MODULE 4

GUIDELINES FOR REPORT WRITING

This is the last step in research process. And requires a set of skills some what

different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research.

The researcher should follow the main principal of writing a report and these

principal are:-

I. There should be objectivity, clarity in the presentation of ideas.

II. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple

language avoiding vague expressions.

III. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they

present the information more clearly.

IV. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various

constraints experienced in conducting research operation may as well be

stated.

SIGNIFICANCE OF WRITING RESEARCH REPORT

Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the

research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented.

As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and

conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations and findings are of

little value unless they are effectively communicated to others.

It means that the purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made

known to others.

LAYOUT OF REPORT

The preliminary pages

The main text

The end matter

THE PRELIMINARY PAGES

In its preliminary pages, the report should carry title and date followed by

acknowledgement and foreword then. There should be a table of contents followed by

a list of tables and list of graphs and charts if any given in the report.

THE MAIN TEXT

The main text of the report should have following parts:-

a) INTRODUCTION:- It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the

research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the

research .

b) SUMMARY OF FINDINGS :- A statement of findings and recommendation in non

technical language should be there after introduction.

c) MAIN REPORT:- The main body of the report should be presented in logical

sequence and sections.

d) CONCLUSION:- At the end of the main text, result of the research should be put

clearly and precisely.

THE END MATTER

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.

Bibliography, i.e list of books, journals, reports etc., consulted, should also be given

in the end .index should also be given specially in a published research report. It

means that the researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and

precisely .in fact, it is the final summing up.

STEPS IN WRITING RESEARCH REPORT

LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SUBJECT MATTER :- It is the first step which is

primarily concerned with the development of a subject and there are two ways in

which to develop a subject .

PREPARATION OF THE FINAL OUTLINE :- Outlines are the framework upon

which long written works are constructed .they are an aid to the logical organizations

of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.

PREPARATION OF THE ROUGH DRAFT :- This step is of utmost importance for

the now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research study.

REWRITING AND POLISHING OF THE ROUGH DRAFT:-In this the researcher

should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or

not .he should check the mechanics of writing grammar, spelling and usage.

PREPARATION OF THE FINAL BIBLIOGRAPHY:- The bibliography ,which is

generally appended to the research report is a list of books in some way pertinent to

the research which has been done.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A bibliography is a list of sources you use in writing a report

Bibliography is a Latin word meaning a list of books

Biblio=Books Graphy=List

Bibliography=list of books

SHOULD CONTAIN:- All those work that researcher has consulted, the first part may

contain the names of the books and pamphlets .and the second part may contain the names of

magazines and newspapers articles, generally this part of bibliography is considered

convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader .

REFERENCING

The two parts to referencing are:

citations in the text of the report

a list of references in the final section

A citation shows that information comes from another source. The reference list gives the

details of these sources. You need to use in-text citations and provide details in the references

section when:

you incorporate information from other sources; e.g.:

o factual material

o graphs and tables of data

o pictures and diagrams

you quote word-for-word from another work (when you do this the page

number must be given in the in-text citation)

In Engineering, the most common referencing style is the author-date (Harvard) system.

However, in Electrical Engineering the IEEE system is used. Full details of these referencing

styles are available from LLS Online Resources or through the Library Online Tutorials

Example of in-text citation and reference list entry using the Harvard referencing style:

In-text citation

Corrosion is defined as a 'chemical action which harms the properties of a metal'

(Glendinning 1973, p.12). Because corrosion reduces the life of the material and protection

procedures are expensive, special corrosion-resistant metals have been developed, including

Monel metals which are particularly suited to marine applications (Glendinning 1973).

Reference list entry

Glendinning, E.H. 1973 English in mechanical engineering, Oxford, Oxford University

Press.

FOOT NOTES

When using footnotes, whenever a source is used in a paper, a footnote is inserted to

credit the source.

Footnotes are shown in text as superscript numbers that relate to a numbered source at

the bottom of the page.

The source at the bottom of the page includes much, if not all, of the original

bibliographic source information

A simple rule: Who, What, Where, When, Which (pages)

– Authors‘ First and Last Names, ―Title‖ Title of Periodical, Owner, or

Publisher (Date of Publication): XX-XX (( page range))

To enter a footnote (in Microsoft Word), place the cursor at the end of the sentence

(after the period) that includes information or ideas from a source. Click ―References‖

and click ―Insert Foot Note‖

This inserts the superscript number and allows you to insert the corresponding source

material at the bottom of the page with the matched number

The order the subscript and citations follow is the order they appear in the text

In the first in-text citation note, do the full citation. Whenever the same text is cited

again, the note can be shortened to include Author Last Name, Main Title, and Page

numbers:

– 5. Johns, Nature of the Book, 384-85.

– If the footnote immediately preceding is from the same text, the abbreviation

―Ibid.‖ can be used with the page numbers; if both the source and page

numbers are the same as the preceding note, ―Ibid.‖ can stand alone.

– 4. Allen Williams, Knowledge from Reading (Los Angeles: Booky Books,

2010), 22-25.

– 5. Ibid., 54-55.

– 6. Ibid.

LAST STEP IN WRITING RESEARCH REPORT

WRITING THE FINAL DRAFT:- This constitutes the last step .the final draft should

be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language ,avoiding vague

expressions such as ―it seems‖, ―there may be‖ etc.

A research report should not be dull but must enthuse people and maintain interest

and must show originality.

It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve some

intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to

the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD REPORT

Attractiveness

Balanced language

No repetition of facts

Statement of scientific facts

Practicability

Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings

REPORT PREPRATION AND PRESENTATION PROCESS

FORMAT OF REPORT

Candidate‘s Declaration

Acknowledgement

Abstract

Major Findings

Recommendations

Conclusions

Contents

List of Figures

List of Tables

Abbreviations

Nomenclature

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Background to the research

Statement of the problem

Justification of the research

Structure of the dissertation

Key definitions

Limitations and key assumptions

Conclusion

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE SURVEY Introduction

Source concerned with research problem

Models related to study

Research questions and hypothesis

Conclusion

CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY Introduction

Justification for the study

Paradigm and Methodology

Research procedures

Conclusion

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction

Subjects

Patterns of data for research questions and hypothesis

Conclusion

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION Introduction

Conclusions about research questions and hypothesis

Research problem conclusions

Implications for policy and practice

Limitations

Further research

Conclusion

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

TYPES OF REPORTS

Research reports are design to convey and record the information that will be of practical use

to the reader. Research report can be classified on the following basis:

On the basis of information

On the basis of representation

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF INFORMATION

1. Technical report

A technical report is written for other researches. In writing the technical

report, the importance is mainly given on the methods that have been used to collect

the informative report.on and the data, the presumptions that are made and finally, the

various presentations techniques that are used to present the findings and the data.

Main features are:

Summary: It covers a brief analysis of the findings of the research in a v.few

pages.

Nature: It contains the reasons for which the research is undertaken, the

analysis and the data that is required in order to prepare the report.

Methods employed: It contains a description of the methods that were

employed in order to collect the data.

Data: It covers a brief analysis of the various sources from which data has

been collected with their features and drawbacks.

Analysis of data and presentations of the findings: It contains the various

forms through which the data that has been analysed can be presented.

Conclusions: It contains a detailed analysis of the various bibliographies that

have been used in order to conduct a research.

Bibliography: It contains a detailed analysis of the various bibliographies that

have been used in order to conduct a research.

Technical Appendices: It contains the appendices for technical matters and

for the questionnaires and mathematical derivations.

Index: The index of the technical report must be provided at the end of the

report.

2. Popular Report

A popular report is formulated when there is a need to draw the conclusions of the

findings of the report. One of the main points of consideration that should be kept in mind

while formulating a research report is that, it must be simple and attractive. It must be

written in a v.simple manner that is understandable to all. Following are the main points

that is to be kept in mind while preparing a popular report:

Findings and their implications: While preparing a popular report, main

importance is given to the findings of the information and the conclusions that

can be drawn out of these findings.

Recommendations for action: If there are any derivations in the report, then

recommendations are made for taking corrective action in order to rectify the

errors.

Objective of the study: In a popular report, the specific objective for which the

research has been undertaken is presented.

Methods employed: The report must contain the various method that have

been employed in order to conduct a research.

Results: The results of the research findings must be presented in a suitable

and appropriate manner by taking the help of charts and diagrams.

Technical Appendices: The report must contain an in-depth information used

to collect the data in the form of appendices.

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF REPRESENTATION

1. Written Report

2. Oral Report

ORAL PRESENTATIONS

We can consider a Presentation in 2 parts

1. Preparing the Presentation.

2. Delivering the Presentation.

Preparing an oral presentation often requires the same kind of research as needed for a

written report.

1. Goals - What content will help to convey the goal you have for your

presentation ?

2. Audience - What information to choose to appease your audience -

particularly their attitudes, interests, biases, and prejudices about the topic.

3. Coverage - What do you need to cover ?

4. Effectiveness - Because listening is more difficult than reading, how to make

the narrative (stories) particularly effective to retain the attention of your

listeners ?

Talks will differ from writing papers, creating poster papers, or writing reports.

The major difference is that the oral presentation needs to be more repetitive.

The standard advice goes like this:

(a) an introduction – tell ‗em what you are going to tell ‗em,

(b) the main body – tell ‗em, and

(c) the conclusion – tell ‗em what you have told ‗em.

FORMULAS FOR SPEECH/PRESENTATION ORGANIZATION

OIBCC – Basic Formula

Opening – grab attention

Introduction – ―Why bring this topic up?‖

Body – bulk of the presentation

Remember that for every important point that you make, you must

provide support and this support can take the form of

Statistics, analogies, testimony, illustrations, or specific

examples.

Conclusion – summarize briefly points

Close – last strong sentences that leave the audience with something to

remember

Must tie to your main idea and should tie to your opening to be

effective

VISUAL AIDS

Makes presentation more interesting and lively

Helps audience understand the presentation

Helps speaker present information more systematically

Reinforce and add impact to information

Illustrate a relationship between ideas

Show information patterns or pictures

Present figures, graphs or charts

Summarize key points

Help audience follow passages or quotations

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication skills are among the intangible skill sets most valued by employers.

The ability to communicate effectively, especially during oral presentations, can boost

your marketability and viability for work in a variety of careers.

To develop strong presentation skills, you need to consider both the verbal and

nonverbal factors involved in delivering your message.

CONVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES OF AUTHENTICATION

The rapid spread of e-Business has necessitated the securing of transactions.

Authentication is a fundamental security function. During authentication, credentials

presented by an individual are validated and associated with the person's identity.

This binding between credentials and identity is typically done for the purpose of

granting (or denying) authorization to perform some restricted operation, like

accessing secured files or executing sensitive transactions.

STRATEGY OF AUTHENTICATION

Designing an authentication strategy involves evaluating your existing infrastructure

and creating accounts, establishing a means to secure the authentication process, and

establishing standards for network authentication and time synchronization. You

might also need to extend your authentication model to allow authentication between

forests or between other Kerberos realms, and to enable delegated authentication in

order to facilitate user access to system resources.

CITATION STYLE

A way of giving credit for someone's thinking, writing or research

You mark the material when you use it (a citation) and give the full identification at

the end (a reference)

In academic writing you are obliged to attribute every piece of material you use to its

author

WHY CITE OR REFERENCE?

Credit sources of information & ideas

Reader can locate for further information if required

Validate arguments

Increase and spread knowledge

Show depth, breadth & quality of your reading!

Book:

Stevens, P. (2003) The Voyage of the Catalpa: A Perilous Journey and Six Irish

Rebels’ Escape to Freedom. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.

Journal article

Stevens, P. (2003) ‗The Voyage of the Catalpa: A Perilous Journey and Six Irish

Rebels‘ Escape to Freedom‘. Irish Journal of Social History 50 (2) 34-42.

AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

The availability of text in digital form increases the possibility of accidentally using

someone else's material without acknowledgement

Make sure you record all the details of the material you make notes on at the time so

that you know who‘s it is later

By all means use quotes and paraphrased material but cite it properly

RESEARCH PAPERS

Six Simple Steps for Writing a Research Paper

Step 1: Understand the Assignment and Set a Schedule: One of the biggest problems

students have when beginning a research paper is that they don‘t understand the assignment.

Make sure that if you have any questions you ask the professor, other students, or come into

the Writing Center. Some specific details you should know are:

• How long the paper has to be (pages, number of words)

• The type of citation preferred by the professor

• Number and types of sources that are allowed (websites, books, articles)

• Whether specific aspects of the paper have different due dates or is it due in full on a

specific date.

• Other formatting details (footnotes, subtitles, heading, double-spacing)

• Set a schedule according to the due dates and how long it will take you to complete each

task. (Day-by-day, week-by-week)

Step 2: Finding a Topic and Question: Once you have figured out what the assignment is

about, it is time to choose a specific topic or question to research. Some things to consider

when choosing a topic:

• Is this topic appropriate? – You may want to have the professor approve it.

• Narrow the focus of your paper. (try to make it as specific as possible)

• Choose a topic that not only interests you, but will also be interesting to the reader.

• You may want to choose a question that your paper will answer. That way, when you are

researching, you are looking for something specific.

• The answer that you find to this question may ultimately become your thesis statement

Step 3: Begin Research : After you have decided the direction you want to take for the

paper, it will now be time to begin researching the topic.

NOTE: Just because you have chosen a topic and question does not mean you have to stick

with that one for the rest of the paper! After you have started researching, you may find

information that makes you want to change your focus. It is fine if you change your question,

but make sure your paper answers the new question and not the old one. Some things to keep

in mind when researching:

• Make sure you use a wide variety of sources (Internet, books, journals, video, interviews,

etc.)

• Allow yourself enough time to research. This will be the most intensive part of the paper,

allow at least two hours per researching session.

• Keep records and copies of all of the information you obtain. Get all of the bibliographical

information while you are researching so you do not have to go back. Make sure you also

make note of where you found the information in case you have to retrieve it later. o Such

information includes:

Title of the article or book

Date it was published or copy written

Author(s) and publishing company

Pages used

• Try to put information into your own words. It is helpful to paraphrase the information in

your own words while you are taking notes to avoid plagiarism later. If you do take quotes

directly from the source, make sure you make a note of that.

• You should also be making notes about specific conclusions that you are drawing from the

material.

• Look specifically for details that support your thesis or question. Sometimes background

information is also necessary.

Step 4: Construct an Outline : Once you have collected all of the research, it may be helpful

to organize your thoughts with an outline. To construct an outline, you must group your notes

together and match information that fits together. An outline should be formatted in this

manner:

I. Introduction (Thesis Statement)

II. Main heading/idea of paragraph #1

a. Supporting detail 1

b. Supporting detail 2

c. Supporting detail 3

III. Main heading/idea of paragraph #2

a. Supporting detail 1

b. Supporting detail 2

c. Supporting detail 3

IV. Main heading/idea of paragraph #3

a. Supporting detail 1

b. Supporting detail 2

c. Supporting detail 3

V. Conclusion

Try to ensure that each paragraph contains approximately the same amount of information.

Depending upon how organized your outline is, you should be able to write your paper

directly from the information in your outline.

Step 5: Write a Draft Now that you have organized your research material, the next step

will be writing the first draft. Keep in mind that you will write multiple drafts, so do not put

excessive pressure on the first one. Some things to keep in mind when writing a draft:

• Try to write with your own voice. Don‘t just spit out researched information. Add your

own conclusions and thoughts.

• Remember to cite your sources when you use them, even in a draft.

• Try to keep your information as organized as possible. That will help the reader understand

what you are trying to say.

• Once you have written a draft, proofread it! Have a peer respond to it or bring it to the

Writing Center to have a tutor help you with it.

Step 6: Write a Final Draft : After you have revised your initial drafts, you should compose

a final draft. This draft should have very few errors, have a clear organization, and be

formatted correctly. Before you hand in your paper, you should make sure you have the

following elements:

1) A cover page stating the course information, the title of your paper, and your name.

2) The final, revised, copy of your paper with any formatting necessary (Footnotes, page

numbers, citations, etc.).

3) A works cited page listing the bibliographical information for each of your sources.

DESIGN OF PARPER USING TEMPLATE

There are common rules in writing academic papers, and researchers should follow

these. Here are some of simple and basic guidelines for students in preparing your research

papers.

1. Typing

All the basic text should be double-spaced, however, footnotes, references, tables,

figures and illustrations may be single-spaced. Triple spacing should be used around

mathematical expressions. Pages should be numbered consecutively, centered at the bottom

of each pages throughout text, excluding the title page.

2. Title Page

Title page of the text must include title, author‘s name and title (name of the

university or college, the department), and the date. Although the title page counts as page 1,

the number is not shown on it.

3. Text

3. 1 Composition of the Body

The body of the paper is usually separated into well-defined division, such as chapters

and sections. Usually it begins with an introduction, which may be called chapter 1, and ends

with an conclusion. Chapters may be divided into sections, which may in turn be divided in to

subsections, and so on. In case of thesis, you have to insert abstract, preface and table of

contents before introduction. Each of the chapter should begin on a new page.

3. 2 Appendix

An Appendix is a group of related items, for example, may contain tables too detailed

for text presentation, a large group of illustrations or figures, technical notes on method or

case studies too long to put into the text. All appendixes go at the end of paper, not at the

ends of chapters. Materials of different categories should be placed in separate appendixes.

Each is given a number or a letter, such as Appendix 1, etc.

3. 3 Bibliography or Reference List

The bibliography or reference list is the last part of the paper. Usually it listed by an

alphabetical order by family names of authors. It is meant to identify a work in full

bibliographical detail: name(s) of author(s), date of publication, full title, place, and

publisher. When you make a bibliography, you should follow these rules:

A list of works by one author may be arranged in chronological order rather

than in alphabetical order.

Single-spaced with one blank line between entries. The first line of each entry

is flush left, and any runover lines are indented five spaces.

Where there are two or more authors‘ names, only the first is inverted in the

bibliography, in order to alphabetize the item. The names following are in

normal order, given name or initials first and family name last.

Whereas commas and parentheses separate the elements in a note, in a

bibliography entry periods are used at the end of each main part: author‘s

name, title of work, and facts of publication. (A single space should be left

after each period.) Bibliographical references to periodicals, however, do use

parentheses around dates of publication following volume numbers.

Page numbers are listed in bibliography entries only when the item is part of a

whole work – a chapter in a book or an article in a periodical. When given,

page numbers must be inclusive – first and last pages of the relevant section.

When an article is continued at the back of a journal or magazine, however,

only its first page should be given

3. 4 Abbreviations

The trend is strongly away form the use of periods, especially in uppercase

abbreviations. The periods have been left wherever they have traditionally

appeared. However, it is well to use periods after lowercase abbreviations that

spell words (e.g., in., act., no.). A period and a space are used after the initials

of personal names (e.g., N.Y., Ph.D., N.Dak., U.S.), however, there should be

no space after that period.

The writer who must form new abbreviations for a paper should spell out all

the words when they appear on the text for the first time. This should be

applied when organizations (the names of government agencies, network

broadcasting companies, associations, fraternal and service organizations,

unions, and other groups) are abbreviated, except definite article like IMF,

OECD.

3. 5 Quotations

Quotations must correspond exactly to the original working, spelling, and

punctuation. Direct quotations require double quotation marks at beginning and end. A prose

quotation of two or more sentences that runs to eight or more lines of text in a paper should

be treated as a block quotation, set off from the text in single-spacing and indented in its

entirety four spaces from the left margin, with no quotation marks at the begging or end. If

the quoted passage itself contains a quotation that is set off with double quotation marks, they

must be changed to single quotation marks. In a block quotation, however, double quotation

marks within the original matter are retained. Note that the source and page numbers directly

follows the terminal punctuation of the quotation. Changes within quotations must be

indicated: use brackets to identify insertions; use ellipses ( . . . ) to show omissions. Also it

should be indicated where emphasis has been added. 4. Tables The conventions governing

the arrangement of the various elements of a statistical table are accepted by many who make

frequent use of tables. Consequently, it is wise to follow existing fashions in the basics of

tabular presentation.

4. 1 Numbering

Every table should be numbered with an arabic numeral and given a title, even though

there may be few tables in the paper. The order in which the tables are mentioned in the text

determines the numbering, which continues straight through all chapters.

Tables in an appendix should be numbered separately from the tables in the text, as

A1, A2, and so on.

4. 2 Position

Ideally, each table should come as close as possible after the first reference to

it. If space permits, however, it is best to finish the paragraph of text in which

the reference occurs before inserting the table. If a table cannot be

accommodated in the space remaining on a given page, continue the text to

make a full page and place the table at the top of the next page.

If a table appears on a text page, three blank lines should be left above it and

three blank lines below.

4. 3 Size and Shape

In most tables the columns run the long way on the page. A table may occupy the full

width of the page or less than the full width. In either case, each table must be centered

horizontally on the page.

When a table is long and narrow, space may be saved and appearance enhanced by

doubling it up – dividing it into equal parts and placing them side by side, repeating the stub

and the column heads (see SAMPLE TABLE 1). A vertical rule separates the two sides.

If a table is too wide for the page, it should be turned lengthwide (broadside table; see

SAMPLE TABLE 2). No text should be placed on a page containing a broadside table. The

page number appears in its usual place as on other text pages.

A table too wide to be accommodated broadside may be arranged vertically on two

facing pages. This is done by turning the first page over so that the text is on the back and

thus faces the next pate (the front of the first page remains blank). If software will not

automatically generate a wide table on facing pages, it may be possible to construct two table

sections that can be mounted on opposite pages and then photocopied. A better solution

might be to print out the table in smaller type or to reduce a standard printout

photographically.

4. 4 Continued Tables

Long tables may be continued from page to page. The table number and the title are

placed at the beginning of the table; the table number only is given on succeeding pages,

written, for example, ―Table 2—Continued‖. Ordinarily the column headings are repeated on

every page, except that in a continued broadside table in which the pages face each other, the

headings need not be repeated on the second page (and the fourth, sixth, etc.). In a table that

is continued, the bottom rule is omitted except on the last page, at the end of the table.

4. 5 Title

Place the table number above the table at the left margin; add a period and

continue with the title, running the first line and succeeding full lines the width

of the table, single-spaced, and centering the last, shortest line: Table 21.

Probable rate of damage per foot-candle for thirty light sources expressed in

percentage relative to zenith day

The title should be substantival in grammatical form. Avoid relative clauses in

favor of participles. Not Number of Families That Subscribe to Weekly News

Magazines But rather, Families Subscribing to Weekly News Magazines

The table may carry a subheading, often in parentheses: Table 36. Investment

in Automobiles since 1900 (in Thousands of Dollars)

4. 6 Column Headings

In typing column heads, leave at least two spaces between the longest lines in

adjacent headings. The width of the column headings generally determines the total width of

a table, so they should be kept as brief as possible. Use either headline- or sentence-style

capitalization, and type runover lines flush left. Spanner and cut-in heads, however, must be

centered above the columns they pertain to. The column head with the most lines defines the

vertical space available for all the heads. In typing, it is simplest to align the last lines of all

the other heads horizontally with the last line of the longest one. Any subheads are typed on

the line below this one. Rules running the full width of the table are customarily typed or

drawn above and below the column heads and any spanners used.

4. 7 Footnotes

Footnotes to a table are of four general kinds and should appear in this order: (1)

source notes, (2) other general notes, (3) notes on specific parts of the table, and (4) notes on

level of probability. Footnotes are typed flush left below the body of the table. Double-space

between items, single-space within. Leave a blank line between the table‘s closing rule and

the first note. Three blank lines separate notes from any continuation of the text following a

table.

4. 8 Ruling

It is increasingly common to omit all vertical rules, even in very large tables, and this

is acceptable if columns are appropriately spaced. Each ruled table should, however, have a

horizontal rule at the top, above the column heads, and a horizontal rule at the end, above any

notes. There are no vertical rules at the sides of a table.

5. Reference List of This Guideline and for Further Reference

CALCULATION OF IMPACT FACTOR

Impact Factor - The impact factor (IF) is a measure of the frequency with which the

average article in a journal has been cited in a particular year. It is used to measure the

importance or rank of a journal by calculating the times it's articles are cited.

How Impact Factor is Calculated?

The calculation is based on a two-year period and involves dividing the number of times

articles were cited by the number of articles that are citable.

Calculation of 2010 IF of a journal:

A = the number of times articles published in 2008 and 2009 were cited by indexed journals

during 2010.

B = the total number of "citable items" published in 2008 and 2009.

A/B = 2010 impact factor

CITATION INDEX

A citation index is a kind of bibliographic database, an index of citations between

publications, allowing the user to easily establish which later documents cite which earlier

documents. A form of citation index is first found in 12th-century Hebrew religious literature.

Legal citation indexes are found in the 18th century and were made popular by citators such

as Shepard's Citations (1873). In 1960, Eugene Garfield's Institute for Scientific

Information (ISI) introduced the first citation index for papers published in academic

journals, first the Science Citation Index (SCI), and later the Social Sciences Citation

Index (SSCI) and the Arts and Humanities Citation Index (AHCI). The first automated

citation indexing was done by CiteSeer in 1997. Other sources for such data include Google

Scholar and Elsevier's Scopus.

General-purpose academic citation indexes include:

ISI (now part of Thomson Reuters) publishes the ISI citation indexes in print

and compact disc. They are now generally accessed through the Web under the

name Web of Science.

Elsevier publishes Scopus, available online only, which similarly combines subject

searching with citation browsing and tracking in the sciences and social sciences

Indian Citation Index is an online citation data which covers peer reviewed journals

published from India. It covers major subject areas such as scientific, technical, medical,

and social sciences and includes arts and humanities. The citation database is the first of

its kind in India.

Each of these offers an index of citations between publications and a mechanism to establish

which documents cite which other documents. They differ widely in cost: the ISI databases

and Scopus are available by subscription (generally to libraries).

In addition, CiteSeer and Google Scholar are freely available online.

ISBN AND ISSN

The ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) and ISBN (International Standard

Book Number) are numeric identification codes. The ISSN, which consists of eight digits, is

used to identify serial publications, whilst the ISBN, which consists of ten digits, is used to

identify books. Whilst the ISSN is optional (the publisher is not legally bound to use it), the

ISBN is mandatory if the book in question falls within the scope of ISBN applicability.

The ISSN and ISBN are not incompatible: some publications may receive both, as in

the case of yearbooks, series of monographs, etc. The ISSN identifies the series whilst the

ISBN identifies the specific instalment or volume. Therefore, the ISSN remains the same for

successive instalments or volumes within a series (provided that the title is not changed),

whilst the ISBN is different for each of them. In the case of publications that receive both an

ISSN and an ISBN, it is advisable to print them together, preceding each number with the

respective abbreviations.

PROJECT PROPOSAL

A proposal is a request for financial assistance to implement a project. The proposal

outlines the plan of the implementing organisation about the project, giving extensive

information about the intention, for implementing it, the ways to manage it and the results to

be delivered from it (FUNDS FOR NGOS 2010).The following guidelines are designed to

help you prepare your full proposal. How well you plan the action is critical to the success of

the project.

A project proposal is a detailed description of a series of activities aimed at solving a

certain problem (NEBIU 2002). In order to be successful, the document should:

provide a logical presentation of a research idea

illustrate the significance of the idea

show the idea's relationship to past actions

articulate the activities for the proposed project

Designing a project is a process consisting of two elements, which are equally

important and thus essential to forming a solid project proposal:

project planning (formulation of project elements)

proposal writing (converting the plan into a project document)

The project proposal should be a detailed and directed manifestation of the project

design. It is a means of presenting the project to the outside world in a format that is

immediately recognised and accepted.

Getting Ready to Start a Project Proposal

From vision to proposal: The first step is to decide what the problem is and develop a

rough idea (vision) of how this could be solved. This vision is then to be transformed

into an idea for a specific project proposal. A logical framework may help you to

structure this idea in a systematic way, and clearly define the aim, purpose, outputs,

activities, means, costs and the methodologies for monitoring and evaluation, and will

thus from the basis for the preparation of the narrative of the proposal. Remember that

your idea may have to fit certain requirements if you are answering to a call for

proposals, and that it must also fit local policies and frameworks.

Identify potential funding options: It is necessary to find out in advance what sources

of funding are available, through governments, international cooperation agencies,

some international NGOs or private foundations.

Build a project proposal team: a leader will be needed to manage the proposal

development in an efficient way, and therefore it is advisable to assign the lead role to

one specific person. This person is then responsible for the coordination of the overall

proposal development, for communication with potential funders and for making sure

that all different pieces of input are brought together in a consistent and coherent text.

Experts with more detailed technical knowledge might be part of the team, or simply

contribute to an initial brainstorming session. Furthermore, the budget should be

compiled in close cooperation with staff from the financial department. Input

from stakeholders or other specialists with different backgrounds helps bring in the

necessary expertise to the project.

Hold a kick-off meeting: It is helpful to discuss and develop the proposal in a small

team and share drafts with experts of all relevant disciplines not just from within the

administration, but also from outside it. Input from stakeholders or other specialists

with different backgrounds helps bring in the necessary expertise, but also a larger

variety of ideas on how to solve a particular issue and achieve the previously agreed

objectives.

Proposal Writing

The proposal format might sometimes be of importance for the donor. Source:

unknown

―The requirements of content and format of proposals differ noticeably from one

sponsoring agency to another. While some may provide their own application forms to be

filled, and others may request on-line submission of proposals, others will accept a proposal

in any format as long as it features the necessary information, and does not contradict their

conditions‖ (AUB 2010).

Proposed Format for a Full Project Proposal

(Adapted from NEBIU 2002)

A full proposal should have the following parts:

Title page: A title page should appear on proposals longer than three to four pages.

The title page should indicate the project title, the name of the lead organisation (and

potential partners, if any), the place and date of project preparation and the name of

the donor agency to whom the proposal is addressed.

Project title: The project title should be short, concise, and preferably refer to a

certain key project result or the leading project activity. Project titles that are too long

or too general fail to give the reader an effective snapshot of what is inside.

Abstract/Executive Summary: Many readers lack the time needed to read the whole

project proposal. It is therefore useful to insert a short project summary, an abstract or

executive summary. The abstract should include: the problem statement, the project‘s

objectives, implementing organisations; key project activities; and potentially the total

project budget. Theoretically, the abstract should be compiled after the relevant items

already exist in their long form. For a small project the abstract may not be longer

than 10 lines. Bigger projects often provide abstracts as long as two pages.

Context: This part of the project describes the social, economic, political and cultural

background from which the project is initiated. It should contain relevant data from

research carried out in the project planning phase or collected from other sources.

Project justification: A rationale should be provided for the project. Due to its

importance, this section is sometimes divided into four or more sub-sections:

o Problem statement: The problem statement provides a description of the

specific problem(s) the project is trying to solve, in order to ―make a case‖ for

the project. Furthermore, the project proposal should point out why a certain

issue is a problem for the community or society as a whole, i.e. what negative

implications affect the target group. There should also be an explanation of the

needs of the target group that appear as a direct consequence of the described

problem.

o Priority needs: The needs of the target group that have arisen as a direct

negative impact of the problem should be prioritised. An explanation as to

how this decision was reached must also be included.

o The proposed approach (type of intervention): The project proposal should

describe the strategy chosen for solving the problem and precisely how it

will lead to improvement.

o The implementing organisation: This section should describe the capabilities

of your organisation by referring to its capacity and previous project record.

Describe why exactly your organisation is the most appropriate to run the

project, its connexion to the local community, the constituency behind the

organisation and what kind of expertise the organisation can provide. If other

partners are involved in implementation provide some information on their

capacity as well.

o Project aims: This information should be obtained from the Logframe Matrix,

including the project goal (a general aim that should explain what the core

problem is and why the project is important, i.e. what the long-term benefits to

the target group are), project purpose (that should address the core problem in

terms of the benefits to be received by the project beneficiaries or target group

as a direct result of the project) and the outputs (i.e. results describe the

services or products to be delivered to the intended beneficiaries).

Target group: define the target group and show how it will benefit from the project.

The project should provide a detailed description of the size and characteristics of the

target groups, and especially of direct project beneficiaries.

Project implementation: The implementation plan should describe activities and

resource allocation in as much detail as possible. It is exceptionally important to

provide a good overview of who is going to implement the project‘s activities, as well

as when and where. The implementation plan may be divided into two key elements:

the activity plan and the resource plan. The activity plan should include specific

information and explanations of each of the planned project activities. The duration of

the project should be clearly stated, with considerable detail on the beginning and the

end of the project. In general, two main formats are used to express the activity plan: a

simple table (a simple table with columns for activities, sub-activities, tasks, timing

and responsibility in a clear and readily understandable format) and the Gantt

chart (a universal format for presenting activities in certain times frames, shows the

dependence and sequence for each activity, see project management for more info.

The resource plan should provide information on the means necessary to undertake

the project. Cost categories are established at this stage in order to aggregate and

summarise the cost information for budgeting.

Budget: An itemised summary of an organisation‘s expected income and expenses

over a specified period of time.

Monitoring and evaluation: The basis for monitoring is set when the indicators for

results are set. The project proposal should indicate: how and when the project

management team will conduct activities to monitor the project‘s progress; which

methods will be used to monitor and evaluate; and who will do the evaluation.

Reporting: The schedule of project progress and financial report could be set in the

project proposal. Often these obligations are determined by the standard requirements

of the donor agency. The project report may be compiled in different versions, with

regard to the audience they are targeting.

Management and personnel: A brief description should be given of the project

personnel, the individual roles each one has assumed, and the communication

mechanisms that exist between them. All the additional information (such as CVs)

should be attached to the annexes.

Applicability

Proposals are prepared to apply for external funds for the implementation of a project.

Most grant applications ask for the same information, but they often have different formats.

Some will have a list of questions. Others will ask for a ―narrative‖ — the story of your

project.

Advantages

A proposal is an essential marketing document that helps cultivate an initial

professional relationship between an organisation and a donor over a project to be

implemented

A proposal facilitates appropriate words for the conception of an idea

The proposal has a framework that establishes ideas formally for a clear

understanding of the project for the donor

Successful proposals mean financial aid for the organisation to grow for the

replication of project and ideas

Disadvantages

Planning problems: Although a good idea exists, yet when we try to plan it out

extensively, we face many unexpected challenges

There are often tight deadlines, and proposals may be rejected