichtheycantakeonallnew

meanings.Itismyhopethatthisthesiswillprovidesupporttotheuseofmaterial

cultureasbothatopicandtoolofstudy.

99

100

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