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History of England

Chapter 1: The Foundations of England

The early history of England is essentially a chronicle of invasions.

Long before recorded British history began with the Roman invaders,wave after wave of warlike settlers landed on English shores. Here themigrants mingled with other tribes so that the Britons became themost mongrel of races. These early invaders came because the islandlay so invitingly open to invasion. After the last of these migrantsettlers, the Celts, had subdued the island the Roman legions, in turn,subdued the Celts.

An Island People

Central to the history and character of the British people is thegeographical location of Britain, Its location, twenty-one miles fromthe Continent, makes England part of Europe, but with a separate andinsular identity. Thus, in early times, the relation of Britain to the seawas passive and receptive; in modern times, active and acquisitive. Inboth it is the key to her story. (G.M. Trevelyan, History of England (GardenCity, New York; Doubleday, 1953), I,p. 12.

The land and Its Resources. The physical formation, climate, andminerals of the country tempted the early invaders to settle, andexplain the paths of settlement they followed. Not having masterednature, the successive invaders claimed the rich and accessible

lowlands of southern and eastern Britain and drove the earlierinhabitants to the north and west.The Islands.The five thousand British Isles, dominated by the majorislands of Britain (labeled Britannia by Julius Caesar) and Ireland,cover approximately 120,000 square miles, with the area of Englandtotaling less than half this amount (50,331 square miles). Presumablyman first came to Britain in the Old Stone Age when the land was still

joined to the Continent. With the closing of the lee Ages, the recedingglaciations transformed the physical surface of the land and left it anisland. But the early connection with the Continent meant that theflora and fauna of Britain were closely identified with the flora and

fauna of northern Europe.Geographical features. The physical map of Britain will show whyEngland was so accessible from the Continent, for the land slopesdownward from the highlands to the north and from the craggy coastof the Atlantic to the low, flat plains of the southeast. Because of thegeneral slope of land from north to southeast most English rivers havetheir outlets on the south and the east coasts. Invaders moved inlandby following the Trent, the Welland, the Nen, and the Thames rivers tothe Midlands. Later, these rivers doubled as main arteries of trade. Inthe southwest the Severn River served the same dual function for the

area of the Welsh border. As the invaders reached the highlands ofthe north and west, they displaced older cultures. Consequently, the


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Scottish Higlands, Wales, and Cornwall were inhabited by the ilderstocks; and to this day, they are commonly called the Celtic fringe.Climate. In the third millennium before Christ the first agriculturalistcrossed the Channel and revolutionized the existing society of eave-dwelling hunters by introducing a new way of life: they bred cattle,

sowed grain, and later developed a flint-mining industry. The moretemperate climate of England after teh Ice Ages was well suited to thegrowing of crops, because the prevailing winds from the southwestfollow the Gulf Stream and keep England at a warmer and moreequable temperature than its latitude would ordinarily permit.Although the rainfall is moderate, the oceanic climate produces fog,mist, and haze so that visitors, from Tacitus to modern tourists, writeabout the wretched weather.Natural Resources. The temperate climate, coupled with a farily richsoil, promoted the growing of barley and wheat. Good harbors and thelong, irregular coastline encuoraged fishing and ocean trade. In fact,the trade of the Levant with Britain antedated the Celtic conquest,and Mediterranean traders had long heard exaggerated tales ofBritish gold and pearls. Copper and tin were found in abundance. Bysmelting the two metals together, the inhabitants manufacturedbronze, and so marked the close of the lengthy Stone Age. Later,conveninetly located deposits of coal and iron would supportEnglands industrial revolution.Prehistory of Britain. In Britain, as elsewhere, the story of man and hissociety can be traced through the various stone and metal ages. Manmoved westward in Europe and arrived in Britain during the Paleolithis

(Old Stone) Age. Since each succeeding period or age was also atransplanting from the Continent, Britain became largely a recipient ofcultural change in the period of prehistory.The Stone Ages. From stone and bone tools and skeletal remains it issurmised that Homo sapiens first appeared in Britain by a land bridgesome 250,000 years ago. In the New Stone Age, long-headedagriculturalists, probably from the Iberian peninsula, crossed theChannel and set up mixed farming in southern England side by sidewith the older hunting communities. A thousand years later (around2000 BC) these peaceful and mild-mannered settlers were attacked inturn by tall, powerful, round-headed warriors from Europe who

overran all of habitable Britain. They brought with them metalimplements and thereby introduced a new age of Bronze.The Beaker Folk. The latest invaders were designated as the BeakerFolk after the shape of the drinking vessels which they fashioned outof clay. These newcomers possessed a mastery of metal workmanshipthat was reflected in the variety of weapons and tools they produced.

They wore woolen and linen clothes, greatly admired jewelry, but hadlittle interest in farming. Where the earlier imigrants (Iberians) hadworshipped Mother Earth, the Beaker Folk worshipped the Sun intemples open to the sky. Stonhenge, a circular grouping of massivestones, remains to this day a fascinating and impressive monument ofthe period (The hypothesis that Stonhenge was originally planned asan astronomical observatory is offered by Gerald S. Hawkins (with


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John B. White) in Stonhenge Decoded (Garden City, New York:Doubleday, 1965). Other immigrants followed and by 1500 BC theblending of traditions established the distinctive Wessex culture inBritain: an age of Bronze, an organized religion and priesthood, and atribal structure centered around a kinglike chief and a slowly evolving

aristocracy.The Celtic Invaders. The last of the early invaders were the Celts, thefirst of the conquerors about whom the Romans wrote. With the Celtscame the higher civilization of the Iron Age.Celtic Origins. The word Celt, in terms of British identity, is more amatter of civilization and language than of race. Threatened by rivalgroups, the Celtic-speaking tribes of France and western Germanymigrated to the British Isles to obtain relief from continental conflicts.During the last century before Christ, bands of Celtic invaders, armedwith battle-axes and double-edged swords, landed on the south andeast coasts and moved inland.Celtic Society. The invaders wove cloth, shaved their bodies, andmade agriculture and grazing important industries for the first time.Communities of farmers lived in either hut villages or protectedhomesteads, and the clan became the center of their socialorganization. Over the years Celtic culture advanced as the tribesbecame expert in working tin, bronze, and iron; the pottery and theirmetal helmets indicate a growing interest and ability in the decorativearts and in ornamentation. The south Britons had a gold coinagesimilar to that of Macedon, and their tribal leaders led a revelrous life,enriched with imported wines and luxury goods. At least the Celts

were not just primitive savages, painted with blue dye, and beyondthe pale of civilization as was once thought.Celtic Religion. Druidism originated in England and spread to Gaul andIreland. The druids were an organized caste of priests who exercisedgreat power. They preached a religion of fear and immorality,worshipped various nature gods in sacred groves, and offered humansacrifices. Druid priests commanded prestige and served as judgesand leaders of tribal opinion.Celtic Britain and Gaul. Druidims, trade, and racial affinity were threeof the ties between Britain and Gaul. The link became even moredirect in 75 BC when the Belgic tribes of Gaul claimed southeast

Britain (modern-day Kent, Middlesex, and Hertforshire) as theirkingdoms. These Gallic Celts dispersed the native Celts from the bestlands of the southeast and were the first tribe to face the nextinvader, Caesar.

Roman Conquest and Consolidation

In contrast to the earlier Celt or later Saxon invaders, the Romanscame to Britain to rule and exploit the island as part of a worldempire, not to disperse the inhabitants and settle in their place. TheRoman objectives in this new method of conquest produced quitedifferent results. Roman rule became urban and efficient, butremained alien, and therefore only temporary in its effects.


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The Roman Conquests. The annexation of Britain was scarcely aprimary objective of Roman expansion, for the British Isles marked thefringe of civilization to those who ruled in imperial Rome. However,when the Romans decided to conquer and colonize Britain, theirsuperior military and political organization was decisive.

The Invasions of Julius Caesar, 55-54 BC. Two attacks on Britain weremade by Julius Caesar during his conquest of Gaul. Certainly one ofhis reasons was to punish the South Britons who were providing aid totheir kinsmen in North Gaul. No doubt, too, Caesars popularity andposition would be enhanced by another victory that would providetribute and slaves for his supporters in Roman and booty for hissoldiers. His first expedition (55 BC) was a military failure. After askirmish with Kentish tribesmen near Dover he withdrew, but returnedthe next year with five legions. This time Caesar won several battlesagainst Cassivelaunus (king of the Belgic tribe of the Catuvellauni),forded the Thames, and penetrated inland approximately to whereLondon now stands. The Britons sued for peace, and Caesar granted atreaty on easy terms because, with renewed disturbances in Gaul, hewas content with hostages and a promise of yearly tribute. TheRomans then departed from Britain without making a permanentoccupation. Caesar, lured on by larger stakes in Rome, crossed theRubicon to his final triumph and tragedy.Results of Caesars Invasion. Caesar described his conquestgraphically in his commentaries On the Gallic Wars, but his sortie intoBritain had few permanent results except to increase trade betweenBritain and the Latinized province of Gaul. Roman traders and settlers

now entered Britain peacefully and spread Roman culture andinfluence. Caesars invasion also proved that the Romans couldconquer Britain at their convenience if they were ready to devote timeand men to that purpose. Almost a hundred years passed before itwas convenient to do so.The Coming of Claudius. While Rome was preoccupied with moreimmediate matters, Britain remained unmolested until 43 AD, whenemperor Claudius ordered Aulus Plautius to invade the island. Thedecision was made because the emperor was anxious for glory andirritated by a revolt in Gaul instigated by the druids; and also becausehis Gallic origins increased his interest in conquering Brtain. The

British defenders, who were led by Caractacus, a son of Cunobelinus(Shakepeares Cymbeline), displayed a vigorous but disunitedresistance. Tacitus later commented upon this fact: Our greatestadvantage in coping with tribes so powerful is that they do not act inconcert. Seldom is it that two or three states meet together to wardoff a common danger. Thus, while they fight singly, they all areconquered. (The Complete Works of Tacitus. Translated by AlfredChurch and William Brodribb; New York: Random House, 1942, p.684). Claudius himself came for a brief period to command thelegions. Within three years Plautius reduced the divided Britons toguerrilla reprisals and brought southeast Britain under Roman rule.But when the legions reached the Welsh mountains and the northern


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moors they, like every other successful invader, encounteredstubborn opposition.Later Roman Conquests. During the governorships of Scapula (47-54AD) and Suetonius (59-61 AD) the Roman occupation was extendednorthward and westward. While Suetonius was suppressing the druids

at their sacred center of worship in Anglesey, the Iceni under QueenBoudicca revolted (81 AJX). The Iceni and their neighboring tribesattacked the Romans and the Britons who fraternized with them In thetowns of Colchester, London, and Veralasmum, in retaliation for theRoman confiscation of their property and the public outragescommitted against their queen and her daughters. Tens of thousandswere massacred in the uprising. Governor Suetonius returned with hislegionnaires and crushed the revolt in a crucial battle; Boudicca tookpoison, and Roman vengeance was inflicted upon the rebelliousBritons. In 78 AD Agricola became the new governor, completed theconquest of Wales, and extended Roman rule into Scotland after hisvictory at Mons Graupius. More is known of Agricolas able leadershipand administration than of any other governor because Tacitus, hisson-inlaw, was Romes most famous historian. Before Agricola wascalled bark to Rome he was able to pacify the south of England by hisconciliatory statesmanship: elsewhere in Britain military expansionalmost ceased. The Roman garrison was reduced to three legionslocated at strategic centers near the frontiers-Caerleon and Chester on the border of Wales and at York in the north.Military Consolidation. A rebellion in Scotland quickly swept awayAgricolas gains and prevented Roman rule from triumphing in

Scotland. In 122 A.D., to protect northern England from barbarianraids. Emperor Hadrian ordered a wall built from the Tyne river toSolway Firth. This famous wall roughly divided England from Scotland(see map. p, 7) A later emperor, Antonius Pins, extended Romancontrol northward and constructed a second fortification, tho AntonineWall, in 143 A.D. However, the Romans overextended their resourcesand the northern tribes overran both walls. Not until Emperor Severusstrengthened the fortresses- and frontiers (208-211 A.D.) did asemblance of peace prevail in the north. These northern wars werethe price Rome paid during these two centuries for the protection andpeace of southern England.

EL MAPA DEL QUE SE HABLA ES DE ROMAN BRITAIN. TODA ELSUDESTE DE INGLATERRA (HASTA UN POCO MAS ABAJO DEL MEDIODE LA ISLA) ESTA MARCADO COMO LA EXTENSION DE LA CONQUISTADEL AO 49 AD. LA PUNTA SUDOESTE (LA PUNTITA DE LA ISLA) ESTACOMO INTERMITTENT OCCUPATION Y LO QUE ES AHORA GALES MASLA ZONA SUR DEL LIMITE CON ESCOCIA ESTAN COMO MILITARYOCCUPATION. ADEMAS ESTAN MARCADAS LAS ROMAN ROADS, QUEPASAN POR LAS PRINCIPALES CIUDADES DE INGLATERRA Y FORMANUNA RED CUYO CENTRO ES LONDRES.

Pax Romana


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Under Roman rule the Britons began to live in towns and traveledfrom town to town on stone highways, Romanization also introducedto the British Isles the atmosphere of the Mediterranean world with itsLatin tongue, its country villas, and its new faith, Christianity. ButRoman rule did not teach the Britons how to govern or how to defend

themselves; thus, when the legions withdrew from the island, theBritons were once again easy for the next invaders.Roman institutions. The Roman conquerors imposed on the Britonstheir imperial administrative structure which included racial andreligious toleration and respect for local chiefs and customs as long asno political opposition was involved. Since Romans were convincedthat civilization was based on urban life, the first thing they did was tobuild cities. But outside these city walls Roman civilization remainedalien to the rural tribesmen.Roman administration. Between the reigns of Claudius (43 AD) andSeverus (211 AD) the province of Britain was administered by Romangovernors whose duties included maintaining peace, collecting taxes,and providing justice. For local government the Romans, like theBritish later in India and Africa, employed Indirect rule by permittingloyal Celtic chiefs to continued to exercise authority over theirtribesmen. On the frontiers the army administered the area, but in theRomano-British south, several privileged cities enjoyed self-government. In the cantons (tribal areas) the magistrates in Romantogas were ususally loval chiefs. This policy served both to Romanizedthe Celt and to minimize friction between ruler and ruled. In lateryears, after several ambitious generals had used their position and

legions in Britain to defy the emperor, and after increasing raids fromthe Scots and the Picts had jeopardized Roman defenses, Britain wasdivided into two, and then four, provinces.Roman achievements. Roman contributions to Britain were largelymaterial. They built towns and established such features of urban lifeas forums, public baths, indoor plumbing, and amphitheaters. Townswere originally constructed for military or commercial purposes, butserved equally as the centers for the diffusion of Latin civilization.

Joining these towns was a network of splendid stone highways thatpermitted the rapid movement of troops and commerce. Manymodern British roads still follow these Roman routes. The new city of

London at the hub of this road system became the chief port of entryfor commerce with the rest of the empire. The tradition of townhouses and country estates (or villas) was another innovation.Probably the urbanized Britons lived more comfortable under theRomans than at any other time until the nineteenth century. TheRomans were indifferent to local religions unless these challenged theomnipotence of the emperor (as did druidsm and Christianity). WhenChristianity was finally granted toleration by Constantine in 313 AD,Roman rule was already weakening, and Romanized Britain remainedessentially paga. Christianity did gain strength in Wales, however, andwas the only institution to survive the departure of the Romans.Roman Withdrawal. By the fourth century, the declining power of theRoman Empire encouraged the Picts, the Scots, and raiders from


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northern Europe to harass Roman outposts in Britain and to force tehRomans to draw in their defensive borders. As the empire becameparalysed by political factionalism and weakened by barbarian attacksfrom the East, Roman legions evacuated Britain to fight elsewhereand never returned. The last Roman soldier left the island in 407 AD,

and Britain, which had been defended by Rome for nearly fourhundred years, had to fend helplessly for itself. Invaders now enteredEngland with ease and killed or displaced the Romanized Britons ofthe south and east. The conquest was made easier by the revival ofintertribal warfare among the Celts. Celtic culture remained in Walesand Cornwall for the same reason that it survived the Roman invasionby existing in such an inhospitable area that any invader wasdeterred. In England, only the roads continued in use to remind theinvading Saxons of Rome; in Wales, a Celtic version of Christianityprospered; every other memory of Rome vanished. Perhaps,therefore, the greates fact in the Roman occupation is a negativefact that the Romans did not succeed in permanently LatinizingBritain as they Latinized France. (Trevelyan, History of England, I,p.30.)

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