scientific revolution & the enlightenment
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Scientific Revolution & the Enlightenment. Chapter 16 Sec 1 – Chapter 20 Sec 2 & 4. Scientific Revolution. Medieval Views. Little difference between science and magic Truth based upon Greek & Roman thought and the Bible. However, the Bible primary authority. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Medieval ViewsLittle difference between science and magic Truth based upon Greek & Roman thought and the
Bible.However, the Bible primary authority.
European scholars start to question ideas of ancient thinkers & the church by observing nature for themselves.Roger Bacon one of the first
Geocentric TheoryConcept that earth is the center of
the universeMoon, Sun and planets all moved in
perfect circular patterns around earth
Fixed stars with the Heaven beyondBased on common sense
observationsGod placed the earth in the center
for life to take place
New Way of ThoughtScientific Revolution: A new way of
thinking about the natural world.Based upon observations of the natural
world and willingness to question beliefs.
Observation and experimental data. Need better tools and techniques.
Barometer, telescope, thermometerUsed Mathematics and related
experiments to verify resultsBecomes Scientific Method
Reasons for…. New Way of thoughtImpact of the Crusades
Exposed Europe to Muslim advancesAstronomy, Physics, and Mathematics
Impact of ExplorationNew discoveries = possibility of new truths
Printing Press helps spread challenging ideas
Results….. Of New Way of thought
Need for better instrumentsNavigation and geographic measurements.Scientific instruments
Observations that did not agree with ancient beliefs
Desire to know more than what seemed to be the “limit”
Heliocentric TheorySun-centered theory - Heliocentric
Nicolaus Copernicus- AstronomerOld Greek theory – Sun is the center.After 25 years observation determines stars and
planets revolve around the sun.Contradicted religious views – So discovery was not
published until much later – 1543.
Heliocentric TheoryJohannes Kepler- Mathematician
Provided proof that Copernicus was correct. Mathematical laws govern the movements of the
planets in an elliptical orbit, not in circles.Not easily accepted, God created universe
Heliocentric TheoryGalileo : Made many significant
advances for scienceBuilt a better telescope
to better observe far off objectsDetermined that not all heavenly objects
revolved around the earth.Church asked him not to defend idea that
earth moves around the sun.Later brought before Roman Inquisition
‘vehemently’ suspect of heresyImprisoned, later changed to house arrest
Cleared by the Vatican in 1992Died 1642
Church ConflictContradicted the bible
Psalm 93:1, 96:10, & 1 Chronicles 16:30"the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved."
Psalm 104:5 "the LORD set the earth on its foundations; it can never
be moved." Ecclesiastes 1:5
"And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place" etc.
If people believed the church could be wrong about the nature of the universe, they could question other church teachings as well.Could lose membersCould lose funds
GalileoAdvances of Galileo:
Law of pendulumeach swing takes same amount of time
Falling objects accelerate at a fixed & predictable rateTelescope
3x magnificationLater up to 32x magnification
Discovered moons orbiting JupiterRings around SaturnObserved sunspotsObserved mountains and craters on moonObserved the Milky Way
Scientific Method
Question – Based on observationHypothesis – Unproved assumptionTest Hypothesis – Experiment/DataAnalyze/Interpret –Draw ConclusionConfirm/Disprove Hypothesis
A logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas
Scientific MethodFrancis Bacon
Used science to generate a practical knowledge to improve people’s lives
Empiricismuse experiments or observational data to find
conclusionsUrged other scientists to experiment as wellDied as a result of one of his experiments
Attempt to use snow to preserve meatCame down ill after stuffing a bird with snow
Scientific MethodRene Descartes
Relied on mathematics and logicUsed strict reasoning to arrive at other
basic truthsObservation, experimentation, with general
laws expressed mathematically will explain the natural world.
Everything should be doubted until proved by reasonI think, therefore I am.The only thing know for certain was self-existence
Developed analytical geometry.
Mathematics: The basis of understanding and explaining the natural world
Scientific AdvancementsScientific Instruments
New tools = precise observations and measurements
MicroscopeInvented by Zacharias Janssen
(Dutch, 1590)Bacteria observed in 1670
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek - DutchRed blood cells observedLife did not spawn spontaneously
(maggots, etc)
Scientific AdvancementsBarometer
Invented by Torricelli (1643)Galileo’s studentMeasures atmospheric pressureUsed to predict weather changes
ThermometerGabriel Fahrenheit (1714, Dutch)
made the first mercury thermometerWater freezes at 32*, boils at 212*
Anders Celsius (1742, Swede)created another scale for the mercury
thermometerWater freezes at 0*, boils at 100*
Scientific AdvancementsDissection:
Middle AgesHuman anatomy based upon Greek
physician GalenGalen based his thoughts upon the
anatomy of animals (pigs)Vesalius (Flemish) :
Pioneered the study of Anatomydissected human corpses, wrote seven
volume work ‘On the Fabric of the Human Body ‘
Detailed drawings of human organs, bones and muscle and how they work together in the body.
Proved that many of Galen’s assumptions were wrong.
Scientific AdvancementsWilliam Harvey :
showed that the heart acted as a pump to circulate blood
described the function of blood vessels.
Wrote “On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals.”
Edward Jenner : introduced vaccination for small-
pox using cow-poxPractice had previously existed in Asia
Scientific AdvancementsElements:
AristotleFour elements: earth, air, fire, and water
Robert BoyleFounder of modern ChemistryUsed Scientific Method Challenged Aristotle’s ideaMatter made up of smaller particles joined together in
different ways.Boyle’s Law – Explains how the volume, temperature and
pressure of gas affect each otherMost important contribution to chemistry
Joseph Priestley and Antoine LavoisierSeparated gas from air – Gas named oxygen.
Notable ScientistsGottfried Liebnitz
Developed calculus – but independently of Newton.Invented the Binary System
Basis for all computer architecturesPhilosophy
Optimism – Idea that God created the best possible world and always chooses the best
Notable Scientists Isaac Newton:
Explained laws of motion All physical objects were affected equally by the same forces Disproved Aristotle’s idea that one set of physical laws
governed the earth and another set governed the rest of the universe
Law of universal gravitation Every object in the universe attracts every other object The degree of attraction depends on the mass/distance of the
objects Wrote Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
(Principia) one of the most important scientific books ever written Gravitation and laws of motion
Universe is a giant clock All the parts work together perfected in a way that could be
expressed mathematically Believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe and
the clock-maker that set everything into motion
Two Views on GovernmentEnlightenment: Age of Reason (mid-1700s)
People looking for laws which govern human behavior Hoped to apply reason and the scientific method to all
aspects of societygovernment, religion, economics, and education
•Thomas Hobbes: English Civil War• Wrote ‘Leviathan’• Human Nature: all humans are
naturally selfish and wicked
• Government kept order and prevented war• Social contract: people exchanged their
rights for law and order
• Absolute monarch imposed order and demanded obedience
• Best form of government
Two Views on GovernmentJohn Locke: Glorious Revolution
Wrote ‘Two Treatises of Government’ Human Nature: people could learn
from experience and improve themselves
Ability to govern their own affairs and to look after the welfare of society
Believed in separation of Church and State
Social ContractPeople and government are bound to
each other by consentContrasts ‘divine right’
Man is born free and equalNatural Rights – life, liberty, property
Government’s purpose is to protect these rights Failure to do so = citizens’ right to overthrow itConsent of the people is the foundation of
modern democracy
Notable Philosophes & IdeasVoltaire: French writer
Fought for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech
Was arrested several times for criticism of the govt.
Used the pen as a deadly weapon vs. intolerance, prejudice, and superstition
“I disprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”
Notable Philosophes & IdeasMontesquieu: French writer
Studied political libertyWrote “On the Spirit of Laws”.Ancient Rome: collapse directly
related to its loss of political liberties
Separation of powers: Based upon British governmentExecutive power=king and his
ministersLegislative=Parliament, law-making
powerJudicial=English courts/judgesPower should be a check to power
Checks and balances: Each branch of government would serve as a check on the other two
Serves as the basis of the Constitution of the United States
Notable Philosophes & Ideas
Jean Jacques Rousseau (Swiss): Committed to individual freedom Argued that civilization corrupted
people’s natural goodnessMan is born free, and everywhere he is
in chainsPeople had lived as free and equal
individualsStrongest forced them to obey unjust
lawsFreedom and equality were destroyed
The only good government was one that was formed by the peopleGuided by the general will of society –
direct democracyLegitimate government came from the
consent of the governedAll people were equal
Notable Philosophes & IdeasCesare Bonesana Beccaria : Italian
Wrote “On Crimes and Punishments.” Railed against common abuses of justice
torture of witnesses and suspectsirregular proceedings in trialscruel and arbitrary punishment
Person should receive a speedy trialtorture should never be usedpunishment should be based on the
seriousness of crimecapital punishment should be abolished
Justice should be based on the principle that governments should seek the greatest good for the greatest number of people
Notable Philosophes & Ideas
Mary Wollstonecraft :
Wrote “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”.
argued that women like men, need education to become virtuous and useful and bring equality between the sexes
Argued women should have the same political rights as men including right to vote.
Her two novels (Mary: A Fiction and Maria, or, The Wrongs of Woman) criticize traditional women's roles.
Education will make them better mothers
Impact of the EnlightenmentImpact of the Enlightenment
Challenged the principle of the Divine Right of Monarchs (Absolutism)The union of church and stateUnequal social classesEncouraged Monarchs to make reforms
Inspired the American, Latin and French RevolutionsHelped shape Western civilization
Scientific Revolution gave people the confidence that human reason could solve social problemsPeople began to openly question their religious beliefs
and the teachings of the church Religious toleration was promoted Individualism – people looked to themselves instead of
the church and royalty for guidancePeople used their own ability to reason in order to judge
what is right and wrong
Spread of IdeasSalons:
Social gatherings Philosophers, writers, artists, scientists, and other great intellects met to discuss ideas and enjoy artistic performances
•Encyclopedia: Edited by Diderot (1741)
• Leading scholars of Europe contributed articles and essays
• The most current and enlightened thinking • Science, technology, art, government
• Helped educate people all over Europe• Opposed by the Catholic Church:
undermined royal authority• encouraged the spirit of revolt• fostered moral corruption, irreligion, and
unbelief•Ideas available to a majority of the population
• Enlightenment ideas reached middle-class people through newspapers, pamphlets, and songs
Enlightened DespotsEnlightenment Despots:
Enlightened – Embraced new ideas and reformsDespot -- absolute ruler
Frederick the Great (Prussia. 1740-1786)Friend of VoltaireGranted many religious freedoms, reduced
censorship, and improved education, reformed governmentSaid “every man must go to heaven his own way.”
Reformed the justice system and abolished the use of torture
Built canals, drained swamps, introduced new crops, such as the potato and turnip, to support peasants
Goal: to serve and strengthen his country
Enlightened DespotsJoseph II (Austria, 1780-1790)
Legal reforms and freedom of press Freedom of worship – even for Protestants, Orthodox
Christians, and Jews Abolished serfdom, required peasants be paid a wage for
labor. Changes reversed after his death
Enlightened Despots
Catherine the Great (Russia, 1762-1796) Took steps to modernize and reform Russia Corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot Formed a Commission to review Russia’s laws
Recommended religious toleration, abolishment of torture, and capital punishment
Commission took none of her suggestions By end of reign
Suppressed peasant revolts, enforced serfdom, practiced religious intolerance
Sought trade access to Black Sea from Ottoman Turks
Divided Poland with Prussia and Austria