S C O P EWinter 2011Culture middot Science middot Politics middot Businesswwwscope-magcom

S C O P EWinter 2011Culture middot Science middot Politics middot Businesswwwscope-magcom

Ruling North Korea

The Raghu Dixit Project

A new logo for Brazil

Nana Kofi Acquah

Land and the Innu

World mind OCD

Dilemmas of combat

No to consumer choice

Basim Magdy

Mobius strip lighting

Australias spooks

Content farms

Pop can solar heating

CIA vs Castro the docs

Things you find on SCOPE the blogwwwscope-magcom

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 1

4 Scaling human nature upa conversationPETER RICHERSONCHARLES WOHLFORTH

ldquoEven the most self-centered egoists in their

ancient tribes would with sufficient brain

power realize they could accomplish more

together than alonerdquo

S C O P E

PHOTOGRAPHY BY J HENRY FAIR

PAINTINGS BY RON EADY

14 The sweatshop on yourconscienceN CRAIG SMITH AND ELIN WILLIAMS

ldquoBut global supply chains are notoriously

hard to police low pay long hours poor

conditions and child labor are endemic in

todayrsquos fashion businessrdquo

22 Composer in waitingMICHAEL K SLAYTON

ldquoHearing Austinrsquos music creates a desire to

understand it Juxtaposed within its walls

are the zealous strains ofunbridled

Romanticism seemingly impenetrable

dissonances and sudden flashes oflucid

tonal clarityrdquoART BY MARGUERITA BORNSTEIN

2 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

S C O P E34 My faceless friends

NICHOLAS STEDMAN

ldquoThe first time the blanket animated was in

a fitful dance ofrandom movements As I

worked on it I felt like Iwas training a wild

animal very laboriously I soon lost interest

in connecting to other peoplerdquoART BY JASON THIELKE

42 The least arty photographerTERRI WEISSMAN

ldquoIt moves the discussion away from the idea

ofobjective representation and toward one

that takes into account contingency and the

not-picturedmdashsomething which the camerarsquos

lens does not see and therefore cannot repro-

duce literally but which is thererdquoTHE PHOTOGRAPHY OF BERENICE ABBOTT

52 Origins amp endings AusterityJEET HEER

ldquo1534 Paris Protestant theologian John

Calvin criticizes luxury Followers prove

their virtue by working hard and deferring

gratification In the process they grow richrdquo

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 3

I have never quite accepted the notion that the world is changing fasterand is more chaotic and unpredictable than ever before The more Iread into history and literature the more Irsquom convinced that human

beings in previous centuries had quite as much uncertainty to deal with as wedo today The fabled stability of ancient Rome A trick played on the eyes bydistance obscuring a tumult of civil and foreign wars changes of regimeeconomic expansion and contractionmdashnot to mention plague and religiousrevolution Modern states are oases of calm in comparison to this cacophony

And technological progress Well if your definition of ldquorevolutionrdquo is thedevelopment of a flat computer that makes it easier to read magazines on thetrain (therersquos a name for that gadget but itrsquos escaped me) then Irsquom not at allsure what word yoursquod use to refer to the invention of the automobile theharnessing of electricity or the biting of the first plough into theMesopotamian soil Ours is an age of a million innovations it is truemdashbuttheyrsquore generally humble ones

Yet at least two things do make the twenty-first century special The first isa return to form the famous inescapably in-your-face phenomenon of theldquoflatteningrdquo world For most of history urban-based civilizations around theplanet have offered similar qualities of life Something happened in Europe inthe late eighteenth century and for a hundred years or so relative economicstrength allowed the continent and its colonies to dominate large parts of theworld But now the ldquosomethingrdquo that happened in Europe has beenhappening everywhere elsemdashfaster this time roundmdashand the world isshifting back into its traditional state of rough equality

This is a development that you might reasonably call ldquobigrdquo But what iseven bigger is what it implies for human creativity both intellectual andartistic The expansion of an economic middle class implies the expansion ofan educated middle class which brings along with it increased demand forcultural goods and an increased ability to develop solutions to difficultproblems The rise of the emerging economies therefore means not onlygreater wealth but also greater brain power No longer is it sufficient to payattention to New York and London to stay at the leading edge of ideas

Ideasmdashwhatever their originsmdashthat can now be shared globally andquickly This is the second great attribute of the new century the ability of anopen network like the Internet to act as a single hub connecting billions ofusers and the power of a lingua franca (English these days) to act as acommon meeting point for the ideas themselves a meeting point surroundedby a panoply of vibrant cultures developing ideas in their own languages Anunprecedented proportion of the creative production of the world is thusaccessible to anyone at any time to draw from or to add to

ldquoA cityrdquo writes Rebecca Solnit in her recent book Infinite City A SanFrancisco Atlas ldquois a particular kind of place perhaps best described as manyworlds in one place it compounds many versions without reconciling themrdquoSuch is the world at large today a single city of many neighbourhoods eachof them distinct few of them reconciledmdashyet sharing a commoninfrastructure and a common vulnerability to storm and shock Founded in aspirit of community amid the bright lights of an imaginative energetic andsociable century this magazine looks forward with hope

mdash I GARRICK MASON

S C O P EWinter 2011 Vol 1 No 1

Publisher amp editorI Garrick MasonOnline contributorsLuke GrundyZachary KuehnerMarketingSandra Janus

SCOPE Magazine is publishedquarterly in Toronto Canadaby Hassard Fay IncSubscriptions (all countries)US$20 for 4 digital issuesyrWebsite amp blogwwwscope-magcomContacteditorscope-magcomAdvertising and sponsorshipinformation available upon request

Copyright copy 2011 Hassard Fay IncAll rights reserved

Editorrsquos letter

Front cover art by Jason ThielkehttpwwwjasonthielkecomBack cover photo by Bo Wanghttpbozkwangwordpresscom

2 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

S C O P E34 My faceless friends

NICHOLAS STEDMAN

ldquoThe first time the blanket animated was in

a fitful dance ofrandom movements As I

worked on it I felt like Iwas training a wild

animal very laboriously I soon lost interest

in connecting to other peoplerdquoART BY JASON THIELKE

42 The least arty photographerTERRI WEISSMAN

ldquoIt moves the discussion away from the idea

ofobjective representation and toward one

that takes into account contingency and the

not-picturedmdashsomething which the camerarsquos

lens does not see and therefore cannot repro-

duce literally but which is thererdquoTHE PHOTOGRAPHY OF BERENICE ABBOTT

52 Origins amp endings AusterityJEET HEER

ldquo1534 Paris Protestant theologian John

Calvin criticizes luxury Followers prove

their virtue by working hard and deferring

gratification In the process they grow richrdquo

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 3

I have never quite accepted the notion that the world is changing fasterand is more chaotic and unpredictable than ever before The more Iread into history and literature the more Irsquom convinced that human

beings in previous centuries had quite as much uncertainty to deal with as wedo today The fabled stability of ancient Rome A trick played on the eyes bydistance obscuring a tumult of civil and foreign wars changes of regimeeconomic expansion and contractionmdashnot to mention plague and religiousrevolution Modern states are oases of calm in comparison to this cacophony

And technological progress Well if your definition of ldquorevolutionrdquo is thedevelopment of a flat computer that makes it easier to read magazines on thetrain (therersquos a name for that gadget but itrsquos escaped me) then Irsquom not at allsure what word yoursquod use to refer to the invention of the automobile theharnessing of electricity or the biting of the first plough into theMesopotamian soil Ours is an age of a million innovations it is truemdashbuttheyrsquore generally humble ones

Yet at least two things do make the twenty-first century special The first isa return to form the famous inescapably in-your-face phenomenon of theldquoflatteningrdquo world For most of history urban-based civilizations around theplanet have offered similar qualities of life Something happened in Europe inthe late eighteenth century and for a hundred years or so relative economicstrength allowed the continent and its colonies to dominate large parts of theworld But now the ldquosomethingrdquo that happened in Europe has beenhappening everywhere elsemdashfaster this time roundmdashand the world isshifting back into its traditional state of rough equality

This is a development that you might reasonably call ldquobigrdquo But what iseven bigger is what it implies for human creativity both intellectual andartistic The expansion of an economic middle class implies the expansion ofan educated middle class which brings along with it increased demand forcultural goods and an increased ability to develop solutions to difficultproblems The rise of the emerging economies therefore means not onlygreater wealth but also greater brain power No longer is it sufficient to payattention to New York and London to stay at the leading edge of ideas

Ideasmdashwhatever their originsmdashthat can now be shared globally andquickly This is the second great attribute of the new century the ability of anopen network like the Internet to act as a single hub connecting billions ofusers and the power of a lingua franca (English these days) to act as acommon meeting point for the ideas themselves a meeting point surroundedby a panoply of vibrant cultures developing ideas in their own languages Anunprecedented proportion of the creative production of the world is thusaccessible to anyone at any time to draw from or to add to

ldquoA cityrdquo writes Rebecca Solnit in her recent book Infinite City A SanFrancisco Atlas ldquois a particular kind of place perhaps best described as manyworlds in one place it compounds many versions without reconciling themrdquoSuch is the world at large today a single city of many neighbourhoods eachof them distinct few of them reconciledmdashyet sharing a commoninfrastructure and a common vulnerability to storm and shock Founded in aspirit of community amid the bright lights of an imaginative energetic andsociable century this magazine looks forward with hope

mdash I GARRICK MASON

S C O P EWinter 2011 Vol 1 No 1

Publisher amp editorI Garrick MasonOnline contributorsLuke GrundyZachary KuehnerMarketingSandra Janus

SCOPE Magazine is publishedquarterly in Toronto Canadaby Hassard Fay IncSubscriptions (all countries)US$20 for 4 digital issuesyrWebsite amp blogwwwscope-magcomContacteditorscope-magcomAdvertising and sponsorshipinformation available upon request

Copyright copy 2011 Hassard Fay IncAll rights reserved

Editorrsquos letter

Front cover art by Jason ThielkehttpwwwjasonthielkecomBack cover photo by Bo Wanghttpbozkwangwordpresscom

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 3

I have never quite accepted the notion that the world is changing fasterand is more chaotic and unpredictable than ever before The more Iread into history and literature the more Irsquom convinced that human

beings in previous centuries had quite as much uncertainty to deal with as wedo today The fabled stability of ancient Rome A trick played on the eyes bydistance obscuring a tumult of civil and foreign wars changes of regimeeconomic expansion and contractionmdashnot to mention plague and religiousrevolution Modern states are oases of calm in comparison to this cacophony

And technological progress Well if your definition of ldquorevolutionrdquo is thedevelopment of a flat computer that makes it easier to read magazines on thetrain (therersquos a name for that gadget but itrsquos escaped me) then Irsquom not at allsure what word yoursquod use to refer to the invention of the automobile theharnessing of electricity or the biting of the first plough into theMesopotamian soil Ours is an age of a million innovations it is truemdashbuttheyrsquore generally humble ones

Yet at least two things do make the twenty-first century special The first isa return to form the famous inescapably in-your-face phenomenon of theldquoflatteningrdquo world For most of history urban-based civilizations around theplanet have offered similar qualities of life Something happened in Europe inthe late eighteenth century and for a hundred years or so relative economicstrength allowed the continent and its colonies to dominate large parts of theworld But now the ldquosomethingrdquo that happened in Europe has beenhappening everywhere elsemdashfaster this time roundmdashand the world isshifting back into its traditional state of rough equality

This is a development that you might reasonably call ldquobigrdquo But what iseven bigger is what it implies for human creativity both intellectual andartistic The expansion of an economic middle class implies the expansion ofan educated middle class which brings along with it increased demand forcultural goods and an increased ability to develop solutions to difficultproblems The rise of the emerging economies therefore means not onlygreater wealth but also greater brain power No longer is it sufficient to payattention to New York and London to stay at the leading edge of ideas

Ideasmdashwhatever their originsmdashthat can now be shared globally andquickly This is the second great attribute of the new century the ability of anopen network like the Internet to act as a single hub connecting billions ofusers and the power of a lingua franca (English these days) to act as acommon meeting point for the ideas themselves a meeting point surroundedby a panoply of vibrant cultures developing ideas in their own languages Anunprecedented proportion of the creative production of the world is thusaccessible to anyone at any time to draw from or to add to

ldquoA cityrdquo writes Rebecca Solnit in her recent book Infinite City A SanFrancisco Atlas ldquois a particular kind of place perhaps best described as manyworlds in one place it compounds many versions without reconciling themrdquoSuch is the world at large today a single city of many neighbourhoods eachof them distinct few of them reconciledmdashyet sharing a commoninfrastructure and a common vulnerability to storm and shock Founded in aspirit of community amid the bright lights of an imaginative energetic andsociable century this magazine looks forward with hope

mdash I GARRICK MASON

S C O P EWinter 2011 Vol 1 No 1

Publisher amp editorI Garrick MasonOnline contributorsLuke GrundyZachary KuehnerMarketingSandra Janus

SCOPE Magazine is publishedquarterly in Toronto Canadaby Hassard Fay IncSubscriptions (all countries)US$20 for 4 digital issuesyrWebsite amp blogwwwscope-magcomContacteditorscope-magcomAdvertising and sponsorshipinformation available upon request

Copyright copy 2011 Hassard Fay IncAll rights reserved

Editorrsquos letter

Front cover art by Jason ThielkehttpwwwjasonthielkecomBack cover photo by Bo Wanghttpbozkwangwordpresscom

4 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Charles Wohlforth Your work shows howhuman pro-social tendencies could haveevolved as a consequence of people living ingroups with cultural traditions forcooperation A tribe that works togethereffectively has a better chance of survivalCultural norms enforcing cooperation keepthe tribe on track Sanctions affect the abilityof defectors or non-cooperators to

reproducemdashfor example a man who wontfight in battle for the tribe is shunned andcannot find a mate Over time biologicaladaptation follows those cultural norms andwe come out of the womb programmed forshame and loyalty and other emotions thatmake us good group members

The debate rages in evolutionary biologybetween kin selection and group or multi-

Scaling human nature upA conversation about community globalgovernance and climate change

PETER J RICHERSON AND CHARLES WOHLFORTH

Peter J Richerson is Professor Emeritus of Environmental Science and Policy at theUniversity of California He is the author with Robert Boyd of Not By Genes Alone HowCulture Transformed the Evolutionary Process (U Chicago Press 2006) and Culture and theEvolutionary Process (1985) httpwwwdesucdavisedufacultyRichersonRichersonhtmCharles Wohlforth is a freelance journalist based in Alaska and the author of The Whale andthe Supercomputer (which won The Los Angeles Times Book Prize for Science amp Technology)and most recently The Fate of Nature Rediscovering Our Ability to Rescue the Earth(St Martinrsquos Press 2010) httpwwwwohlforthnet

Interloc brings thinkerstogether to explore aquestion throughconversation and theenriching interplay ofideas beliefs andexperiences it fostersFor this issue we invitedPeter Richerson andCharles Wohlforth toaddress the followingquestion ldquoIs the model ofresource-use cooperationin self-organizedcommunities relevant tosolving large-scaleenvironmental problemsthat span communitiesand nations In otherwords can the conceptsof community andcooperation scale to theglobal level If so howrdquo

INTERLOC

PHOTOGRAPHS BY J HENRY FAIR SELECTED FROM

THE DAYAFTER TOMORROW IMAGES OFOUR EARTH INCRISIS

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 5

level selection allowing wags to point outthat a war is going on among scientists whostudy cooperation and altruism But yourtheory sidesteps much of that technicaldebate by taking it out of biology at least inthe critical step of how cooperation starts inthe first place Even the most self-centeredegoists in their ancient tribes would withsufficient brain power realize they couldaccomplish more together than alone Andthey could devise sanctions for keeping thegroup working together It makes sense thatthose rules would ultimately be bred into us

As youve noted we all ended up withboth pro-social and self-interested tendencieswhich can play out in many ways in manysettings Im interested in how they play out inthe setting of the globe as a whole We areagain faced with an adaptation challenge thatof fitting our species within an ecologicalniche which encompasses all life We arentdoing well at it Individual and groupcompetition are driving economic growththat is changing the climate acidifying theoceans and dismantling ecosystems Researchsuggests that groups or communities canmanage common resources sustainably butweve seen little evidence that nations canand even less evidence that internationalorganizations can get humankind as a wholeto overcome the acquisitive consumptive andcompetitive side of our nature Is the pro-social side of ourselves ineffective on theselarger scales Is that a stage in culturalevolution we havent reached yetmdashand maynot reach in time to solve the problems thatface us

I have given a lot of thought to the ideathat we do create pro-social norms for theenvironment and we have made progress inimposing on environmental wasters the kindof social sanctions that work on smallerscales For example in our country the lastfew decades have created a norm of strongdisapproval for those who throw litter on theside of the road The point Ive tried todevelop in my book The Fate of Nature isthat we need political and social institutions

that will allow communities to establish thesenorms which can then propagate inter-group through personal contact and perhapsthrough the media to change theenvironmental ethos of society as a wholeEven the richest oil company president or hishirelings in government cant ignore the basicmoral presuppositions of the culture

But your idea about how this worked inprimitive times suggests that parochialism isalso a fundamental part of developing pro-social cultural norms Feelings of us-against-them build group affiliation and a strongbasis for punishing defectors Lab researchon communities that successfully manage thecommons point to in-group prejudice as animportant component of making thosesystems work Can we really expand pro-social affiliation to the entire world If notcan our good acts with our local communitiesand common resources create norms ofbroader effect beyond the direct reach or ourown groups

Enough to chew onPeter Richerson Plenty to chew on

You are right to worry about the problemof parochialism

In The Descent of Man Darwin spoke ofselection at the level of tribes favoring twosorts of moral impulses sympathy on theone hand and loyalty and patriotism on theother He argued that sympathy was anengine for moral progress Sympathy isinclusive and helps people imagine how theirmoral community can be enlarged beyondtheir natal tribe or nation Laws religion andthe example of good men (sic) were amongthe cultural means by which the ldquoinstinctrdquo ofsympathy could act as a force for enlargingcooperative communities Loyalty andpatriotism are more dubious virtues In manysituations as we know all too well from thenews if not from personal experience loyaltyto tribe or religion helps bring order withingroups but also leads to distrust and evenhatred of outgroups intergroup anarchy andspasms of dreadful violence Rob Boydrsquos and

OPPOSITEJ Henry FairTexas City Texas

6 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

my ldquotribal social instincts hypothesisrdquooutlined in our book Not By Genes AloneHow Culture Transformed HumanEvolution is a modernization of Darwinrsquosidea

The contemporary world faces a numberof global-scale challenges including climatechange biodiversity loss emerging diseasesand economic instability The first primitivestab at globalization symbolized byMagellanrsquos circumnavigation has evolved intoa tight web of links that bind the world upThe growth of the human population and ofaffluence per capita has made our species theearthrsquos first dominant organism since perhapssome pioneering photosynthetic bacteriumthree billion years ago The evolution of ourdominance has been exceedingly swift bornof the capacity of huge sophisticatedpopulations to fuel explosive technologicaland social change Simple back-of-the-envelope arithmetic argues that life on earth

could easily become quite unpleasant unlesswe are prepared to manage our dominanceYou donrsquot need an ocean-atmosphere-coupled General Circulation Model to tellwhich way the wind blows

On the positive side the trend of culturalevolution over the last ten millennia isfavorable as regards the balance of sympathyover patriotism As human populations andhuman sophistication have grown we havedeveloped ever more sophisticated tools todeal with the problems generated by our ownsuccess The growth of multiethnic empires2500 years ago led to the development ofldquoAxial Agerdquo philosophies and religions with abroadly humanistic rather than parochial coreideology In the twentieth century two awfulworld wars and the invention of cheapnuclear weapons led to new internationalinstitutions to protect human rights and tocontain the nuclear genie The EuropeanUnion has gotten some handle on conflicts in

J Henry Fair Barataria Bay Louisiana

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 7

the twentieth centuryrsquos most dangerousregion

On the negative side the main ideologicalenergy that has organized the onrushingmodernization and globalization of the lasttwo centuries has been nationalism with itstypically rather extreme demands for loyaltyand patriotic fervor Attempts in Europe topromote multiculturalism under the EUbanner have provoked the formation ofinfluential reactionary nationalist parties innations that we formerly considered some ofthe most enlightened More generally thecomplex societies of the last 5000 years haveproven susceptible to boom and bustdynamics the causes of which we do not yetunderstand very well

Nationalism and tribalism are not the onlygame in the global village The great religionshave produce unifying thinkers and doers likethe Dali Lama Desmond Tutu and MartinLuther King Unfortunately these samereligions have spawned fundamentalisttendencies sometimes with nationalistconnections as in the Balkans Secularhumanists have a cool well-reasonedinternationalist policy agenda but donrsquot excitemass enthusiasm I donrsquot see any immediateprospect for a successful globalist ideologywith mass appeal that will decisivelystrengthen our capacity to sympathize withour fellow humans regardless of tribenation or confession

The globersquos work for the immediate futureseems destined to remain largely dependenton the efforts of internationalist elitesdiplomats businessmen leaders of non-governmental organizations ecumenical andproselytizing religious leaders scientists andenvironmentalists This is an awkward stateof affairs in a democratic age Jingoisticpoliticians can whip up national and sectarianloyalties that greatly handicap themanagement of global problems as our mostrecent election in the United States showedYou and your colleagues who write so wellfor the general public are certainly creating anenvironmental ethos The generational shift

in attitudes is palpable and we can hopedurable However the drive to achievechanges in attitudes that allow sympathy totrump national and sectarian loyalties to thedegree necessary to tackle global scaleproblems looks to me as if it is going to be anear-run thing

Consider the power of consumerism Therate of human population increase is slowingand is expected to stabilize or even beginshrinking in the next few decades But in themeantime affluence per capita continues torise especially in the big and formerly poorBRIC nations Exploding affluence needssomehow to be contained but despite muchexcellent academic work and finger-waggingby many including Pope John Paul II littleimpact on popular thought is evidentWohlforth It seems were trying to solve allthe worlds problems at once I suppose thatis a hazard posed by the perspective of yourwork in which you take on big ideas and findpatterns and drivers in the mix of biologicaland cultural roots of behavior There is adefinite challenge in moving from thatframework to making normative orprescriptive statements for individuals In mywriting trying to create the environmentalethos you allude to I seek to make thatlinkmdashto help people to see themselves withinthe world system and take individualresponsibility Small as we are as organisms incomparison to these problems nonethelessthat is the level at which change must occurOnly individuals are able to form values ormake decisions tribes corporations andnations are groups of individuals

The last paragraph of your responseseems key to me Materialism and

Small as we are as organisms incomparison to these problemsnonetheless that is the level atwhich change must occur

8 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

consumerism as we live them in thedominant culture have two characteristicscritical for this discussion First they matterdirectly it is hard to see how we can preservea finite biosphere while pursuing infinitelyexpanding needs and wants Second thedesire for increasing wealth is fundamentallyan individual one Here is a level at which wecan make decisions that connect our ethics toconsequences in the material world

Is the desire for ever-increasing wealthand power programmed into human beingsby evolution Or can cultural evolutionprogress through the creation of a newnorm or ethical value for sufficiency Forexample imagine a world in whichaccumulation of unnecessary materialpossessions has become an embarrassmentrather than a status symbol Maybe socialstatus could be gained instead through non-material achievements or acquisitions orthrough contributions to social goods Suchgoods and acquisitions need not exist in thephysical world and therefore would carry noresource price

Your discussion of nationalism is well-taken The impulse toward parochialismmakes me pessimistic not only aboutinternational agreements and organizationsbut even about the ability of individualnations to make meaningful progress onthese issues However addressingconsumerism as an ethical and social issuesidesteps those issues As norms againstmaterialism take hold (and they are alreadydoing so) they could be transmitted cross-culturally and beyond national boundaries byHollywood and other cultural exportmechanisms Can the internationalentertainment industry which was built toadvance and power consumerism and the sale

of products also function to communicatenorms for sufficiency Maybe this is a way wecan express our sympathetic impulses as asocietyRicherson Darwinrsquos rather neglectedDescent of Man proposes a theory ofprogress the nut of which is captured here

With highly civilized nations continuedprogress depends in a subordinatedegree on natural selection Themore efficient causes of progress seemto consist of a good education duringyouth while the brain is impressibleand of a high standard of excellenceinculcated by the ablest and best menembodied in the laws customs andtraditions of the nation and enforcedby public opinion

Darwinrsquos ldquomore efficient causesrdquo are anexcellent and rather complete list of the toolswe have for making human evolution go indesirable directions You and your colleaguesare doing excellent work informing thepublic those of us in universities try toeducate and influence the ablest and bestThis is all in pursuit of progress I believe

You raise an important point about therole of the individual in creating progressForming laws customs traditions and publicopinion are matters of collective decision-making We attempt to persuade each otherof the right course for public policy Insimpler societies and in smaller segments ofmore complex societies we talk out the issuesthat face us and try to reach decisions basedon consensus The legislative process ofmany modern states is merely aconstitutionally-formalized collectivedecision-making system Customs andtraditions evolve through the contributionsof myriad individuals over an extendedperiod of time

None of the above is meant tounderestimate the importance of individualstaken one at a time Persuasion is like a retailbusiness We try to get individuals to read ourbooks attend our classes and think aboutwho to vote for A great deal of creative

Unrestrained economic changedriven by comparative wants caneasily destroy value

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 9

heavy lifting is done by individuals Howevermuch ideas are propagated refined andrecombined by wholesale collective decision-making I canrsquot see how we can operate anyhuman social system without retail attentionto the individual

Our own radically individualist politicaltradition gives outsized weight to a citizenrsquosdecisions in the formation of public policy Ithink we need to push back to some degreeagainst excessive individualism Materialwants especially excessive ones arecomparative I donrsquot mind living in a modesthouse but if all my friends and neighbors livein much grander ones I may feel the pain ofenvy in my one hundred square meters whilethey count their three hundred square metersas a happy sign of virtue not greed or luckThe economist Robert H Frank in his booksChoosing the Right Pond and The Winner-Take-All Society dissects the operation ofthis dynamic Unrestrained economic change

driven by comparative wants can easilydestroy value He shows how cooperation isnecessary to evade being victimized bycomparative wants Pride and envy are amongChristianitys seven deadly sins They donrsquotget any better treatment in the otheruniversalistic religions

Since biological fitness has a stronglycomparative component you are likelycorrect that comparative wants have deepbiological roots On the other hand thehunting and gathering societies that seemmost like our late Pleistocene ancestors areusually rather egalitarian Power differentialsare modest and foods that require the mostenergy and skill to collect are generally widelyshared within the community According toChristopher Boehm in his book Hierarchy inthe Forest among human hunter-gatherersthose who would have been subordinates inancestral ape societies cooperated to suppresswould-be dominants in order to produce

J Henry Fair Terrace Bay Ontario Canada

10 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

egalitarian human societies AnthropologistsJoe Henrich and Francisco Gil-White argue inan important paper that humans have erecteda new system of prestige on top of the moreancient primate system of dominanceDominants depend upon raw coercive powerfor their status while the prestigious aregranted status as the ablest and best by publicopinion Aung San Suu Kyi has prestige theBurmese junta that prevents her party fromtaking power has dominance Ancestralhunter-gatherer societies were substantiallyorganized by prestige not dominanceDominants rightly fear the power of prestigethe Chinese government reacted quitestrongly to the prestige accorded by LiuXiaobo by the Nobel Peace Prize Committee

Modern democracy is an attempt tointroduce the spirit of egalitarianism and ruleby prestige (rather than power) into theoperation of complex societies This attemptruns in the face of history as complexsocieties seem to have regularly led to thereturn of dominance in the human socialequation Yet as Peter Turchin argues in hisbook Historical Dynamics elite societies arethemselves unstable authoritarians oftenpromise stability when democracy seemsshaky but it is by no means obvious thatauthoritarians can in fact deliver

I certainly hope that you are right that byusing humanistic and universalist argumentswe can draw the sting of nationalism andsimilar parochial ideologies This seemsessential for moral progress in a world with

critical global problems to solveI sometimes think of human life as an

adventure In an adventure you take risks inhope of ultimate gain Against the risks youpit your skill and judgment Modernity haslaunched our whole species willy nilly upona great adventure full of risk and uncertaintyFoolish adventurers neglect skill andjudgment and trust to luck either wesuccessfully use Darwinrsquos tools to progress orwe face the luck of natural selectionmdashand wedonrsquot want to evolve by natural selection ifwe can avoid it

Perhaps we need to remind people aboutthe adventures fundamentally social natureAs Adam Smith said in The Theory of MoralSentiments

What are the advantages which wepropose by that great purpose ofhuman life which we call bettering ourcondition To be observed to beattended to to be taken notice of withsympathy complacency andapprobation all are the advantages wecan propose to derive from it

Wohlforth Were wonderfully near toconsensus Your message reads like a veryerudite precis of my book The Fate ofNature including the attention paid toindigenous cultures and Joe Henrichs workthe issues surrounding the psychology ofmaterialism and the emphasis on culturalrather than biological evolution I think Iveexpressed myself poorly however in thatyouve taken some of what I said to be the

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 11

contrary of what I meant I strongly agreewith most of your message

But I think there is an area where I wouldamend your comments You say ldquoModerndemocracy is an attempt to introduce thespirit of egalitarianism and rule by prestige(rather than power) into the operation ofcomplex societiesrdquo The word ldquodemocracyrdquo isas slippery as any in the language It impliesconsent of the governed but in practicemore often effects only a wider distributionof power into the hands of numerous peopleand across time On the surface your pointthat democracy is more egalitarian follows bydefinition since the broader distribution ofpower is necessarily more egalitarian thandictatorship However it does not necessarilyfollow that a democratic system embodiesldquothe spirit of egalitarianism and rule byprestigerdquo Splitting dominance (or purepower) into parts doesnrsquot transform it intothe ldquospiritrdquo of egalitarianism Moreimportantly if that ldquospiritrdquo means as Ibelieve you intend the capacity forexpression of pro-social values into policy Iwould suggest the contrary may be true It isnot at all clear that a democratic arrangementof power would be better for theenvironment or would allow human beings tomore easily fit within our ecosystem nor isthere necessarily a connection between votingand the transmission of pro-social values intopublic policy

The Enlightenment form of democracymost perfectly manifested in the United

States assumes that we are not co-operativein Madisons classic words from TheFederalist Papers (No 51)

Ambition must be made to counteractambition The interest of the manmust be connected with theconstitutional rights of the place Itmay be a reflection on human naturethat such devices should be necessaryto control the abuses of governmentBut what is government itself but thegreatest of all reflections on humannature If men were angels nogovernment would be necessary

Experience teaches that this is in facthow our form of democracy functions It is asystem for summing selfish private interestsinto public policy a system for allocatingresources and for selecting policies that willyield maximum opportunities for privatebenefit At best it is utilitarian in that thesum of the self interest of the largestnumber of people is maximized To thelimited extent that the system is capable ofrecognizing group or community interests itdoes so by privileging them within the systemof constitutional ldquoplacesrdquo The original statesdemanded retention of power Theprogressive loss of power by local and stategovernments reflects the growing emphasisof the US constitutional system onindividual interests and economic growth tothe exclusion of almost all other values Onecant get elected without declaring supportfor national power and competitiveness and

J Henry FairBelle ChasseLouisiana

12 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

promising to deliver maximum economicbenefit to individual voters

It is not a coincidence that concentratedfederal power and corporate power go handin hand and that community connectionsthat exist in the spirit of egalitarianism areever weaker We naturally want to connectwith others and the natural world but theability to influence the world is increasingly inthe hands of distant corporations andgovernments Democracy is not helping bringour sympathetic impulses to the fore on thecontrary it is narrowing the span ofautonomy in which these impulses can actmaking them irrelevant

Ive heard some environmentalists speaklongingly of Chinas system where thegovernment can simply imposeenvironmental protection by fiat Capitaliststoo who envy the rapid economic growthand efficient exercise of government powerthere Those feelings scare me Im scaredthat authoritarian postmodern capitalism maybe the most efficient and powerful economicsystem yet invented I think our constitutionalsystem is seriously flawed but any student ofhistory should prefer it to one-party ordictatorial power Madison was right at leastthat our system is well-suited to prevent thefree rein of the worst part of our nature

Returning to our original question aboutour capacity to address global environmentalproblems Im forced to rely upon socialforces specifically the creation of norms forenvironmental ethics in a rapidly developingglobal culture The science-and-statemechanism now being used to addressclimate change would never have broughtabout last centurys changes in race relationsAcademic study followed by democraticlegislation did not defeat slavery colonialismand overt racism Instead the really effectivetools were moral discussion communityrelations and the spread of new normsthrough writings and action Governmentsonly moved when the moral ground hadalready shifted under them makingcontinuation of the old system untenable

As you say we dont know what willhappen I donrsquot know if the process of socialchange will be quick enough But I think it isthe solution and that it is only achievablethrough those sympathies that we normallyexpress on the small scaleRicherson Yes I imagine that we are nearagreement on most issues I certainly wouldnot defend a panglossian view ofcontemporary democracies I share many ofyour critical opinions Aside from all theirother imperfections it is not clear that theyare up to managing global problems Butpostmodern authoritarianisms as exemplifiedby China Russia or Saudi Arabia are notobviously any better In Copenhagen lastyear the responsibility for failure was widelydistributed and didnrsquot depend much on typeof political system

We also donrsquot want to romanticize hunter-gatherers In simple societies men dominatewomen Feuds and intertribal warfare areoften serious problems Hunter-gatherershave been blamed for megafaunal extinctions

I think that reasoning from ldquohumannaturerdquo is an error Results from recentexperimental games suggest that individualsrsquopropensities to cooperate are highly variableA large minority of people are stronglycooperative a majority are conditionalcooperators who will cooperate if others doand a minority cheat as much as they can getaway with In groups composed of the firsttwo types cooperation emerges rapidly Theproblems come from the ten percent ofcheaters for example those who usecommunication deceptively encouragingothers to cooperate while they defectDifferent cultures vary in the tools they givethe minority of strong cooperators toencourage the majority and control thedeviously selfish People also vary in thekinds of moral arguments they subscribe toWe have barely begun to think about politicsand policy using population thinking in placeof the dubious essentialist concept of humannature

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 13

This is a book of photographs ofenvironmental disastersoccurring at different points inthe consumerindustrial cycle

which illustrate the negative impact ourcontemporary consumer society has on theplanetary systems that sustain our existenceBecause of the subject the pictures areinherently political but my first goal was tocreate compelling images

Essays written by some of the top writersscientists and environmentalists of our daypunctuate the images They were asked towrite personal memoirs with anenvironmental focus and the results rangefrom hilarious to heart-wrenching

The objective of these pictures is not tovilify any given company or industrymdashthereare good and bad actors everywhere Myintent is to engage the viewer stimulatecuriosity and encourage dialog Our societyrsquosstructure has evolved to the point wheregovernment responds not to the citizenry butto the corporations that finance it These daysthe vote that matters the most is the purchasedecision Though our government does notdefend or respond to us the manufacturersdo So the goal of these pictures is topromote an activist consumerism This is astrategy that works as testament look at theToyota Prius and Whole Foods There is evenan organic food section in Walmart

I write this after a month of repeated tripsover the British Petroleum DeepwaterHorizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico andit cannot help but have an emotional effect Icanrsquot bear to drink from a plastic water bottleknowing that oil equaling roughly 13 of thevolume of that water bottle was used to get itinto my hands One of my responses to theGulf gusher is to hitchhike Why burn gas toget from train station to home

Irsquom constantly amazed by the willingnessof people to ignore the consequences of

their actions and the real risks to their healthand well-being Most of us live in a world ofindulgences all of which have anenvironmental cost that will be passed on toour children ldquoThe environmentrdquo is thesystem that supports life our life But thosewho are concerned about it who speak upabout it are relegated to the status of zealotsand simpletons ldquoThings are toocomplicatedrdquo we are told ldquoWe canrsquot changeour economy business will suffer jobs will belostrdquo Meanwhile the system that provides usthe air and water we need to live is going intocardiac arrest I believe that we could very

easily change the direction of our society andeconomy toward sustainability with nothingbut benefits for our children ourselves andour economy The only losers would be thosecurrently making fortunes from destructionand exploitation We have the power Spendyour dollars with your children in mind

mdash J Henry Fair

EXCERPT

Text excerpted (and edited for length) from the introduction to J HenryFairs The Day After Tomorrow available Feb 2011 from powerHouseBooks (special thanks to flight partner SouthWings) For information visithttpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitep=1094 as well as the booksB-side at httpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitepage_id=5119

6 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

my ldquotribal social instincts hypothesisrdquooutlined in our book Not By Genes AloneHow Culture Transformed HumanEvolution is a modernization of Darwinrsquosidea

The contemporary world faces a numberof global-scale challenges including climatechange biodiversity loss emerging diseasesand economic instability The first primitivestab at globalization symbolized byMagellanrsquos circumnavigation has evolved intoa tight web of links that bind the world upThe growth of the human population and ofaffluence per capita has made our species theearthrsquos first dominant organism since perhapssome pioneering photosynthetic bacteriumthree billion years ago The evolution of ourdominance has been exceedingly swift bornof the capacity of huge sophisticatedpopulations to fuel explosive technologicaland social change Simple back-of-the-envelope arithmetic argues that life on earth

could easily become quite unpleasant unlesswe are prepared to manage our dominanceYou donrsquot need an ocean-atmosphere-coupled General Circulation Model to tellwhich way the wind blows

On the positive side the trend of culturalevolution over the last ten millennia isfavorable as regards the balance of sympathyover patriotism As human populations andhuman sophistication have grown we havedeveloped ever more sophisticated tools todeal with the problems generated by our ownsuccess The growth of multiethnic empires2500 years ago led to the development ofldquoAxial Agerdquo philosophies and religions with abroadly humanistic rather than parochial coreideology In the twentieth century two awfulworld wars and the invention of cheapnuclear weapons led to new internationalinstitutions to protect human rights and tocontain the nuclear genie The EuropeanUnion has gotten some handle on conflicts in

J Henry Fair Barataria Bay Louisiana

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 7

the twentieth centuryrsquos most dangerousregion

On the negative side the main ideologicalenergy that has organized the onrushingmodernization and globalization of the lasttwo centuries has been nationalism with itstypically rather extreme demands for loyaltyand patriotic fervor Attempts in Europe topromote multiculturalism under the EUbanner have provoked the formation ofinfluential reactionary nationalist parties innations that we formerly considered some ofthe most enlightened More generally thecomplex societies of the last 5000 years haveproven susceptible to boom and bustdynamics the causes of which we do not yetunderstand very well

Nationalism and tribalism are not the onlygame in the global village The great religionshave produce unifying thinkers and doers likethe Dali Lama Desmond Tutu and MartinLuther King Unfortunately these samereligions have spawned fundamentalisttendencies sometimes with nationalistconnections as in the Balkans Secularhumanists have a cool well-reasonedinternationalist policy agenda but donrsquot excitemass enthusiasm I donrsquot see any immediateprospect for a successful globalist ideologywith mass appeal that will decisivelystrengthen our capacity to sympathize withour fellow humans regardless of tribenation or confession

The globersquos work for the immediate futureseems destined to remain largely dependenton the efforts of internationalist elitesdiplomats businessmen leaders of non-governmental organizations ecumenical andproselytizing religious leaders scientists andenvironmentalists This is an awkward stateof affairs in a democratic age Jingoisticpoliticians can whip up national and sectarianloyalties that greatly handicap themanagement of global problems as our mostrecent election in the United States showedYou and your colleagues who write so wellfor the general public are certainly creating anenvironmental ethos The generational shift

in attitudes is palpable and we can hopedurable However the drive to achievechanges in attitudes that allow sympathy totrump national and sectarian loyalties to thedegree necessary to tackle global scaleproblems looks to me as if it is going to be anear-run thing

Consider the power of consumerism Therate of human population increase is slowingand is expected to stabilize or even beginshrinking in the next few decades But in themeantime affluence per capita continues torise especially in the big and formerly poorBRIC nations Exploding affluence needssomehow to be contained but despite muchexcellent academic work and finger-waggingby many including Pope John Paul II littleimpact on popular thought is evidentWohlforth It seems were trying to solve allthe worlds problems at once I suppose thatis a hazard posed by the perspective of yourwork in which you take on big ideas and findpatterns and drivers in the mix of biologicaland cultural roots of behavior There is adefinite challenge in moving from thatframework to making normative orprescriptive statements for individuals In mywriting trying to create the environmentalethos you allude to I seek to make thatlinkmdashto help people to see themselves withinthe world system and take individualresponsibility Small as we are as organisms incomparison to these problems nonethelessthat is the level at which change must occurOnly individuals are able to form values ormake decisions tribes corporations andnations are groups of individuals

The last paragraph of your responseseems key to me Materialism and

Small as we are as organisms incomparison to these problemsnonetheless that is the level atwhich change must occur

8 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

consumerism as we live them in thedominant culture have two characteristicscritical for this discussion First they matterdirectly it is hard to see how we can preservea finite biosphere while pursuing infinitelyexpanding needs and wants Second thedesire for increasing wealth is fundamentallyan individual one Here is a level at which wecan make decisions that connect our ethics toconsequences in the material world

Is the desire for ever-increasing wealthand power programmed into human beingsby evolution Or can cultural evolutionprogress through the creation of a newnorm or ethical value for sufficiency Forexample imagine a world in whichaccumulation of unnecessary materialpossessions has become an embarrassmentrather than a status symbol Maybe socialstatus could be gained instead through non-material achievements or acquisitions orthrough contributions to social goods Suchgoods and acquisitions need not exist in thephysical world and therefore would carry noresource price

Your discussion of nationalism is well-taken The impulse toward parochialismmakes me pessimistic not only aboutinternational agreements and organizationsbut even about the ability of individualnations to make meaningful progress onthese issues However addressingconsumerism as an ethical and social issuesidesteps those issues As norms againstmaterialism take hold (and they are alreadydoing so) they could be transmitted cross-culturally and beyond national boundaries byHollywood and other cultural exportmechanisms Can the internationalentertainment industry which was built toadvance and power consumerism and the sale

of products also function to communicatenorms for sufficiency Maybe this is a way wecan express our sympathetic impulses as asocietyRicherson Darwinrsquos rather neglectedDescent of Man proposes a theory ofprogress the nut of which is captured here

With highly civilized nations continuedprogress depends in a subordinatedegree on natural selection Themore efficient causes of progress seemto consist of a good education duringyouth while the brain is impressibleand of a high standard of excellenceinculcated by the ablest and best menembodied in the laws customs andtraditions of the nation and enforcedby public opinion

Darwinrsquos ldquomore efficient causesrdquo are anexcellent and rather complete list of the toolswe have for making human evolution go indesirable directions You and your colleaguesare doing excellent work informing thepublic those of us in universities try toeducate and influence the ablest and bestThis is all in pursuit of progress I believe

You raise an important point about therole of the individual in creating progressForming laws customs traditions and publicopinion are matters of collective decision-making We attempt to persuade each otherof the right course for public policy Insimpler societies and in smaller segments ofmore complex societies we talk out the issuesthat face us and try to reach decisions basedon consensus The legislative process ofmany modern states is merely aconstitutionally-formalized collectivedecision-making system Customs andtraditions evolve through the contributionsof myriad individuals over an extendedperiod of time

None of the above is meant tounderestimate the importance of individualstaken one at a time Persuasion is like a retailbusiness We try to get individuals to read ourbooks attend our classes and think aboutwho to vote for A great deal of creative

Unrestrained economic changedriven by comparative wants caneasily destroy value

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 9

heavy lifting is done by individuals Howevermuch ideas are propagated refined andrecombined by wholesale collective decision-making I canrsquot see how we can operate anyhuman social system without retail attentionto the individual

Our own radically individualist politicaltradition gives outsized weight to a citizenrsquosdecisions in the formation of public policy Ithink we need to push back to some degreeagainst excessive individualism Materialwants especially excessive ones arecomparative I donrsquot mind living in a modesthouse but if all my friends and neighbors livein much grander ones I may feel the pain ofenvy in my one hundred square meters whilethey count their three hundred square metersas a happy sign of virtue not greed or luckThe economist Robert H Frank in his booksChoosing the Right Pond and The Winner-Take-All Society dissects the operation ofthis dynamic Unrestrained economic change

driven by comparative wants can easilydestroy value He shows how cooperation isnecessary to evade being victimized bycomparative wants Pride and envy are amongChristianitys seven deadly sins They donrsquotget any better treatment in the otheruniversalistic religions

Since biological fitness has a stronglycomparative component you are likelycorrect that comparative wants have deepbiological roots On the other hand thehunting and gathering societies that seemmost like our late Pleistocene ancestors areusually rather egalitarian Power differentialsare modest and foods that require the mostenergy and skill to collect are generally widelyshared within the community According toChristopher Boehm in his book Hierarchy inthe Forest among human hunter-gatherersthose who would have been subordinates inancestral ape societies cooperated to suppresswould-be dominants in order to produce

J Henry Fair Terrace Bay Ontario Canada

10 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

egalitarian human societies AnthropologistsJoe Henrich and Francisco Gil-White argue inan important paper that humans have erecteda new system of prestige on top of the moreancient primate system of dominanceDominants depend upon raw coercive powerfor their status while the prestigious aregranted status as the ablest and best by publicopinion Aung San Suu Kyi has prestige theBurmese junta that prevents her party fromtaking power has dominance Ancestralhunter-gatherer societies were substantiallyorganized by prestige not dominanceDominants rightly fear the power of prestigethe Chinese government reacted quitestrongly to the prestige accorded by LiuXiaobo by the Nobel Peace Prize Committee

Modern democracy is an attempt tointroduce the spirit of egalitarianism and ruleby prestige (rather than power) into theoperation of complex societies This attemptruns in the face of history as complexsocieties seem to have regularly led to thereturn of dominance in the human socialequation Yet as Peter Turchin argues in hisbook Historical Dynamics elite societies arethemselves unstable authoritarians oftenpromise stability when democracy seemsshaky but it is by no means obvious thatauthoritarians can in fact deliver

I certainly hope that you are right that byusing humanistic and universalist argumentswe can draw the sting of nationalism andsimilar parochial ideologies This seemsessential for moral progress in a world with

critical global problems to solveI sometimes think of human life as an

adventure In an adventure you take risks inhope of ultimate gain Against the risks youpit your skill and judgment Modernity haslaunched our whole species willy nilly upona great adventure full of risk and uncertaintyFoolish adventurers neglect skill andjudgment and trust to luck either wesuccessfully use Darwinrsquos tools to progress orwe face the luck of natural selectionmdashand wedonrsquot want to evolve by natural selection ifwe can avoid it

Perhaps we need to remind people aboutthe adventures fundamentally social natureAs Adam Smith said in The Theory of MoralSentiments

What are the advantages which wepropose by that great purpose ofhuman life which we call bettering ourcondition To be observed to beattended to to be taken notice of withsympathy complacency andapprobation all are the advantages wecan propose to derive from it

Wohlforth Were wonderfully near toconsensus Your message reads like a veryerudite precis of my book The Fate ofNature including the attention paid toindigenous cultures and Joe Henrichs workthe issues surrounding the psychology ofmaterialism and the emphasis on culturalrather than biological evolution I think Iveexpressed myself poorly however in thatyouve taken some of what I said to be the

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 11

contrary of what I meant I strongly agreewith most of your message

But I think there is an area where I wouldamend your comments You say ldquoModerndemocracy is an attempt to introduce thespirit of egalitarianism and rule by prestige(rather than power) into the operation ofcomplex societiesrdquo The word ldquodemocracyrdquo isas slippery as any in the language It impliesconsent of the governed but in practicemore often effects only a wider distributionof power into the hands of numerous peopleand across time On the surface your pointthat democracy is more egalitarian follows bydefinition since the broader distribution ofpower is necessarily more egalitarian thandictatorship However it does not necessarilyfollow that a democratic system embodiesldquothe spirit of egalitarianism and rule byprestigerdquo Splitting dominance (or purepower) into parts doesnrsquot transform it intothe ldquospiritrdquo of egalitarianism Moreimportantly if that ldquospiritrdquo means as Ibelieve you intend the capacity forexpression of pro-social values into policy Iwould suggest the contrary may be true It isnot at all clear that a democratic arrangementof power would be better for theenvironment or would allow human beings tomore easily fit within our ecosystem nor isthere necessarily a connection between votingand the transmission of pro-social values intopublic policy

The Enlightenment form of democracymost perfectly manifested in the United

States assumes that we are not co-operativein Madisons classic words from TheFederalist Papers (No 51)

Ambition must be made to counteractambition The interest of the manmust be connected with theconstitutional rights of the place Itmay be a reflection on human naturethat such devices should be necessaryto control the abuses of governmentBut what is government itself but thegreatest of all reflections on humannature If men were angels nogovernment would be necessary

Experience teaches that this is in facthow our form of democracy functions It is asystem for summing selfish private interestsinto public policy a system for allocatingresources and for selecting policies that willyield maximum opportunities for privatebenefit At best it is utilitarian in that thesum of the self interest of the largestnumber of people is maximized To thelimited extent that the system is capable ofrecognizing group or community interests itdoes so by privileging them within the systemof constitutional ldquoplacesrdquo The original statesdemanded retention of power Theprogressive loss of power by local and stategovernments reflects the growing emphasisof the US constitutional system onindividual interests and economic growth tothe exclusion of almost all other values Onecant get elected without declaring supportfor national power and competitiveness and

J Henry FairBelle ChasseLouisiana

12 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

promising to deliver maximum economicbenefit to individual voters

It is not a coincidence that concentratedfederal power and corporate power go handin hand and that community connectionsthat exist in the spirit of egalitarianism areever weaker We naturally want to connectwith others and the natural world but theability to influence the world is increasingly inthe hands of distant corporations andgovernments Democracy is not helping bringour sympathetic impulses to the fore on thecontrary it is narrowing the span ofautonomy in which these impulses can actmaking them irrelevant

Ive heard some environmentalists speaklongingly of Chinas system where thegovernment can simply imposeenvironmental protection by fiat Capitaliststoo who envy the rapid economic growthand efficient exercise of government powerthere Those feelings scare me Im scaredthat authoritarian postmodern capitalism maybe the most efficient and powerful economicsystem yet invented I think our constitutionalsystem is seriously flawed but any student ofhistory should prefer it to one-party ordictatorial power Madison was right at leastthat our system is well-suited to prevent thefree rein of the worst part of our nature

Returning to our original question aboutour capacity to address global environmentalproblems Im forced to rely upon socialforces specifically the creation of norms forenvironmental ethics in a rapidly developingglobal culture The science-and-statemechanism now being used to addressclimate change would never have broughtabout last centurys changes in race relationsAcademic study followed by democraticlegislation did not defeat slavery colonialismand overt racism Instead the really effectivetools were moral discussion communityrelations and the spread of new normsthrough writings and action Governmentsonly moved when the moral ground hadalready shifted under them makingcontinuation of the old system untenable

As you say we dont know what willhappen I donrsquot know if the process of socialchange will be quick enough But I think it isthe solution and that it is only achievablethrough those sympathies that we normallyexpress on the small scaleRicherson Yes I imagine that we are nearagreement on most issues I certainly wouldnot defend a panglossian view ofcontemporary democracies I share many ofyour critical opinions Aside from all theirother imperfections it is not clear that theyare up to managing global problems Butpostmodern authoritarianisms as exemplifiedby China Russia or Saudi Arabia are notobviously any better In Copenhagen lastyear the responsibility for failure was widelydistributed and didnrsquot depend much on typeof political system

We also donrsquot want to romanticize hunter-gatherers In simple societies men dominatewomen Feuds and intertribal warfare areoften serious problems Hunter-gatherershave been blamed for megafaunal extinctions

I think that reasoning from ldquohumannaturerdquo is an error Results from recentexperimental games suggest that individualsrsquopropensities to cooperate are highly variableA large minority of people are stronglycooperative a majority are conditionalcooperators who will cooperate if others doand a minority cheat as much as they can getaway with In groups composed of the firsttwo types cooperation emerges rapidly Theproblems come from the ten percent ofcheaters for example those who usecommunication deceptively encouragingothers to cooperate while they defectDifferent cultures vary in the tools they givethe minority of strong cooperators toencourage the majority and control thedeviously selfish People also vary in thekinds of moral arguments they subscribe toWe have barely begun to think about politicsand policy using population thinking in placeof the dubious essentialist concept of humannature

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 13

This is a book of photographs ofenvironmental disastersoccurring at different points inthe consumerindustrial cycle

which illustrate the negative impact ourcontemporary consumer society has on theplanetary systems that sustain our existenceBecause of the subject the pictures areinherently political but my first goal was tocreate compelling images

Essays written by some of the top writersscientists and environmentalists of our daypunctuate the images They were asked towrite personal memoirs with anenvironmental focus and the results rangefrom hilarious to heart-wrenching

The objective of these pictures is not tovilify any given company or industrymdashthereare good and bad actors everywhere Myintent is to engage the viewer stimulatecuriosity and encourage dialog Our societyrsquosstructure has evolved to the point wheregovernment responds not to the citizenry butto the corporations that finance it These daysthe vote that matters the most is the purchasedecision Though our government does notdefend or respond to us the manufacturersdo So the goal of these pictures is topromote an activist consumerism This is astrategy that works as testament look at theToyota Prius and Whole Foods There is evenan organic food section in Walmart

I write this after a month of repeated tripsover the British Petroleum DeepwaterHorizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico andit cannot help but have an emotional effect Icanrsquot bear to drink from a plastic water bottleknowing that oil equaling roughly 13 of thevolume of that water bottle was used to get itinto my hands One of my responses to theGulf gusher is to hitchhike Why burn gas toget from train station to home

Irsquom constantly amazed by the willingnessof people to ignore the consequences of

their actions and the real risks to their healthand well-being Most of us live in a world ofindulgences all of which have anenvironmental cost that will be passed on toour children ldquoThe environmentrdquo is thesystem that supports life our life But thosewho are concerned about it who speak upabout it are relegated to the status of zealotsand simpletons ldquoThings are toocomplicatedrdquo we are told ldquoWe canrsquot changeour economy business will suffer jobs will belostrdquo Meanwhile the system that provides usthe air and water we need to live is going intocardiac arrest I believe that we could very

easily change the direction of our society andeconomy toward sustainability with nothingbut benefits for our children ourselves andour economy The only losers would be thosecurrently making fortunes from destructionand exploitation We have the power Spendyour dollars with your children in mind

mdash J Henry Fair

EXCERPT

Text excerpted (and edited for length) from the introduction to J HenryFairs The Day After Tomorrow available Feb 2011 from powerHouseBooks (special thanks to flight partner SouthWings) For information visithttpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitep=1094 as well as the booksB-side at httpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitepage_id=5119

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 7

the twentieth centuryrsquos most dangerousregion

On the negative side the main ideologicalenergy that has organized the onrushingmodernization and globalization of the lasttwo centuries has been nationalism with itstypically rather extreme demands for loyaltyand patriotic fervor Attempts in Europe topromote multiculturalism under the EUbanner have provoked the formation ofinfluential reactionary nationalist parties innations that we formerly considered some ofthe most enlightened More generally thecomplex societies of the last 5000 years haveproven susceptible to boom and bustdynamics the causes of which we do not yetunderstand very well

Nationalism and tribalism are not the onlygame in the global village The great religionshave produce unifying thinkers and doers likethe Dali Lama Desmond Tutu and MartinLuther King Unfortunately these samereligions have spawned fundamentalisttendencies sometimes with nationalistconnections as in the Balkans Secularhumanists have a cool well-reasonedinternationalist policy agenda but donrsquot excitemass enthusiasm I donrsquot see any immediateprospect for a successful globalist ideologywith mass appeal that will decisivelystrengthen our capacity to sympathize withour fellow humans regardless of tribenation or confession

The globersquos work for the immediate futureseems destined to remain largely dependenton the efforts of internationalist elitesdiplomats businessmen leaders of non-governmental organizations ecumenical andproselytizing religious leaders scientists andenvironmentalists This is an awkward stateof affairs in a democratic age Jingoisticpoliticians can whip up national and sectarianloyalties that greatly handicap themanagement of global problems as our mostrecent election in the United States showedYou and your colleagues who write so wellfor the general public are certainly creating anenvironmental ethos The generational shift

in attitudes is palpable and we can hopedurable However the drive to achievechanges in attitudes that allow sympathy totrump national and sectarian loyalties to thedegree necessary to tackle global scaleproblems looks to me as if it is going to be anear-run thing

Consider the power of consumerism Therate of human population increase is slowingand is expected to stabilize or even beginshrinking in the next few decades But in themeantime affluence per capita continues torise especially in the big and formerly poorBRIC nations Exploding affluence needssomehow to be contained but despite muchexcellent academic work and finger-waggingby many including Pope John Paul II littleimpact on popular thought is evidentWohlforth It seems were trying to solve allthe worlds problems at once I suppose thatis a hazard posed by the perspective of yourwork in which you take on big ideas and findpatterns and drivers in the mix of biologicaland cultural roots of behavior There is adefinite challenge in moving from thatframework to making normative orprescriptive statements for individuals In mywriting trying to create the environmentalethos you allude to I seek to make thatlinkmdashto help people to see themselves withinthe world system and take individualresponsibility Small as we are as organisms incomparison to these problems nonethelessthat is the level at which change must occurOnly individuals are able to form values ormake decisions tribes corporations andnations are groups of individuals

The last paragraph of your responseseems key to me Materialism and

Small as we are as organisms incomparison to these problemsnonetheless that is the level atwhich change must occur

8 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

consumerism as we live them in thedominant culture have two characteristicscritical for this discussion First they matterdirectly it is hard to see how we can preservea finite biosphere while pursuing infinitelyexpanding needs and wants Second thedesire for increasing wealth is fundamentallyan individual one Here is a level at which wecan make decisions that connect our ethics toconsequences in the material world

Is the desire for ever-increasing wealthand power programmed into human beingsby evolution Or can cultural evolutionprogress through the creation of a newnorm or ethical value for sufficiency Forexample imagine a world in whichaccumulation of unnecessary materialpossessions has become an embarrassmentrather than a status symbol Maybe socialstatus could be gained instead through non-material achievements or acquisitions orthrough contributions to social goods Suchgoods and acquisitions need not exist in thephysical world and therefore would carry noresource price

Your discussion of nationalism is well-taken The impulse toward parochialismmakes me pessimistic not only aboutinternational agreements and organizationsbut even about the ability of individualnations to make meaningful progress onthese issues However addressingconsumerism as an ethical and social issuesidesteps those issues As norms againstmaterialism take hold (and they are alreadydoing so) they could be transmitted cross-culturally and beyond national boundaries byHollywood and other cultural exportmechanisms Can the internationalentertainment industry which was built toadvance and power consumerism and the sale

of products also function to communicatenorms for sufficiency Maybe this is a way wecan express our sympathetic impulses as asocietyRicherson Darwinrsquos rather neglectedDescent of Man proposes a theory ofprogress the nut of which is captured here

With highly civilized nations continuedprogress depends in a subordinatedegree on natural selection Themore efficient causes of progress seemto consist of a good education duringyouth while the brain is impressibleand of a high standard of excellenceinculcated by the ablest and best menembodied in the laws customs andtraditions of the nation and enforcedby public opinion

Darwinrsquos ldquomore efficient causesrdquo are anexcellent and rather complete list of the toolswe have for making human evolution go indesirable directions You and your colleaguesare doing excellent work informing thepublic those of us in universities try toeducate and influence the ablest and bestThis is all in pursuit of progress I believe

You raise an important point about therole of the individual in creating progressForming laws customs traditions and publicopinion are matters of collective decision-making We attempt to persuade each otherof the right course for public policy Insimpler societies and in smaller segments ofmore complex societies we talk out the issuesthat face us and try to reach decisions basedon consensus The legislative process ofmany modern states is merely aconstitutionally-formalized collectivedecision-making system Customs andtraditions evolve through the contributionsof myriad individuals over an extendedperiod of time

None of the above is meant tounderestimate the importance of individualstaken one at a time Persuasion is like a retailbusiness We try to get individuals to read ourbooks attend our classes and think aboutwho to vote for A great deal of creative

Unrestrained economic changedriven by comparative wants caneasily destroy value

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 9

heavy lifting is done by individuals Howevermuch ideas are propagated refined andrecombined by wholesale collective decision-making I canrsquot see how we can operate anyhuman social system without retail attentionto the individual

Our own radically individualist politicaltradition gives outsized weight to a citizenrsquosdecisions in the formation of public policy Ithink we need to push back to some degreeagainst excessive individualism Materialwants especially excessive ones arecomparative I donrsquot mind living in a modesthouse but if all my friends and neighbors livein much grander ones I may feel the pain ofenvy in my one hundred square meters whilethey count their three hundred square metersas a happy sign of virtue not greed or luckThe economist Robert H Frank in his booksChoosing the Right Pond and The Winner-Take-All Society dissects the operation ofthis dynamic Unrestrained economic change

driven by comparative wants can easilydestroy value He shows how cooperation isnecessary to evade being victimized bycomparative wants Pride and envy are amongChristianitys seven deadly sins They donrsquotget any better treatment in the otheruniversalistic religions

Since biological fitness has a stronglycomparative component you are likelycorrect that comparative wants have deepbiological roots On the other hand thehunting and gathering societies that seemmost like our late Pleistocene ancestors areusually rather egalitarian Power differentialsare modest and foods that require the mostenergy and skill to collect are generally widelyshared within the community According toChristopher Boehm in his book Hierarchy inthe Forest among human hunter-gatherersthose who would have been subordinates inancestral ape societies cooperated to suppresswould-be dominants in order to produce

J Henry Fair Terrace Bay Ontario Canada

10 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

egalitarian human societies AnthropologistsJoe Henrich and Francisco Gil-White argue inan important paper that humans have erecteda new system of prestige on top of the moreancient primate system of dominanceDominants depend upon raw coercive powerfor their status while the prestigious aregranted status as the ablest and best by publicopinion Aung San Suu Kyi has prestige theBurmese junta that prevents her party fromtaking power has dominance Ancestralhunter-gatherer societies were substantiallyorganized by prestige not dominanceDominants rightly fear the power of prestigethe Chinese government reacted quitestrongly to the prestige accorded by LiuXiaobo by the Nobel Peace Prize Committee

Modern democracy is an attempt tointroduce the spirit of egalitarianism and ruleby prestige (rather than power) into theoperation of complex societies This attemptruns in the face of history as complexsocieties seem to have regularly led to thereturn of dominance in the human socialequation Yet as Peter Turchin argues in hisbook Historical Dynamics elite societies arethemselves unstable authoritarians oftenpromise stability when democracy seemsshaky but it is by no means obvious thatauthoritarians can in fact deliver

I certainly hope that you are right that byusing humanistic and universalist argumentswe can draw the sting of nationalism andsimilar parochial ideologies This seemsessential for moral progress in a world with

critical global problems to solveI sometimes think of human life as an

adventure In an adventure you take risks inhope of ultimate gain Against the risks youpit your skill and judgment Modernity haslaunched our whole species willy nilly upona great adventure full of risk and uncertaintyFoolish adventurers neglect skill andjudgment and trust to luck either wesuccessfully use Darwinrsquos tools to progress orwe face the luck of natural selectionmdashand wedonrsquot want to evolve by natural selection ifwe can avoid it

Perhaps we need to remind people aboutthe adventures fundamentally social natureAs Adam Smith said in The Theory of MoralSentiments

What are the advantages which wepropose by that great purpose ofhuman life which we call bettering ourcondition To be observed to beattended to to be taken notice of withsympathy complacency andapprobation all are the advantages wecan propose to derive from it

Wohlforth Were wonderfully near toconsensus Your message reads like a veryerudite precis of my book The Fate ofNature including the attention paid toindigenous cultures and Joe Henrichs workthe issues surrounding the psychology ofmaterialism and the emphasis on culturalrather than biological evolution I think Iveexpressed myself poorly however in thatyouve taken some of what I said to be the

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 11

contrary of what I meant I strongly agreewith most of your message

But I think there is an area where I wouldamend your comments You say ldquoModerndemocracy is an attempt to introduce thespirit of egalitarianism and rule by prestige(rather than power) into the operation ofcomplex societiesrdquo The word ldquodemocracyrdquo isas slippery as any in the language It impliesconsent of the governed but in practicemore often effects only a wider distributionof power into the hands of numerous peopleand across time On the surface your pointthat democracy is more egalitarian follows bydefinition since the broader distribution ofpower is necessarily more egalitarian thandictatorship However it does not necessarilyfollow that a democratic system embodiesldquothe spirit of egalitarianism and rule byprestigerdquo Splitting dominance (or purepower) into parts doesnrsquot transform it intothe ldquospiritrdquo of egalitarianism Moreimportantly if that ldquospiritrdquo means as Ibelieve you intend the capacity forexpression of pro-social values into policy Iwould suggest the contrary may be true It isnot at all clear that a democratic arrangementof power would be better for theenvironment or would allow human beings tomore easily fit within our ecosystem nor isthere necessarily a connection between votingand the transmission of pro-social values intopublic policy

The Enlightenment form of democracymost perfectly manifested in the United

States assumes that we are not co-operativein Madisons classic words from TheFederalist Papers (No 51)

Ambition must be made to counteractambition The interest of the manmust be connected with theconstitutional rights of the place Itmay be a reflection on human naturethat such devices should be necessaryto control the abuses of governmentBut what is government itself but thegreatest of all reflections on humannature If men were angels nogovernment would be necessary

Experience teaches that this is in facthow our form of democracy functions It is asystem for summing selfish private interestsinto public policy a system for allocatingresources and for selecting policies that willyield maximum opportunities for privatebenefit At best it is utilitarian in that thesum of the self interest of the largestnumber of people is maximized To thelimited extent that the system is capable ofrecognizing group or community interests itdoes so by privileging them within the systemof constitutional ldquoplacesrdquo The original statesdemanded retention of power Theprogressive loss of power by local and stategovernments reflects the growing emphasisof the US constitutional system onindividual interests and economic growth tothe exclusion of almost all other values Onecant get elected without declaring supportfor national power and competitiveness and

J Henry FairBelle ChasseLouisiana

12 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

promising to deliver maximum economicbenefit to individual voters

It is not a coincidence that concentratedfederal power and corporate power go handin hand and that community connectionsthat exist in the spirit of egalitarianism areever weaker We naturally want to connectwith others and the natural world but theability to influence the world is increasingly inthe hands of distant corporations andgovernments Democracy is not helping bringour sympathetic impulses to the fore on thecontrary it is narrowing the span ofautonomy in which these impulses can actmaking them irrelevant

Ive heard some environmentalists speaklongingly of Chinas system where thegovernment can simply imposeenvironmental protection by fiat Capitaliststoo who envy the rapid economic growthand efficient exercise of government powerthere Those feelings scare me Im scaredthat authoritarian postmodern capitalism maybe the most efficient and powerful economicsystem yet invented I think our constitutionalsystem is seriously flawed but any student ofhistory should prefer it to one-party ordictatorial power Madison was right at leastthat our system is well-suited to prevent thefree rein of the worst part of our nature

Returning to our original question aboutour capacity to address global environmentalproblems Im forced to rely upon socialforces specifically the creation of norms forenvironmental ethics in a rapidly developingglobal culture The science-and-statemechanism now being used to addressclimate change would never have broughtabout last centurys changes in race relationsAcademic study followed by democraticlegislation did not defeat slavery colonialismand overt racism Instead the really effectivetools were moral discussion communityrelations and the spread of new normsthrough writings and action Governmentsonly moved when the moral ground hadalready shifted under them makingcontinuation of the old system untenable

As you say we dont know what willhappen I donrsquot know if the process of socialchange will be quick enough But I think it isthe solution and that it is only achievablethrough those sympathies that we normallyexpress on the small scaleRicherson Yes I imagine that we are nearagreement on most issues I certainly wouldnot defend a panglossian view ofcontemporary democracies I share many ofyour critical opinions Aside from all theirother imperfections it is not clear that theyare up to managing global problems Butpostmodern authoritarianisms as exemplifiedby China Russia or Saudi Arabia are notobviously any better In Copenhagen lastyear the responsibility for failure was widelydistributed and didnrsquot depend much on typeof political system

We also donrsquot want to romanticize hunter-gatherers In simple societies men dominatewomen Feuds and intertribal warfare areoften serious problems Hunter-gatherershave been blamed for megafaunal extinctions

I think that reasoning from ldquohumannaturerdquo is an error Results from recentexperimental games suggest that individualsrsquopropensities to cooperate are highly variableA large minority of people are stronglycooperative a majority are conditionalcooperators who will cooperate if others doand a minority cheat as much as they can getaway with In groups composed of the firsttwo types cooperation emerges rapidly Theproblems come from the ten percent ofcheaters for example those who usecommunication deceptively encouragingothers to cooperate while they defectDifferent cultures vary in the tools they givethe minority of strong cooperators toencourage the majority and control thedeviously selfish People also vary in thekinds of moral arguments they subscribe toWe have barely begun to think about politicsand policy using population thinking in placeof the dubious essentialist concept of humannature

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 13

This is a book of photographs ofenvironmental disastersoccurring at different points inthe consumerindustrial cycle

which illustrate the negative impact ourcontemporary consumer society has on theplanetary systems that sustain our existenceBecause of the subject the pictures areinherently political but my first goal was tocreate compelling images

Essays written by some of the top writersscientists and environmentalists of our daypunctuate the images They were asked towrite personal memoirs with anenvironmental focus and the results rangefrom hilarious to heart-wrenching

The objective of these pictures is not tovilify any given company or industrymdashthereare good and bad actors everywhere Myintent is to engage the viewer stimulatecuriosity and encourage dialog Our societyrsquosstructure has evolved to the point wheregovernment responds not to the citizenry butto the corporations that finance it These daysthe vote that matters the most is the purchasedecision Though our government does notdefend or respond to us the manufacturersdo So the goal of these pictures is topromote an activist consumerism This is astrategy that works as testament look at theToyota Prius and Whole Foods There is evenan organic food section in Walmart

I write this after a month of repeated tripsover the British Petroleum DeepwaterHorizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico andit cannot help but have an emotional effect Icanrsquot bear to drink from a plastic water bottleknowing that oil equaling roughly 13 of thevolume of that water bottle was used to get itinto my hands One of my responses to theGulf gusher is to hitchhike Why burn gas toget from train station to home

Irsquom constantly amazed by the willingnessof people to ignore the consequences of

their actions and the real risks to their healthand well-being Most of us live in a world ofindulgences all of which have anenvironmental cost that will be passed on toour children ldquoThe environmentrdquo is thesystem that supports life our life But thosewho are concerned about it who speak upabout it are relegated to the status of zealotsand simpletons ldquoThings are toocomplicatedrdquo we are told ldquoWe canrsquot changeour economy business will suffer jobs will belostrdquo Meanwhile the system that provides usthe air and water we need to live is going intocardiac arrest I believe that we could very

easily change the direction of our society andeconomy toward sustainability with nothingbut benefits for our children ourselves andour economy The only losers would be thosecurrently making fortunes from destructionand exploitation We have the power Spendyour dollars with your children in mind

mdash J Henry Fair

EXCERPT

Text excerpted (and edited for length) from the introduction to J HenryFairs The Day After Tomorrow available Feb 2011 from powerHouseBooks (special thanks to flight partner SouthWings) For information visithttpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitep=1094 as well as the booksB-side at httpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitepage_id=5119

8 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

consumerism as we live them in thedominant culture have two characteristicscritical for this discussion First they matterdirectly it is hard to see how we can preservea finite biosphere while pursuing infinitelyexpanding needs and wants Second thedesire for increasing wealth is fundamentallyan individual one Here is a level at which wecan make decisions that connect our ethics toconsequences in the material world

Is the desire for ever-increasing wealthand power programmed into human beingsby evolution Or can cultural evolutionprogress through the creation of a newnorm or ethical value for sufficiency Forexample imagine a world in whichaccumulation of unnecessary materialpossessions has become an embarrassmentrather than a status symbol Maybe socialstatus could be gained instead through non-material achievements or acquisitions orthrough contributions to social goods Suchgoods and acquisitions need not exist in thephysical world and therefore would carry noresource price

Your discussion of nationalism is well-taken The impulse toward parochialismmakes me pessimistic not only aboutinternational agreements and organizationsbut even about the ability of individualnations to make meaningful progress onthese issues However addressingconsumerism as an ethical and social issuesidesteps those issues As norms againstmaterialism take hold (and they are alreadydoing so) they could be transmitted cross-culturally and beyond national boundaries byHollywood and other cultural exportmechanisms Can the internationalentertainment industry which was built toadvance and power consumerism and the sale

of products also function to communicatenorms for sufficiency Maybe this is a way wecan express our sympathetic impulses as asocietyRicherson Darwinrsquos rather neglectedDescent of Man proposes a theory ofprogress the nut of which is captured here

With highly civilized nations continuedprogress depends in a subordinatedegree on natural selection Themore efficient causes of progress seemto consist of a good education duringyouth while the brain is impressibleand of a high standard of excellenceinculcated by the ablest and best menembodied in the laws customs andtraditions of the nation and enforcedby public opinion

Darwinrsquos ldquomore efficient causesrdquo are anexcellent and rather complete list of the toolswe have for making human evolution go indesirable directions You and your colleaguesare doing excellent work informing thepublic those of us in universities try toeducate and influence the ablest and bestThis is all in pursuit of progress I believe

You raise an important point about therole of the individual in creating progressForming laws customs traditions and publicopinion are matters of collective decision-making We attempt to persuade each otherof the right course for public policy Insimpler societies and in smaller segments ofmore complex societies we talk out the issuesthat face us and try to reach decisions basedon consensus The legislative process ofmany modern states is merely aconstitutionally-formalized collectivedecision-making system Customs andtraditions evolve through the contributionsof myriad individuals over an extendedperiod of time

None of the above is meant tounderestimate the importance of individualstaken one at a time Persuasion is like a retailbusiness We try to get individuals to read ourbooks attend our classes and think aboutwho to vote for A great deal of creative

Unrestrained economic changedriven by comparative wants caneasily destroy value

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 9

heavy lifting is done by individuals Howevermuch ideas are propagated refined andrecombined by wholesale collective decision-making I canrsquot see how we can operate anyhuman social system without retail attentionto the individual

Our own radically individualist politicaltradition gives outsized weight to a citizenrsquosdecisions in the formation of public policy Ithink we need to push back to some degreeagainst excessive individualism Materialwants especially excessive ones arecomparative I donrsquot mind living in a modesthouse but if all my friends and neighbors livein much grander ones I may feel the pain ofenvy in my one hundred square meters whilethey count their three hundred square metersas a happy sign of virtue not greed or luckThe economist Robert H Frank in his booksChoosing the Right Pond and The Winner-Take-All Society dissects the operation ofthis dynamic Unrestrained economic change

driven by comparative wants can easilydestroy value He shows how cooperation isnecessary to evade being victimized bycomparative wants Pride and envy are amongChristianitys seven deadly sins They donrsquotget any better treatment in the otheruniversalistic religions

Since biological fitness has a stronglycomparative component you are likelycorrect that comparative wants have deepbiological roots On the other hand thehunting and gathering societies that seemmost like our late Pleistocene ancestors areusually rather egalitarian Power differentialsare modest and foods that require the mostenergy and skill to collect are generally widelyshared within the community According toChristopher Boehm in his book Hierarchy inthe Forest among human hunter-gatherersthose who would have been subordinates inancestral ape societies cooperated to suppresswould-be dominants in order to produce

J Henry Fair Terrace Bay Ontario Canada

10 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

egalitarian human societies AnthropologistsJoe Henrich and Francisco Gil-White argue inan important paper that humans have erecteda new system of prestige on top of the moreancient primate system of dominanceDominants depend upon raw coercive powerfor their status while the prestigious aregranted status as the ablest and best by publicopinion Aung San Suu Kyi has prestige theBurmese junta that prevents her party fromtaking power has dominance Ancestralhunter-gatherer societies were substantiallyorganized by prestige not dominanceDominants rightly fear the power of prestigethe Chinese government reacted quitestrongly to the prestige accorded by LiuXiaobo by the Nobel Peace Prize Committee

Modern democracy is an attempt tointroduce the spirit of egalitarianism and ruleby prestige (rather than power) into theoperation of complex societies This attemptruns in the face of history as complexsocieties seem to have regularly led to thereturn of dominance in the human socialequation Yet as Peter Turchin argues in hisbook Historical Dynamics elite societies arethemselves unstable authoritarians oftenpromise stability when democracy seemsshaky but it is by no means obvious thatauthoritarians can in fact deliver

I certainly hope that you are right that byusing humanistic and universalist argumentswe can draw the sting of nationalism andsimilar parochial ideologies This seemsessential for moral progress in a world with

critical global problems to solveI sometimes think of human life as an

adventure In an adventure you take risks inhope of ultimate gain Against the risks youpit your skill and judgment Modernity haslaunched our whole species willy nilly upona great adventure full of risk and uncertaintyFoolish adventurers neglect skill andjudgment and trust to luck either wesuccessfully use Darwinrsquos tools to progress orwe face the luck of natural selectionmdashand wedonrsquot want to evolve by natural selection ifwe can avoid it

Perhaps we need to remind people aboutthe adventures fundamentally social natureAs Adam Smith said in The Theory of MoralSentiments

What are the advantages which wepropose by that great purpose ofhuman life which we call bettering ourcondition To be observed to beattended to to be taken notice of withsympathy complacency andapprobation all are the advantages wecan propose to derive from it

Wohlforth Were wonderfully near toconsensus Your message reads like a veryerudite precis of my book The Fate ofNature including the attention paid toindigenous cultures and Joe Henrichs workthe issues surrounding the psychology ofmaterialism and the emphasis on culturalrather than biological evolution I think Iveexpressed myself poorly however in thatyouve taken some of what I said to be the

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 11

contrary of what I meant I strongly agreewith most of your message

But I think there is an area where I wouldamend your comments You say ldquoModerndemocracy is an attempt to introduce thespirit of egalitarianism and rule by prestige(rather than power) into the operation ofcomplex societiesrdquo The word ldquodemocracyrdquo isas slippery as any in the language It impliesconsent of the governed but in practicemore often effects only a wider distributionof power into the hands of numerous peopleand across time On the surface your pointthat democracy is more egalitarian follows bydefinition since the broader distribution ofpower is necessarily more egalitarian thandictatorship However it does not necessarilyfollow that a democratic system embodiesldquothe spirit of egalitarianism and rule byprestigerdquo Splitting dominance (or purepower) into parts doesnrsquot transform it intothe ldquospiritrdquo of egalitarianism Moreimportantly if that ldquospiritrdquo means as Ibelieve you intend the capacity forexpression of pro-social values into policy Iwould suggest the contrary may be true It isnot at all clear that a democratic arrangementof power would be better for theenvironment or would allow human beings tomore easily fit within our ecosystem nor isthere necessarily a connection between votingand the transmission of pro-social values intopublic policy

The Enlightenment form of democracymost perfectly manifested in the United

States assumes that we are not co-operativein Madisons classic words from TheFederalist Papers (No 51)

Ambition must be made to counteractambition The interest of the manmust be connected with theconstitutional rights of the place Itmay be a reflection on human naturethat such devices should be necessaryto control the abuses of governmentBut what is government itself but thegreatest of all reflections on humannature If men were angels nogovernment would be necessary

Experience teaches that this is in facthow our form of democracy functions It is asystem for summing selfish private interestsinto public policy a system for allocatingresources and for selecting policies that willyield maximum opportunities for privatebenefit At best it is utilitarian in that thesum of the self interest of the largestnumber of people is maximized To thelimited extent that the system is capable ofrecognizing group or community interests itdoes so by privileging them within the systemof constitutional ldquoplacesrdquo The original statesdemanded retention of power Theprogressive loss of power by local and stategovernments reflects the growing emphasisof the US constitutional system onindividual interests and economic growth tothe exclusion of almost all other values Onecant get elected without declaring supportfor national power and competitiveness and

J Henry FairBelle ChasseLouisiana

12 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

promising to deliver maximum economicbenefit to individual voters

It is not a coincidence that concentratedfederal power and corporate power go handin hand and that community connectionsthat exist in the spirit of egalitarianism areever weaker We naturally want to connectwith others and the natural world but theability to influence the world is increasingly inthe hands of distant corporations andgovernments Democracy is not helping bringour sympathetic impulses to the fore on thecontrary it is narrowing the span ofautonomy in which these impulses can actmaking them irrelevant

Ive heard some environmentalists speaklongingly of Chinas system where thegovernment can simply imposeenvironmental protection by fiat Capitaliststoo who envy the rapid economic growthand efficient exercise of government powerthere Those feelings scare me Im scaredthat authoritarian postmodern capitalism maybe the most efficient and powerful economicsystem yet invented I think our constitutionalsystem is seriously flawed but any student ofhistory should prefer it to one-party ordictatorial power Madison was right at leastthat our system is well-suited to prevent thefree rein of the worst part of our nature

Returning to our original question aboutour capacity to address global environmentalproblems Im forced to rely upon socialforces specifically the creation of norms forenvironmental ethics in a rapidly developingglobal culture The science-and-statemechanism now being used to addressclimate change would never have broughtabout last centurys changes in race relationsAcademic study followed by democraticlegislation did not defeat slavery colonialismand overt racism Instead the really effectivetools were moral discussion communityrelations and the spread of new normsthrough writings and action Governmentsonly moved when the moral ground hadalready shifted under them makingcontinuation of the old system untenable

As you say we dont know what willhappen I donrsquot know if the process of socialchange will be quick enough But I think it isthe solution and that it is only achievablethrough those sympathies that we normallyexpress on the small scaleRicherson Yes I imagine that we are nearagreement on most issues I certainly wouldnot defend a panglossian view ofcontemporary democracies I share many ofyour critical opinions Aside from all theirother imperfections it is not clear that theyare up to managing global problems Butpostmodern authoritarianisms as exemplifiedby China Russia or Saudi Arabia are notobviously any better In Copenhagen lastyear the responsibility for failure was widelydistributed and didnrsquot depend much on typeof political system

We also donrsquot want to romanticize hunter-gatherers In simple societies men dominatewomen Feuds and intertribal warfare areoften serious problems Hunter-gatherershave been blamed for megafaunal extinctions

I think that reasoning from ldquohumannaturerdquo is an error Results from recentexperimental games suggest that individualsrsquopropensities to cooperate are highly variableA large minority of people are stronglycooperative a majority are conditionalcooperators who will cooperate if others doand a minority cheat as much as they can getaway with In groups composed of the firsttwo types cooperation emerges rapidly Theproblems come from the ten percent ofcheaters for example those who usecommunication deceptively encouragingothers to cooperate while they defectDifferent cultures vary in the tools they givethe minority of strong cooperators toencourage the majority and control thedeviously selfish People also vary in thekinds of moral arguments they subscribe toWe have barely begun to think about politicsand policy using population thinking in placeof the dubious essentialist concept of humannature

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 13

This is a book of photographs ofenvironmental disastersoccurring at different points inthe consumerindustrial cycle

which illustrate the negative impact ourcontemporary consumer society has on theplanetary systems that sustain our existenceBecause of the subject the pictures areinherently political but my first goal was tocreate compelling images

Essays written by some of the top writersscientists and environmentalists of our daypunctuate the images They were asked towrite personal memoirs with anenvironmental focus and the results rangefrom hilarious to heart-wrenching

The objective of these pictures is not tovilify any given company or industrymdashthereare good and bad actors everywhere Myintent is to engage the viewer stimulatecuriosity and encourage dialog Our societyrsquosstructure has evolved to the point wheregovernment responds not to the citizenry butto the corporations that finance it These daysthe vote that matters the most is the purchasedecision Though our government does notdefend or respond to us the manufacturersdo So the goal of these pictures is topromote an activist consumerism This is astrategy that works as testament look at theToyota Prius and Whole Foods There is evenan organic food section in Walmart

I write this after a month of repeated tripsover the British Petroleum DeepwaterHorizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico andit cannot help but have an emotional effect Icanrsquot bear to drink from a plastic water bottleknowing that oil equaling roughly 13 of thevolume of that water bottle was used to get itinto my hands One of my responses to theGulf gusher is to hitchhike Why burn gas toget from train station to home

Irsquom constantly amazed by the willingnessof people to ignore the consequences of

their actions and the real risks to their healthand well-being Most of us live in a world ofindulgences all of which have anenvironmental cost that will be passed on toour children ldquoThe environmentrdquo is thesystem that supports life our life But thosewho are concerned about it who speak upabout it are relegated to the status of zealotsand simpletons ldquoThings are toocomplicatedrdquo we are told ldquoWe canrsquot changeour economy business will suffer jobs will belostrdquo Meanwhile the system that provides usthe air and water we need to live is going intocardiac arrest I believe that we could very

easily change the direction of our society andeconomy toward sustainability with nothingbut benefits for our children ourselves andour economy The only losers would be thosecurrently making fortunes from destructionand exploitation We have the power Spendyour dollars with your children in mind

mdash J Henry Fair

EXCERPT

Text excerpted (and edited for length) from the introduction to J HenryFairs The Day After Tomorrow available Feb 2011 from powerHouseBooks (special thanks to flight partner SouthWings) For information visithttpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitep=1094 as well as the booksB-side at httpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitepage_id=5119

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 9

heavy lifting is done by individuals Howevermuch ideas are propagated refined andrecombined by wholesale collective decision-making I canrsquot see how we can operate anyhuman social system without retail attentionto the individual

Our own radically individualist politicaltradition gives outsized weight to a citizenrsquosdecisions in the formation of public policy Ithink we need to push back to some degreeagainst excessive individualism Materialwants especially excessive ones arecomparative I donrsquot mind living in a modesthouse but if all my friends and neighbors livein much grander ones I may feel the pain ofenvy in my one hundred square meters whilethey count their three hundred square metersas a happy sign of virtue not greed or luckThe economist Robert H Frank in his booksChoosing the Right Pond and The Winner-Take-All Society dissects the operation ofthis dynamic Unrestrained economic change

driven by comparative wants can easilydestroy value He shows how cooperation isnecessary to evade being victimized bycomparative wants Pride and envy are amongChristianitys seven deadly sins They donrsquotget any better treatment in the otheruniversalistic religions

Since biological fitness has a stronglycomparative component you are likelycorrect that comparative wants have deepbiological roots On the other hand thehunting and gathering societies that seemmost like our late Pleistocene ancestors areusually rather egalitarian Power differentialsare modest and foods that require the mostenergy and skill to collect are generally widelyshared within the community According toChristopher Boehm in his book Hierarchy inthe Forest among human hunter-gatherersthose who would have been subordinates inancestral ape societies cooperated to suppresswould-be dominants in order to produce

J Henry Fair Terrace Bay Ontario Canada

10 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

egalitarian human societies AnthropologistsJoe Henrich and Francisco Gil-White argue inan important paper that humans have erecteda new system of prestige on top of the moreancient primate system of dominanceDominants depend upon raw coercive powerfor their status while the prestigious aregranted status as the ablest and best by publicopinion Aung San Suu Kyi has prestige theBurmese junta that prevents her party fromtaking power has dominance Ancestralhunter-gatherer societies were substantiallyorganized by prestige not dominanceDominants rightly fear the power of prestigethe Chinese government reacted quitestrongly to the prestige accorded by LiuXiaobo by the Nobel Peace Prize Committee

Modern democracy is an attempt tointroduce the spirit of egalitarianism and ruleby prestige (rather than power) into theoperation of complex societies This attemptruns in the face of history as complexsocieties seem to have regularly led to thereturn of dominance in the human socialequation Yet as Peter Turchin argues in hisbook Historical Dynamics elite societies arethemselves unstable authoritarians oftenpromise stability when democracy seemsshaky but it is by no means obvious thatauthoritarians can in fact deliver

I certainly hope that you are right that byusing humanistic and universalist argumentswe can draw the sting of nationalism andsimilar parochial ideologies This seemsessential for moral progress in a world with

critical global problems to solveI sometimes think of human life as an

adventure In an adventure you take risks inhope of ultimate gain Against the risks youpit your skill and judgment Modernity haslaunched our whole species willy nilly upona great adventure full of risk and uncertaintyFoolish adventurers neglect skill andjudgment and trust to luck either wesuccessfully use Darwinrsquos tools to progress orwe face the luck of natural selectionmdashand wedonrsquot want to evolve by natural selection ifwe can avoid it

Perhaps we need to remind people aboutthe adventures fundamentally social natureAs Adam Smith said in The Theory of MoralSentiments

What are the advantages which wepropose by that great purpose ofhuman life which we call bettering ourcondition To be observed to beattended to to be taken notice of withsympathy complacency andapprobation all are the advantages wecan propose to derive from it

Wohlforth Were wonderfully near toconsensus Your message reads like a veryerudite precis of my book The Fate ofNature including the attention paid toindigenous cultures and Joe Henrichs workthe issues surrounding the psychology ofmaterialism and the emphasis on culturalrather than biological evolution I think Iveexpressed myself poorly however in thatyouve taken some of what I said to be the

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 11

contrary of what I meant I strongly agreewith most of your message

But I think there is an area where I wouldamend your comments You say ldquoModerndemocracy is an attempt to introduce thespirit of egalitarianism and rule by prestige(rather than power) into the operation ofcomplex societiesrdquo The word ldquodemocracyrdquo isas slippery as any in the language It impliesconsent of the governed but in practicemore often effects only a wider distributionof power into the hands of numerous peopleand across time On the surface your pointthat democracy is more egalitarian follows bydefinition since the broader distribution ofpower is necessarily more egalitarian thandictatorship However it does not necessarilyfollow that a democratic system embodiesldquothe spirit of egalitarianism and rule byprestigerdquo Splitting dominance (or purepower) into parts doesnrsquot transform it intothe ldquospiritrdquo of egalitarianism Moreimportantly if that ldquospiritrdquo means as Ibelieve you intend the capacity forexpression of pro-social values into policy Iwould suggest the contrary may be true It isnot at all clear that a democratic arrangementof power would be better for theenvironment or would allow human beings tomore easily fit within our ecosystem nor isthere necessarily a connection between votingand the transmission of pro-social values intopublic policy

The Enlightenment form of democracymost perfectly manifested in the United

States assumes that we are not co-operativein Madisons classic words from TheFederalist Papers (No 51)

Ambition must be made to counteractambition The interest of the manmust be connected with theconstitutional rights of the place Itmay be a reflection on human naturethat such devices should be necessaryto control the abuses of governmentBut what is government itself but thegreatest of all reflections on humannature If men were angels nogovernment would be necessary

Experience teaches that this is in facthow our form of democracy functions It is asystem for summing selfish private interestsinto public policy a system for allocatingresources and for selecting policies that willyield maximum opportunities for privatebenefit At best it is utilitarian in that thesum of the self interest of the largestnumber of people is maximized To thelimited extent that the system is capable ofrecognizing group or community interests itdoes so by privileging them within the systemof constitutional ldquoplacesrdquo The original statesdemanded retention of power Theprogressive loss of power by local and stategovernments reflects the growing emphasisof the US constitutional system onindividual interests and economic growth tothe exclusion of almost all other values Onecant get elected without declaring supportfor national power and competitiveness and

J Henry FairBelle ChasseLouisiana

12 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

promising to deliver maximum economicbenefit to individual voters

It is not a coincidence that concentratedfederal power and corporate power go handin hand and that community connectionsthat exist in the spirit of egalitarianism areever weaker We naturally want to connectwith others and the natural world but theability to influence the world is increasingly inthe hands of distant corporations andgovernments Democracy is not helping bringour sympathetic impulses to the fore on thecontrary it is narrowing the span ofautonomy in which these impulses can actmaking them irrelevant

Ive heard some environmentalists speaklongingly of Chinas system where thegovernment can simply imposeenvironmental protection by fiat Capitaliststoo who envy the rapid economic growthand efficient exercise of government powerthere Those feelings scare me Im scaredthat authoritarian postmodern capitalism maybe the most efficient and powerful economicsystem yet invented I think our constitutionalsystem is seriously flawed but any student ofhistory should prefer it to one-party ordictatorial power Madison was right at leastthat our system is well-suited to prevent thefree rein of the worst part of our nature

Returning to our original question aboutour capacity to address global environmentalproblems Im forced to rely upon socialforces specifically the creation of norms forenvironmental ethics in a rapidly developingglobal culture The science-and-statemechanism now being used to addressclimate change would never have broughtabout last centurys changes in race relationsAcademic study followed by democraticlegislation did not defeat slavery colonialismand overt racism Instead the really effectivetools were moral discussion communityrelations and the spread of new normsthrough writings and action Governmentsonly moved when the moral ground hadalready shifted under them makingcontinuation of the old system untenable

As you say we dont know what willhappen I donrsquot know if the process of socialchange will be quick enough But I think it isthe solution and that it is only achievablethrough those sympathies that we normallyexpress on the small scaleRicherson Yes I imagine that we are nearagreement on most issues I certainly wouldnot defend a panglossian view ofcontemporary democracies I share many ofyour critical opinions Aside from all theirother imperfections it is not clear that theyare up to managing global problems Butpostmodern authoritarianisms as exemplifiedby China Russia or Saudi Arabia are notobviously any better In Copenhagen lastyear the responsibility for failure was widelydistributed and didnrsquot depend much on typeof political system

We also donrsquot want to romanticize hunter-gatherers In simple societies men dominatewomen Feuds and intertribal warfare areoften serious problems Hunter-gatherershave been blamed for megafaunal extinctions

I think that reasoning from ldquohumannaturerdquo is an error Results from recentexperimental games suggest that individualsrsquopropensities to cooperate are highly variableA large minority of people are stronglycooperative a majority are conditionalcooperators who will cooperate if others doand a minority cheat as much as they can getaway with In groups composed of the firsttwo types cooperation emerges rapidly Theproblems come from the ten percent ofcheaters for example those who usecommunication deceptively encouragingothers to cooperate while they defectDifferent cultures vary in the tools they givethe minority of strong cooperators toencourage the majority and control thedeviously selfish People also vary in thekinds of moral arguments they subscribe toWe have barely begun to think about politicsand policy using population thinking in placeof the dubious essentialist concept of humannature

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 13

This is a book of photographs ofenvironmental disastersoccurring at different points inthe consumerindustrial cycle

which illustrate the negative impact ourcontemporary consumer society has on theplanetary systems that sustain our existenceBecause of the subject the pictures areinherently political but my first goal was tocreate compelling images

Essays written by some of the top writersscientists and environmentalists of our daypunctuate the images They were asked towrite personal memoirs with anenvironmental focus and the results rangefrom hilarious to heart-wrenching

The objective of these pictures is not tovilify any given company or industrymdashthereare good and bad actors everywhere Myintent is to engage the viewer stimulatecuriosity and encourage dialog Our societyrsquosstructure has evolved to the point wheregovernment responds not to the citizenry butto the corporations that finance it These daysthe vote that matters the most is the purchasedecision Though our government does notdefend or respond to us the manufacturersdo So the goal of these pictures is topromote an activist consumerism This is astrategy that works as testament look at theToyota Prius and Whole Foods There is evenan organic food section in Walmart

I write this after a month of repeated tripsover the British Petroleum DeepwaterHorizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico andit cannot help but have an emotional effect Icanrsquot bear to drink from a plastic water bottleknowing that oil equaling roughly 13 of thevolume of that water bottle was used to get itinto my hands One of my responses to theGulf gusher is to hitchhike Why burn gas toget from train station to home

Irsquom constantly amazed by the willingnessof people to ignore the consequences of

their actions and the real risks to their healthand well-being Most of us live in a world ofindulgences all of which have anenvironmental cost that will be passed on toour children ldquoThe environmentrdquo is thesystem that supports life our life But thosewho are concerned about it who speak upabout it are relegated to the status of zealotsand simpletons ldquoThings are toocomplicatedrdquo we are told ldquoWe canrsquot changeour economy business will suffer jobs will belostrdquo Meanwhile the system that provides usthe air and water we need to live is going intocardiac arrest I believe that we could very

easily change the direction of our society andeconomy toward sustainability with nothingbut benefits for our children ourselves andour economy The only losers would be thosecurrently making fortunes from destructionand exploitation We have the power Spendyour dollars with your children in mind

mdash J Henry Fair

EXCERPT

Text excerpted (and edited for length) from the introduction to J HenryFairs The Day After Tomorrow available Feb 2011 from powerHouseBooks (special thanks to flight partner SouthWings) For information visithttpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitep=1094 as well as the booksB-side at httpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitepage_id=5119

10 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

egalitarian human societies AnthropologistsJoe Henrich and Francisco Gil-White argue inan important paper that humans have erecteda new system of prestige on top of the moreancient primate system of dominanceDominants depend upon raw coercive powerfor their status while the prestigious aregranted status as the ablest and best by publicopinion Aung San Suu Kyi has prestige theBurmese junta that prevents her party fromtaking power has dominance Ancestralhunter-gatherer societies were substantiallyorganized by prestige not dominanceDominants rightly fear the power of prestigethe Chinese government reacted quitestrongly to the prestige accorded by LiuXiaobo by the Nobel Peace Prize Committee

Modern democracy is an attempt tointroduce the spirit of egalitarianism and ruleby prestige (rather than power) into theoperation of complex societies This attemptruns in the face of history as complexsocieties seem to have regularly led to thereturn of dominance in the human socialequation Yet as Peter Turchin argues in hisbook Historical Dynamics elite societies arethemselves unstable authoritarians oftenpromise stability when democracy seemsshaky but it is by no means obvious thatauthoritarians can in fact deliver

I certainly hope that you are right that byusing humanistic and universalist argumentswe can draw the sting of nationalism andsimilar parochial ideologies This seemsessential for moral progress in a world with

critical global problems to solveI sometimes think of human life as an

adventure In an adventure you take risks inhope of ultimate gain Against the risks youpit your skill and judgment Modernity haslaunched our whole species willy nilly upona great adventure full of risk and uncertaintyFoolish adventurers neglect skill andjudgment and trust to luck either wesuccessfully use Darwinrsquos tools to progress orwe face the luck of natural selectionmdashand wedonrsquot want to evolve by natural selection ifwe can avoid it

Perhaps we need to remind people aboutthe adventures fundamentally social natureAs Adam Smith said in The Theory of MoralSentiments

What are the advantages which wepropose by that great purpose ofhuman life which we call bettering ourcondition To be observed to beattended to to be taken notice of withsympathy complacency andapprobation all are the advantages wecan propose to derive from it

Wohlforth Were wonderfully near toconsensus Your message reads like a veryerudite precis of my book The Fate ofNature including the attention paid toindigenous cultures and Joe Henrichs workthe issues surrounding the psychology ofmaterialism and the emphasis on culturalrather than biological evolution I think Iveexpressed myself poorly however in thatyouve taken some of what I said to be the

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 11

contrary of what I meant I strongly agreewith most of your message

But I think there is an area where I wouldamend your comments You say ldquoModerndemocracy is an attempt to introduce thespirit of egalitarianism and rule by prestige(rather than power) into the operation ofcomplex societiesrdquo The word ldquodemocracyrdquo isas slippery as any in the language It impliesconsent of the governed but in practicemore often effects only a wider distributionof power into the hands of numerous peopleand across time On the surface your pointthat democracy is more egalitarian follows bydefinition since the broader distribution ofpower is necessarily more egalitarian thandictatorship However it does not necessarilyfollow that a democratic system embodiesldquothe spirit of egalitarianism and rule byprestigerdquo Splitting dominance (or purepower) into parts doesnrsquot transform it intothe ldquospiritrdquo of egalitarianism Moreimportantly if that ldquospiritrdquo means as Ibelieve you intend the capacity forexpression of pro-social values into policy Iwould suggest the contrary may be true It isnot at all clear that a democratic arrangementof power would be better for theenvironment or would allow human beings tomore easily fit within our ecosystem nor isthere necessarily a connection between votingand the transmission of pro-social values intopublic policy

The Enlightenment form of democracymost perfectly manifested in the United

States assumes that we are not co-operativein Madisons classic words from TheFederalist Papers (No 51)

Ambition must be made to counteractambition The interest of the manmust be connected with theconstitutional rights of the place Itmay be a reflection on human naturethat such devices should be necessaryto control the abuses of governmentBut what is government itself but thegreatest of all reflections on humannature If men were angels nogovernment would be necessary

Experience teaches that this is in facthow our form of democracy functions It is asystem for summing selfish private interestsinto public policy a system for allocatingresources and for selecting policies that willyield maximum opportunities for privatebenefit At best it is utilitarian in that thesum of the self interest of the largestnumber of people is maximized To thelimited extent that the system is capable ofrecognizing group or community interests itdoes so by privileging them within the systemof constitutional ldquoplacesrdquo The original statesdemanded retention of power Theprogressive loss of power by local and stategovernments reflects the growing emphasisof the US constitutional system onindividual interests and economic growth tothe exclusion of almost all other values Onecant get elected without declaring supportfor national power and competitiveness and

J Henry FairBelle ChasseLouisiana

12 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

promising to deliver maximum economicbenefit to individual voters

It is not a coincidence that concentratedfederal power and corporate power go handin hand and that community connectionsthat exist in the spirit of egalitarianism areever weaker We naturally want to connectwith others and the natural world but theability to influence the world is increasingly inthe hands of distant corporations andgovernments Democracy is not helping bringour sympathetic impulses to the fore on thecontrary it is narrowing the span ofautonomy in which these impulses can actmaking them irrelevant

Ive heard some environmentalists speaklongingly of Chinas system where thegovernment can simply imposeenvironmental protection by fiat Capitaliststoo who envy the rapid economic growthand efficient exercise of government powerthere Those feelings scare me Im scaredthat authoritarian postmodern capitalism maybe the most efficient and powerful economicsystem yet invented I think our constitutionalsystem is seriously flawed but any student ofhistory should prefer it to one-party ordictatorial power Madison was right at leastthat our system is well-suited to prevent thefree rein of the worst part of our nature

Returning to our original question aboutour capacity to address global environmentalproblems Im forced to rely upon socialforces specifically the creation of norms forenvironmental ethics in a rapidly developingglobal culture The science-and-statemechanism now being used to addressclimate change would never have broughtabout last centurys changes in race relationsAcademic study followed by democraticlegislation did not defeat slavery colonialismand overt racism Instead the really effectivetools were moral discussion communityrelations and the spread of new normsthrough writings and action Governmentsonly moved when the moral ground hadalready shifted under them makingcontinuation of the old system untenable

As you say we dont know what willhappen I donrsquot know if the process of socialchange will be quick enough But I think it isthe solution and that it is only achievablethrough those sympathies that we normallyexpress on the small scaleRicherson Yes I imagine that we are nearagreement on most issues I certainly wouldnot defend a panglossian view ofcontemporary democracies I share many ofyour critical opinions Aside from all theirother imperfections it is not clear that theyare up to managing global problems Butpostmodern authoritarianisms as exemplifiedby China Russia or Saudi Arabia are notobviously any better In Copenhagen lastyear the responsibility for failure was widelydistributed and didnrsquot depend much on typeof political system

We also donrsquot want to romanticize hunter-gatherers In simple societies men dominatewomen Feuds and intertribal warfare areoften serious problems Hunter-gatherershave been blamed for megafaunal extinctions

I think that reasoning from ldquohumannaturerdquo is an error Results from recentexperimental games suggest that individualsrsquopropensities to cooperate are highly variableA large minority of people are stronglycooperative a majority are conditionalcooperators who will cooperate if others doand a minority cheat as much as they can getaway with In groups composed of the firsttwo types cooperation emerges rapidly Theproblems come from the ten percent ofcheaters for example those who usecommunication deceptively encouragingothers to cooperate while they defectDifferent cultures vary in the tools they givethe minority of strong cooperators toencourage the majority and control thedeviously selfish People also vary in thekinds of moral arguments they subscribe toWe have barely begun to think about politicsand policy using population thinking in placeof the dubious essentialist concept of humannature

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 13

This is a book of photographs ofenvironmental disastersoccurring at different points inthe consumerindustrial cycle

which illustrate the negative impact ourcontemporary consumer society has on theplanetary systems that sustain our existenceBecause of the subject the pictures areinherently political but my first goal was tocreate compelling images

Essays written by some of the top writersscientists and environmentalists of our daypunctuate the images They were asked towrite personal memoirs with anenvironmental focus and the results rangefrom hilarious to heart-wrenching

The objective of these pictures is not tovilify any given company or industrymdashthereare good and bad actors everywhere Myintent is to engage the viewer stimulatecuriosity and encourage dialog Our societyrsquosstructure has evolved to the point wheregovernment responds not to the citizenry butto the corporations that finance it These daysthe vote that matters the most is the purchasedecision Though our government does notdefend or respond to us the manufacturersdo So the goal of these pictures is topromote an activist consumerism This is astrategy that works as testament look at theToyota Prius and Whole Foods There is evenan organic food section in Walmart

I write this after a month of repeated tripsover the British Petroleum DeepwaterHorizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico andit cannot help but have an emotional effect Icanrsquot bear to drink from a plastic water bottleknowing that oil equaling roughly 13 of thevolume of that water bottle was used to get itinto my hands One of my responses to theGulf gusher is to hitchhike Why burn gas toget from train station to home

Irsquom constantly amazed by the willingnessof people to ignore the consequences of

their actions and the real risks to their healthand well-being Most of us live in a world ofindulgences all of which have anenvironmental cost that will be passed on toour children ldquoThe environmentrdquo is thesystem that supports life our life But thosewho are concerned about it who speak upabout it are relegated to the status of zealotsand simpletons ldquoThings are toocomplicatedrdquo we are told ldquoWe canrsquot changeour economy business will suffer jobs will belostrdquo Meanwhile the system that provides usthe air and water we need to live is going intocardiac arrest I believe that we could very

easily change the direction of our society andeconomy toward sustainability with nothingbut benefits for our children ourselves andour economy The only losers would be thosecurrently making fortunes from destructionand exploitation We have the power Spendyour dollars with your children in mind

mdash J Henry Fair

EXCERPT

Text excerpted (and edited for length) from the introduction to J HenryFairs The Day After Tomorrow available Feb 2011 from powerHouseBooks (special thanks to flight partner SouthWings) For information visithttpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitep=1094 as well as the booksB-side at httpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitepage_id=5119

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 11

contrary of what I meant I strongly agreewith most of your message

But I think there is an area where I wouldamend your comments You say ldquoModerndemocracy is an attempt to introduce thespirit of egalitarianism and rule by prestige(rather than power) into the operation ofcomplex societiesrdquo The word ldquodemocracyrdquo isas slippery as any in the language It impliesconsent of the governed but in practicemore often effects only a wider distributionof power into the hands of numerous peopleand across time On the surface your pointthat democracy is more egalitarian follows bydefinition since the broader distribution ofpower is necessarily more egalitarian thandictatorship However it does not necessarilyfollow that a democratic system embodiesldquothe spirit of egalitarianism and rule byprestigerdquo Splitting dominance (or purepower) into parts doesnrsquot transform it intothe ldquospiritrdquo of egalitarianism Moreimportantly if that ldquospiritrdquo means as Ibelieve you intend the capacity forexpression of pro-social values into policy Iwould suggest the contrary may be true It isnot at all clear that a democratic arrangementof power would be better for theenvironment or would allow human beings tomore easily fit within our ecosystem nor isthere necessarily a connection between votingand the transmission of pro-social values intopublic policy

The Enlightenment form of democracymost perfectly manifested in the United

States assumes that we are not co-operativein Madisons classic words from TheFederalist Papers (No 51)

Ambition must be made to counteractambition The interest of the manmust be connected with theconstitutional rights of the place Itmay be a reflection on human naturethat such devices should be necessaryto control the abuses of governmentBut what is government itself but thegreatest of all reflections on humannature If men were angels nogovernment would be necessary

Experience teaches that this is in facthow our form of democracy functions It is asystem for summing selfish private interestsinto public policy a system for allocatingresources and for selecting policies that willyield maximum opportunities for privatebenefit At best it is utilitarian in that thesum of the self interest of the largestnumber of people is maximized To thelimited extent that the system is capable ofrecognizing group or community interests itdoes so by privileging them within the systemof constitutional ldquoplacesrdquo The original statesdemanded retention of power Theprogressive loss of power by local and stategovernments reflects the growing emphasisof the US constitutional system onindividual interests and economic growth tothe exclusion of almost all other values Onecant get elected without declaring supportfor national power and competitiveness and

J Henry FairBelle ChasseLouisiana

12 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

promising to deliver maximum economicbenefit to individual voters

It is not a coincidence that concentratedfederal power and corporate power go handin hand and that community connectionsthat exist in the spirit of egalitarianism areever weaker We naturally want to connectwith others and the natural world but theability to influence the world is increasingly inthe hands of distant corporations andgovernments Democracy is not helping bringour sympathetic impulses to the fore on thecontrary it is narrowing the span ofautonomy in which these impulses can actmaking them irrelevant

Ive heard some environmentalists speaklongingly of Chinas system where thegovernment can simply imposeenvironmental protection by fiat Capitaliststoo who envy the rapid economic growthand efficient exercise of government powerthere Those feelings scare me Im scaredthat authoritarian postmodern capitalism maybe the most efficient and powerful economicsystem yet invented I think our constitutionalsystem is seriously flawed but any student ofhistory should prefer it to one-party ordictatorial power Madison was right at leastthat our system is well-suited to prevent thefree rein of the worst part of our nature

Returning to our original question aboutour capacity to address global environmentalproblems Im forced to rely upon socialforces specifically the creation of norms forenvironmental ethics in a rapidly developingglobal culture The science-and-statemechanism now being used to addressclimate change would never have broughtabout last centurys changes in race relationsAcademic study followed by democraticlegislation did not defeat slavery colonialismand overt racism Instead the really effectivetools were moral discussion communityrelations and the spread of new normsthrough writings and action Governmentsonly moved when the moral ground hadalready shifted under them makingcontinuation of the old system untenable

As you say we dont know what willhappen I donrsquot know if the process of socialchange will be quick enough But I think it isthe solution and that it is only achievablethrough those sympathies that we normallyexpress on the small scaleRicherson Yes I imagine that we are nearagreement on most issues I certainly wouldnot defend a panglossian view ofcontemporary democracies I share many ofyour critical opinions Aside from all theirother imperfections it is not clear that theyare up to managing global problems Butpostmodern authoritarianisms as exemplifiedby China Russia or Saudi Arabia are notobviously any better In Copenhagen lastyear the responsibility for failure was widelydistributed and didnrsquot depend much on typeof political system

We also donrsquot want to romanticize hunter-gatherers In simple societies men dominatewomen Feuds and intertribal warfare areoften serious problems Hunter-gatherershave been blamed for megafaunal extinctions

I think that reasoning from ldquohumannaturerdquo is an error Results from recentexperimental games suggest that individualsrsquopropensities to cooperate are highly variableA large minority of people are stronglycooperative a majority are conditionalcooperators who will cooperate if others doand a minority cheat as much as they can getaway with In groups composed of the firsttwo types cooperation emerges rapidly Theproblems come from the ten percent ofcheaters for example those who usecommunication deceptively encouragingothers to cooperate while they defectDifferent cultures vary in the tools they givethe minority of strong cooperators toencourage the majority and control thedeviously selfish People also vary in thekinds of moral arguments they subscribe toWe have barely begun to think about politicsand policy using population thinking in placeof the dubious essentialist concept of humannature

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 13

This is a book of photographs ofenvironmental disastersoccurring at different points inthe consumerindustrial cycle

which illustrate the negative impact ourcontemporary consumer society has on theplanetary systems that sustain our existenceBecause of the subject the pictures areinherently political but my first goal was tocreate compelling images

Essays written by some of the top writersscientists and environmentalists of our daypunctuate the images They were asked towrite personal memoirs with anenvironmental focus and the results rangefrom hilarious to heart-wrenching

The objective of these pictures is not tovilify any given company or industrymdashthereare good and bad actors everywhere Myintent is to engage the viewer stimulatecuriosity and encourage dialog Our societyrsquosstructure has evolved to the point wheregovernment responds not to the citizenry butto the corporations that finance it These daysthe vote that matters the most is the purchasedecision Though our government does notdefend or respond to us the manufacturersdo So the goal of these pictures is topromote an activist consumerism This is astrategy that works as testament look at theToyota Prius and Whole Foods There is evenan organic food section in Walmart

I write this after a month of repeated tripsover the British Petroleum DeepwaterHorizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico andit cannot help but have an emotional effect Icanrsquot bear to drink from a plastic water bottleknowing that oil equaling roughly 13 of thevolume of that water bottle was used to get itinto my hands One of my responses to theGulf gusher is to hitchhike Why burn gas toget from train station to home

Irsquom constantly amazed by the willingnessof people to ignore the consequences of

their actions and the real risks to their healthand well-being Most of us live in a world ofindulgences all of which have anenvironmental cost that will be passed on toour children ldquoThe environmentrdquo is thesystem that supports life our life But thosewho are concerned about it who speak upabout it are relegated to the status of zealotsand simpletons ldquoThings are toocomplicatedrdquo we are told ldquoWe canrsquot changeour economy business will suffer jobs will belostrdquo Meanwhile the system that provides usthe air and water we need to live is going intocardiac arrest I believe that we could very

easily change the direction of our society andeconomy toward sustainability with nothingbut benefits for our children ourselves andour economy The only losers would be thosecurrently making fortunes from destructionand exploitation We have the power Spendyour dollars with your children in mind

mdash J Henry Fair

EXCERPT

Text excerpted (and edited for length) from the introduction to J HenryFairs The Day After Tomorrow available Feb 2011 from powerHouseBooks (special thanks to flight partner SouthWings) For information visithttpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitep=1094 as well as the booksB-side at httpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitepage_id=5119

12 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

promising to deliver maximum economicbenefit to individual voters

It is not a coincidence that concentratedfederal power and corporate power go handin hand and that community connectionsthat exist in the spirit of egalitarianism areever weaker We naturally want to connectwith others and the natural world but theability to influence the world is increasingly inthe hands of distant corporations andgovernments Democracy is not helping bringour sympathetic impulses to the fore on thecontrary it is narrowing the span ofautonomy in which these impulses can actmaking them irrelevant

Ive heard some environmentalists speaklongingly of Chinas system where thegovernment can simply imposeenvironmental protection by fiat Capitaliststoo who envy the rapid economic growthand efficient exercise of government powerthere Those feelings scare me Im scaredthat authoritarian postmodern capitalism maybe the most efficient and powerful economicsystem yet invented I think our constitutionalsystem is seriously flawed but any student ofhistory should prefer it to one-party ordictatorial power Madison was right at leastthat our system is well-suited to prevent thefree rein of the worst part of our nature

Returning to our original question aboutour capacity to address global environmentalproblems Im forced to rely upon socialforces specifically the creation of norms forenvironmental ethics in a rapidly developingglobal culture The science-and-statemechanism now being used to addressclimate change would never have broughtabout last centurys changes in race relationsAcademic study followed by democraticlegislation did not defeat slavery colonialismand overt racism Instead the really effectivetools were moral discussion communityrelations and the spread of new normsthrough writings and action Governmentsonly moved when the moral ground hadalready shifted under them makingcontinuation of the old system untenable

As you say we dont know what willhappen I donrsquot know if the process of socialchange will be quick enough But I think it isthe solution and that it is only achievablethrough those sympathies that we normallyexpress on the small scaleRicherson Yes I imagine that we are nearagreement on most issues I certainly wouldnot defend a panglossian view ofcontemporary democracies I share many ofyour critical opinions Aside from all theirother imperfections it is not clear that theyare up to managing global problems Butpostmodern authoritarianisms as exemplifiedby China Russia or Saudi Arabia are notobviously any better In Copenhagen lastyear the responsibility for failure was widelydistributed and didnrsquot depend much on typeof political system

We also donrsquot want to romanticize hunter-gatherers In simple societies men dominatewomen Feuds and intertribal warfare areoften serious problems Hunter-gatherershave been blamed for megafaunal extinctions

I think that reasoning from ldquohumannaturerdquo is an error Results from recentexperimental games suggest that individualsrsquopropensities to cooperate are highly variableA large minority of people are stronglycooperative a majority are conditionalcooperators who will cooperate if others doand a minority cheat as much as they can getaway with In groups composed of the firsttwo types cooperation emerges rapidly Theproblems come from the ten percent ofcheaters for example those who usecommunication deceptively encouragingothers to cooperate while they defectDifferent cultures vary in the tools they givethe minority of strong cooperators toencourage the majority and control thedeviously selfish People also vary in thekinds of moral arguments they subscribe toWe have barely begun to think about politicsand policy using population thinking in placeof the dubious essentialist concept of humannature

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 13

This is a book of photographs ofenvironmental disastersoccurring at different points inthe consumerindustrial cycle

which illustrate the negative impact ourcontemporary consumer society has on theplanetary systems that sustain our existenceBecause of the subject the pictures areinherently political but my first goal was tocreate compelling images

Essays written by some of the top writersscientists and environmentalists of our daypunctuate the images They were asked towrite personal memoirs with anenvironmental focus and the results rangefrom hilarious to heart-wrenching

The objective of these pictures is not tovilify any given company or industrymdashthereare good and bad actors everywhere Myintent is to engage the viewer stimulatecuriosity and encourage dialog Our societyrsquosstructure has evolved to the point wheregovernment responds not to the citizenry butto the corporations that finance it These daysthe vote that matters the most is the purchasedecision Though our government does notdefend or respond to us the manufacturersdo So the goal of these pictures is topromote an activist consumerism This is astrategy that works as testament look at theToyota Prius and Whole Foods There is evenan organic food section in Walmart

I write this after a month of repeated tripsover the British Petroleum DeepwaterHorizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico andit cannot help but have an emotional effect Icanrsquot bear to drink from a plastic water bottleknowing that oil equaling roughly 13 of thevolume of that water bottle was used to get itinto my hands One of my responses to theGulf gusher is to hitchhike Why burn gas toget from train station to home

Irsquom constantly amazed by the willingnessof people to ignore the consequences of

their actions and the real risks to their healthand well-being Most of us live in a world ofindulgences all of which have anenvironmental cost that will be passed on toour children ldquoThe environmentrdquo is thesystem that supports life our life But thosewho are concerned about it who speak upabout it are relegated to the status of zealotsand simpletons ldquoThings are toocomplicatedrdquo we are told ldquoWe canrsquot changeour economy business will suffer jobs will belostrdquo Meanwhile the system that provides usthe air and water we need to live is going intocardiac arrest I believe that we could very

easily change the direction of our society andeconomy toward sustainability with nothingbut benefits for our children ourselves andour economy The only losers would be thosecurrently making fortunes from destructionand exploitation We have the power Spendyour dollars with your children in mind

mdash J Henry Fair

EXCERPT

Text excerpted (and edited for length) from the introduction to J HenryFairs The Day After Tomorrow available Feb 2011 from powerHouseBooks (special thanks to flight partner SouthWings) For information visithttpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitep=1094 as well as the booksB-side at httpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitepage_id=5119

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 13

This is a book of photographs ofenvironmental disastersoccurring at different points inthe consumerindustrial cycle

which illustrate the negative impact ourcontemporary consumer society has on theplanetary systems that sustain our existenceBecause of the subject the pictures areinherently political but my first goal was tocreate compelling images

Essays written by some of the top writersscientists and environmentalists of our daypunctuate the images They were asked towrite personal memoirs with anenvironmental focus and the results rangefrom hilarious to heart-wrenching

The objective of these pictures is not tovilify any given company or industrymdashthereare good and bad actors everywhere Myintent is to engage the viewer stimulatecuriosity and encourage dialog Our societyrsquosstructure has evolved to the point wheregovernment responds not to the citizenry butto the corporations that finance it These daysthe vote that matters the most is the purchasedecision Though our government does notdefend or respond to us the manufacturersdo So the goal of these pictures is topromote an activist consumerism This is astrategy that works as testament look at theToyota Prius and Whole Foods There is evenan organic food section in Walmart

I write this after a month of repeated tripsover the British Petroleum DeepwaterHorizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico andit cannot help but have an emotional effect Icanrsquot bear to drink from a plastic water bottleknowing that oil equaling roughly 13 of thevolume of that water bottle was used to get itinto my hands One of my responses to theGulf gusher is to hitchhike Why burn gas toget from train station to home

Irsquom constantly amazed by the willingnessof people to ignore the consequences of

their actions and the real risks to their healthand well-being Most of us live in a world ofindulgences all of which have anenvironmental cost that will be passed on toour children ldquoThe environmentrdquo is thesystem that supports life our life But thosewho are concerned about it who speak upabout it are relegated to the status of zealotsand simpletons ldquoThings are toocomplicatedrdquo we are told ldquoWe canrsquot changeour economy business will suffer jobs will belostrdquo Meanwhile the system that provides usthe air and water we need to live is going intocardiac arrest I believe that we could very

easily change the direction of our society andeconomy toward sustainability with nothingbut benefits for our children ourselves andour economy The only losers would be thosecurrently making fortunes from destructionand exploitation We have the power Spendyour dollars with your children in mind

mdash J Henry Fair

EXCERPT

Text excerpted (and edited for length) from the introduction to J HenryFairs The Day After Tomorrow available Feb 2011 from powerHouseBooks (special thanks to flight partner SouthWings) For information visithttpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitep=1094 as well as the booksB-side at httpwwwpowerhousebookscomsitepage_id=5119

14 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Fact 1 On May 26 2010 Apple overtookMicrosoft as the worldrsquos largest technologycompany (by market capitalization)Fact 2 On May 28 2010 workers beganfitting ldquosuicide netsrdquo at Foxconnrsquos electronicsfactory in southern China after at leasttwelve employees jumped to their deaths injust five months

Once upon a golden age ofbusiness (which may be just alittle bit mythical) marketingdepartments were down the

corridor from the factory floor And most ofthe consumers were just down the railroadprobably in the same countrymdashif not thesame state The supply chain was

The sweatshopon your conscienceHow consumers and marketersare more responsible for theother end ofthe supply chainthan theyrsquod like to think

BY N CRAIG SMITH AND ELIN WILLIAMS

PAINTINGS BY RON EADY

Ron Eady ldquoConstructure 5rdquoencaustic on canvas 72 x 48 in

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 15

geographically short and morallyuncomplicated

For marketers in this golden age it was asimple life of supporting the sales team intheir quest to persuade the consumer to buywhatever the factory made Of course itwasnrsquot necessarily an easy life In new-fangledbusiness schools clever men were beginningto construct elaborate theories of marketingwith sophisticated definitions not so differentfrom the one used by the AmericanMarketing Association today ldquoThe activityset of institutions and processes for creatingcommunicating delivering and exchangingofferings that have value for customersclients partners and society at largerdquo

By the 1960s however the clever men(and growing numbers of clever women)began to notice that the value provided bymarketers for customers wasnrsquot alwayspositive Professors of business ethics alongwith other commentators pointed out myriadways in which marketing could harm theconsumers it was supposed to serve fromconning them into buying goods they didnrsquotwant to persuading their kids to eat morejunk food than was healthy

Meanwhile globalization meant thatsupply chains were getting geographicallylonger and as a result that ldquosociety at largerdquowas getting larger In recent years businessethicists realized it was time to ask newquestions Of course we couldnrsquot ignore theharm done to consumers by marketing Butwe also had to turn our attention to the harmdone by consumers through marketingHence the two facts with which we opened

The events are most obviously linked by achain of supply the Foxconn factoryproduces iPhones arguably the mainingredient in Applersquos recipe for success Butwe believe that they are also linked by anintangible but very real line of responsibilityrunning from the consumer through themarketer to workers on the other side of theworld So you donrsquot have an iPhone Nomatter Foxconn also manufactures iPodsalong with devices for Dell Hewlett-Packard

Motorola Nokia and Sony Are you still offthe hook

You canrsquot preserve your innocence byforegoing electronic gadgetry either You stillhave to eat and wear clothes Perhaps youcould try buying only fresh food from localorganic farmersrsquo markets and never diningout But dressing well at a reasonable priceand to high ethical standards is a greaterchallenge The speed flexibility and lowprices demanded by todayrsquos fashion businessof its suppliers are often passed on to thesuppliersrsquo suppliers until they finally reach asweatshop in a developing nation

This phenomenon is perhaps mostobvious in the expansion of European-basedldquofast fashionrdquo chains such as HampM Arguablytheir success is the result of a globalcollusion between marketers consumers andjournalists who have persuaded each otherthat cut-price catwalk copies are essentialingredients of modern life But moderndeath is only just up the supply chain InMarch 2010 a knitwear factory in Bangladeshburned down killing 21 workers The doorshad been locked to prevent theft and thebuilding was filled with highly-flammablesynthetic yarns The fire started as theyworked through the night fulfilling ordersAmong the factoryrsquos clients was HampM

Fortunately such fatal incidents are rareBut global supply chains are notoriously hardto police low pay long hours poorconditions and child labor are endemic intodayrsquos fashion business Whether you are themarketer who chooses the $20 hand-beadedkidsrsquo blouse for the billboard ad or the momwho buys it for her daughterrsquos birthday thelittle girl who sewed on those tiny beads in anIndian sweatshop is on your conscience

To use the business jargon the demandsof marketers and consumers downstreamaffect the lives of manufacturing workersupstream But the jargon is misleading Themetaphor of upstream and downstreamimplies a one-way interaction which simplydoesnrsquot match the social reality Or theresponsibility

16 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Indeed that responsibility spreads farbeyond the supply chain once environmentalissues are taken into account The idea that agas-guzzling SUV is the right vehicle for theschool run is an example of collusionbetween consumers and marketers thatresults in damage to the entire planetFact 3 In 2008 Starbucks was the worldrsquosbiggest buyer of fair-trade coffeeFact 4 In 2008 only 5 of the coffeepurchased by Starbucks was fair-tradecertified

A round the same time that businessethicists were waking up to thecombined responsibilities of the

marketer and the consumer companiesdiscovered Corporate Social Responsibilityknown today as CSR Marketers weredelighted In their ever more sophisticatedworld of branding and within a zeitgeist ofincreasingly individualized consumption theyseized the opportunity By promoting thesocial and environmental good of theirproducts no matter how tenuous the logicthey would assuage their customersrsquoconsciencesmdashand sell more

As a recent paper in the Journal ofBusiness Ethics put it ldquoCSR is one of themost commonly used arguments forconstructing brands with a differentiatedpersonality which satisfy consumersrsquo self-definitional needsrdquo The trouble was thebrands didnrsquot always match the upstreamrealities in a supply chain with values asmixed as its metaphors

Inevitably there was a backlashAccusations of window-dressing andldquogreenwashingrdquo abounded There were evenironic awards for the least crediblecompanies According to one study therewere four times as many consumer boycottsin Western democracies in 1999 than in 1994It is probably no accident that these yearscoincided with the rise of the world wideweb The Internet provides the perfectvehicle both for questioning corporatemessages and for orchestrating action againstoffending companies

Marketers reacted in the only way theyknew with communications campaignsWhen Walmart was facing criticism forworking conditions in supplier factories andin its stores for its impact on the high streetsof local communities and for its poorenvironmental record the company launcheda major public relations campaign thatpresented Walmart as a good corporatecitizen in the communities where it operated

However this didnrsquot put an end to thecriticism Nor should it have PR campaigns

Ron Eady ldquoImposing Elements 1rdquo encaustic on panel 72 x 48 in

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 17

do not solve fundamental structuralproblems Marketers must find a solution thatfully addresses supply chain issuesmdashat least ifthey want to embed CSR in their brand valuesin a credible way In short they must start totake a ldquostakeholderrdquo approach thatencourages a new type of responsibleconsumerism Crucially this new approachrequires marketing professionals to look upthe supply chain to manufacturing andshipping down it to the sales force and theconsumer and outside it altogether to thecommunities on its borders and to theenvironment as a whole

Broadly speaking stakeholder marketinginvolves the design implementation andevaluation of marketing initiatives that willmaximize benefits to all stakeholderscustomers employees shareholders suppliers(all the way up the supply chain) as well asthe environment society in general andrelated non-profit organizations and theirbeneficiaries Stakeholder management theoryhas been around since the 1980s but (incontrast to CSR) marketers have been slow toseize the opportunities it offers Andstakeholder marketing is largely absent fromthe academic literature which still seems totake its cue from Ted Levittrsquos seminal paperon ldquomarketing myopiardquo of 1960 It is almostas if his exhortation to focus on the customerhas become a lesson too well learned bytheoreticians and practitioners alike over theintervening half-century

Yet we believe that marketing more thanany other business discipline is uniquelypositioned to help both companies andstakeholders achieve and benefit from a moresymbiotic relationship between business andsociety Marketingrsquos privileged relationshipwith the mind of the consumer combinedwith its sophisticated research andcommunication techniques makes it the keylink in CSRrsquos supply chain Thatrsquos not to saythat manufacturing finance purchasing orlogistics professionals have no part to playItrsquos just that marketers are probably bestplaced to take the lead They have always

been ldquoboundary spannersrdquo working at theinterface between corporations customersand competitors Spanning a few additionalboundaries shouldnrsquot be hard for themFact 5 In September 2010 a consortium ledby British supermarket chain Waitrose wasawarded a pound200000 ($320000) grant fromthe UK governmentrsquos aid agency to trainKenyan bean farmers in sustainableagricultural methodsFact 6 Kenyarsquos delicate green beans have tobe air-freighted into British supermarketsmdashaform of transport that emits more greenhousegases per food-mile than any otherO f course wersquore not suggesting

that forging a new role formarketing one that addresses the

needs of each and every stakeholder ispossible let alone easy The pair of factsabove serves to underline the complexity ofthe situation But in practical termsestablished techniques can help marketerssucceed where others have failed forexample by mapping key secondarystakeholders (media government consumergroups competitors NGOs) as well as moreobvious primary stakeholders (customersshareholders employees local communities)

Realistically marketers cannot serve all ofthe stakeholders that they identify But inmapping the relationships between themthey will discover that some are moreimportant to their business than they at firstimagined The Kenyan bean producersmentioned above for example suddenlybecome much more salient when theirrelationships with government aid agencies(and by extension the media) are revealed

Marketing is uniquely positioned tohelp companies and stakeholdersachieve a more symbiotic relationship

18 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Even if a companyrsquos stakeholder map doesnot lead to any startling new discoveries themapping exercise puts the company in abetter position to make tough choicesPerhaps in this example the environmentalissues raised by air freighting will have to takea back seat to the needs of agriculturalcommunities in the developing world at leastfor the foreseeable future

Once African farmers are identified asimportant stakeholders market researchtechniques can be used to explore theirexpectations and issuesmdashand subsequently tomeasure the impact of any stakeholderinitiatives implemented Marketing skillscould also be used to engage the farmers andeven to reach out to less friendlystakeholders such as the activists who mayhave exposed the companyrsquos poor sourcingpractices Finally marketers have thecommunication skills required to embed astakeholder-centric attitude in the rest of theorganization

With support from the right quarters inparticular from the CEO this new approachcould cascade from the marketingdepartment throughout the entirecompanymdashperhaps even persuading theaccountants to implement the much-discussed but comparatively little-practicedldquotriple bottom linerdquo which takes into accountldquopeoplerdquo and ldquoplanetrdquo as well as ldquoprofitrdquo Inany event stakeholder marketing could welllead to benefits for that good old-fashionedsingle bottom line ldquodoing well by doinggoodrdquo as itrsquos commonly put

Looking up the supply chain there is nodoubt that innovative fair trade schemes willbe a key component of the new stakeholdermarketing FINE the international federationof fair-trade networks defines fair trade as ldquoatrading partnership based on dialog

transparency and respect that seeks greaterequity in international trade It contributes tosustainable development by offering bettertrading conditions to and securing the rightsof marginalized producers and workersrdquo Itrsquosa loose definition crying out for innovationand creativity

Once the province of NGOs who soughtto challenge multinationals fair trade has nowbeen embraced by large corporations likeUnilever According to the companyrsquoswebsite ldquoConsumers around the world wantreassurance that the products they buy areethically sourced and protect the earthrsquosnatural resources A growing number arechoosing to buy brands such as RainforestAlliance Certified Lipton tea [and] Ben ampJerryrsquos Fairtrade ice creamrdquo

In fact it seems that Ben (Cohen) andJerry (Greenfield) were an importantinfluence on Unileverrsquos new SustainableLiving Plan Sold to the multinational a fulldecade ago their values-driven brand has notonly survived but has been increasing its useof fair-trade ingredients Greenfield thoughno longer a manager remains an advisor andbrand ambassador and says that Unileverexecutives have been remarkably proactive inlearning from their model Indeed theambitious new initiative has fifty concretetargets within three broad objectives to helpmore than a billion people improve theirhealth and well-being to halve theenvironmental impact of Unilever productsand to enhance the livelihoods of hundredsof thousands of people in the supply chain

This is clearly a move in the rightdirection As customers we depend onmarketing professionals not only to tell usabout better corporate behavior but also toencourage it to happen Significantly two ofthe most senior executives at Unilever havetheir pay tied to meeting the fifty targets ofthe Sustainable Living Plan the CEO and theMarketing and Communications Officer

Moreover we believe that marketers havethe skills and the connections to go one stepfurther and contribute to a whole new

By adopting a new name perhapsethical consumerism can be seen asless niche and more mainstream

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 19

phenomenon that reaches far beyond theircompanies ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo Ifyou like itrsquos a different kind of CSRldquoConsumerrdquo Social Responsibility Yes itrsquostime to travel back down the supply chain andreturn to that consumer conscience of yoursDid you really think you could escape itFact 7 In October 2010 the worldcelebrated as 33 Chilean copper minersemerged from the underground depths wherethey had been trapped for over two monthsFact 8 Since 2000 an average of 34 peopleare reported to have died in Chilean miningaccidents every yearT here has of course been much talk

over recent decades about ldquoethicalconsumerismrdquo Broadly speaking

this refers to the purchasing of products andservices that have been produced marketedand distributed ethically In practice it meansgiving preference to goods and services madeand delivered with minimal harm to humansanimals and the natural environmenthellip orboycotting those that arenrsquot

There have been abundant surveys aboutethical consumerism For example in 2009

TIME magazine reported that almost 50percent of Americans said protection of theenvironment should take priority overeconomic growth 78 percent of those polledsaid they would be willing to pay an extra$2000 for more fuel-efficient cars But thesestatistics were not reflected in real-world salesfigures As we have learned from opinionpolls down the ages wishful thinking self-delusion and the desire to please pollsters areall natural human behaviors To be fairrecessionary forces are currently pushingconsumers into particularly price-sensitivedecisions long-term savings and reducedenvironmental impact inevitably take secondplace to short-term cost control Andperhaps thatrsquos the responsible course ofaction for many individual consumers in thecircumstances

Indeed ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo mightbe a better more broadly-applicable labelthan ldquoethical consumerismrdquo By adopting anew name (an old marketing trick as ithappens) perhaps ethical consumerism canbe seen less as a niche phenomenon andmore as a mainstream reality For too longscholars and practitioners alike have tendedto see ldquoethicalrdquo consumers as a discrete smallmarket segment waiting to be captured In

Ron Eady ldquoOver Rosseau 2rdquo encaustic on panel 25 x 50 in

20 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

reality human beings are not that simpleConsumers are not rational actors who willrespond consistently to responsible supplychain practices and related marketingcommunications We know (alas frompersonal experience) that the feel-goodpurchase of organic local produce today cangive way to the temptation of a fast-fashionor high-tech bargain tomorrow The highprice of the former can even be used tojustify the sweatshop price tag of the latter

By broadening the discussion from ethicalto responsible consumerism marketers andthose who do academic research intomarketing also become less exclusiveldquoResponsibilityrdquo unlike ldquoethicsrdquo does notsound as if it is uniquely reserved for someliberal or intellectual elite As Jerry Greenfieldrecently put it ldquoNobody wants to buysomething that was made by exploitingsomebody elserdquo Responsibility is a conceptfor everyone from the teenager shoppingover the Internet to the grandparent in theneighborhood store from the janitor in thebasement to the CEO in the corner office

Of course that CEO has a special part toplay There is no doubt that responsibleconsumerism has to be co-created bycorporations and led by people at the top Butthe marketing director and team haveessential roles too in educating empoweringand transforming existing consumptionhabitsmdashand thus influencing colleagues inproduction logistics purchasing and

financehellip and so on all the way up thesupply chain

Indeed if itrsquos true that many forms ofsocial and environmental harm scatteredalong the supply chains of multinationalcorporations are triggered by marketingdecisions in the first place then it can also beargued that marketers have a moral duty tochange existing practices wherever theyoccur Marketers must move center stage inthe debate on CSRmdashalbeit with a chorus ofNGOs consumer groups scientistsgovernmental bodies and others behindthemmdashif responsible consumerism is tobecome a mainstream phenomenon

Ultimately however your conscience willbe the most important factor in makingresponsible consumerism work Withresponsibility comes complexity anduncertainty (such as whether or not to drinkyour favorite Starbucks skinny latte for fearthat it isnrsquot fair trade) but with the help ofmarketing professionals concerned about allstakeholders you can be steered through themoral mazes to the right choice And if thereis no right choicemdashas those pesky greenbeans seem to demonstratemdashat least yoursquoll beable to make a reasoned decision based onyour own values and the correct information

Asking just how green a green bean has tobe is just the beginning though Anotherquestion for consumers marketers andacademics is how far along the supply chainconsumer conscience has to stretch We

Ron Eady ldquoSquallno1 to 4rdquo encausticon panel 16 x 16 ineach panel

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 21

believe that the more responsible consumersbecome and the more stakeholder-orientedmarketers get the farther we can gomdashright tothe raw materials But first we have to breakout of the old vicious circles and into newvirtuous circles somewhere downstream It ispossible for marketers and consumers tocollude in doing the right thing as well as thewrong if only they can ask honest questionsof each other and of the supply chains inwhich they form links

One thing is sure Your iPhone (substituteyour own model as appropriate) connects youto many more people than there are in yourcontacts list Via its copper circuitry you arenot only connected to factory workers inChina but also to miners in Chile as well asto marketing staff in California Just byhaving the imagination to make theseconnections you and your conscience aretaking a step in the right direction

N Craig Smith is the INSEAD Chaired Professor of Ethics and Social Responsibility atINSEAD the leading international business school with campuses in France Singapore andAbu Dhabi Elin Williams is a freelance writer based in Oxford The article is based on twoacademic papers ldquoMarketingrsquos Consequences Stakeholder Marketing and Supply ChainCorporate Social Responsibility Issuesrdquo published in Business Ethics Quarterly in October2010 and co-authored by Smith with Guido Palazzo and CB Bhattacharya and ldquoThe NewMarketing Myopiardquo published in the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing in spring 2010and co-authored by Smith with Minette E Drumwright and Mary C GentileFor more on Craig Smith visit httpwwwinseadedufacultyresearchfacultyprofilesscraig

About the artistRon Eady is a Canadian artist based in Burlington Ontario His encaustic painting techniqueinvolves as he describes it ldquoa repeated process of painting burning and scrapingrdquo whichallows his images to gradually evolve until judged complete Observed Henry Lehmann inMontreals The Gazette ldquoQuite possibly the true meaning of any one of Eadyrsquos broodingpanels is simply in the paint and in the power of physical pigment to transcend itself andattain a purely visual state full-bodied yet entirely without physical beingrdquo Eady has exhibitedinternationally in Los Angeles New York Japan and the Netherlands his other works can beviewed on his website httproneadycom

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 15

geographically short and morallyuncomplicated

For marketers in this golden age it was asimple life of supporting the sales team intheir quest to persuade the consumer to buywhatever the factory made Of course itwasnrsquot necessarily an easy life In new-fangledbusiness schools clever men were beginningto construct elaborate theories of marketingwith sophisticated definitions not so differentfrom the one used by the AmericanMarketing Association today ldquoThe activityset of institutions and processes for creatingcommunicating delivering and exchangingofferings that have value for customersclients partners and society at largerdquo

By the 1960s however the clever men(and growing numbers of clever women)began to notice that the value provided bymarketers for customers wasnrsquot alwayspositive Professors of business ethics alongwith other commentators pointed out myriadways in which marketing could harm theconsumers it was supposed to serve fromconning them into buying goods they didnrsquotwant to persuading their kids to eat morejunk food than was healthy

Meanwhile globalization meant thatsupply chains were getting geographicallylonger and as a result that ldquosociety at largerdquowas getting larger In recent years businessethicists realized it was time to ask newquestions Of course we couldnrsquot ignore theharm done to consumers by marketing Butwe also had to turn our attention to the harmdone by consumers through marketingHence the two facts with which we opened

The events are most obviously linked by achain of supply the Foxconn factoryproduces iPhones arguably the mainingredient in Applersquos recipe for success Butwe believe that they are also linked by anintangible but very real line of responsibilityrunning from the consumer through themarketer to workers on the other side of theworld So you donrsquot have an iPhone Nomatter Foxconn also manufactures iPodsalong with devices for Dell Hewlett-Packard

Motorola Nokia and Sony Are you still offthe hook

You canrsquot preserve your innocence byforegoing electronic gadgetry either You stillhave to eat and wear clothes Perhaps youcould try buying only fresh food from localorganic farmersrsquo markets and never diningout But dressing well at a reasonable priceand to high ethical standards is a greaterchallenge The speed flexibility and lowprices demanded by todayrsquos fashion businessof its suppliers are often passed on to thesuppliersrsquo suppliers until they finally reach asweatshop in a developing nation

This phenomenon is perhaps mostobvious in the expansion of European-basedldquofast fashionrdquo chains such as HampM Arguablytheir success is the result of a globalcollusion between marketers consumers andjournalists who have persuaded each otherthat cut-price catwalk copies are essentialingredients of modern life But moderndeath is only just up the supply chain InMarch 2010 a knitwear factory in Bangladeshburned down killing 21 workers The doorshad been locked to prevent theft and thebuilding was filled with highly-flammablesynthetic yarns The fire started as theyworked through the night fulfilling ordersAmong the factoryrsquos clients was HampM

Fortunately such fatal incidents are rareBut global supply chains are notoriously hardto police low pay long hours poorconditions and child labor are endemic intodayrsquos fashion business Whether you are themarketer who chooses the $20 hand-beadedkidsrsquo blouse for the billboard ad or the momwho buys it for her daughterrsquos birthday thelittle girl who sewed on those tiny beads in anIndian sweatshop is on your conscience

To use the business jargon the demandsof marketers and consumers downstreamaffect the lives of manufacturing workersupstream But the jargon is misleading Themetaphor of upstream and downstreamimplies a one-way interaction which simplydoesnrsquot match the social reality Or theresponsibility

16 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Indeed that responsibility spreads farbeyond the supply chain once environmentalissues are taken into account The idea that agas-guzzling SUV is the right vehicle for theschool run is an example of collusionbetween consumers and marketers thatresults in damage to the entire planetFact 3 In 2008 Starbucks was the worldrsquosbiggest buyer of fair-trade coffeeFact 4 In 2008 only 5 of the coffeepurchased by Starbucks was fair-tradecertified

A round the same time that businessethicists were waking up to thecombined responsibilities of the

marketer and the consumer companiesdiscovered Corporate Social Responsibilityknown today as CSR Marketers weredelighted In their ever more sophisticatedworld of branding and within a zeitgeist ofincreasingly individualized consumption theyseized the opportunity By promoting thesocial and environmental good of theirproducts no matter how tenuous the logicthey would assuage their customersrsquoconsciencesmdashand sell more

As a recent paper in the Journal ofBusiness Ethics put it ldquoCSR is one of themost commonly used arguments forconstructing brands with a differentiatedpersonality which satisfy consumersrsquo self-definitional needsrdquo The trouble was thebrands didnrsquot always match the upstreamrealities in a supply chain with values asmixed as its metaphors

Inevitably there was a backlashAccusations of window-dressing andldquogreenwashingrdquo abounded There were evenironic awards for the least crediblecompanies According to one study therewere four times as many consumer boycottsin Western democracies in 1999 than in 1994It is probably no accident that these yearscoincided with the rise of the world wideweb The Internet provides the perfectvehicle both for questioning corporatemessages and for orchestrating action againstoffending companies

Marketers reacted in the only way theyknew with communications campaignsWhen Walmart was facing criticism forworking conditions in supplier factories andin its stores for its impact on the high streetsof local communities and for its poorenvironmental record the company launcheda major public relations campaign thatpresented Walmart as a good corporatecitizen in the communities where it operated

However this didnrsquot put an end to thecriticism Nor should it have PR campaigns

Ron Eady ldquoImposing Elements 1rdquo encaustic on panel 72 x 48 in

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 17

do not solve fundamental structuralproblems Marketers must find a solution thatfully addresses supply chain issuesmdashat least ifthey want to embed CSR in their brand valuesin a credible way In short they must start totake a ldquostakeholderrdquo approach thatencourages a new type of responsibleconsumerism Crucially this new approachrequires marketing professionals to look upthe supply chain to manufacturing andshipping down it to the sales force and theconsumer and outside it altogether to thecommunities on its borders and to theenvironment as a whole

Broadly speaking stakeholder marketinginvolves the design implementation andevaluation of marketing initiatives that willmaximize benefits to all stakeholderscustomers employees shareholders suppliers(all the way up the supply chain) as well asthe environment society in general andrelated non-profit organizations and theirbeneficiaries Stakeholder management theoryhas been around since the 1980s but (incontrast to CSR) marketers have been slow toseize the opportunities it offers Andstakeholder marketing is largely absent fromthe academic literature which still seems totake its cue from Ted Levittrsquos seminal paperon ldquomarketing myopiardquo of 1960 It is almostas if his exhortation to focus on the customerhas become a lesson too well learned bytheoreticians and practitioners alike over theintervening half-century

Yet we believe that marketing more thanany other business discipline is uniquelypositioned to help both companies andstakeholders achieve and benefit from a moresymbiotic relationship between business andsociety Marketingrsquos privileged relationshipwith the mind of the consumer combinedwith its sophisticated research andcommunication techniques makes it the keylink in CSRrsquos supply chain Thatrsquos not to saythat manufacturing finance purchasing orlogistics professionals have no part to playItrsquos just that marketers are probably bestplaced to take the lead They have always

been ldquoboundary spannersrdquo working at theinterface between corporations customersand competitors Spanning a few additionalboundaries shouldnrsquot be hard for themFact 5 In September 2010 a consortium ledby British supermarket chain Waitrose wasawarded a pound200000 ($320000) grant fromthe UK governmentrsquos aid agency to trainKenyan bean farmers in sustainableagricultural methodsFact 6 Kenyarsquos delicate green beans have tobe air-freighted into British supermarketsmdashaform of transport that emits more greenhousegases per food-mile than any otherO f course wersquore not suggesting

that forging a new role formarketing one that addresses the

needs of each and every stakeholder ispossible let alone easy The pair of factsabove serves to underline the complexity ofthe situation But in practical termsestablished techniques can help marketerssucceed where others have failed forexample by mapping key secondarystakeholders (media government consumergroups competitors NGOs) as well as moreobvious primary stakeholders (customersshareholders employees local communities)

Realistically marketers cannot serve all ofthe stakeholders that they identify But inmapping the relationships between themthey will discover that some are moreimportant to their business than they at firstimagined The Kenyan bean producersmentioned above for example suddenlybecome much more salient when theirrelationships with government aid agencies(and by extension the media) are revealed

Marketing is uniquely positioned tohelp companies and stakeholdersachieve a more symbiotic relationship

18 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Even if a companyrsquos stakeholder map doesnot lead to any startling new discoveries themapping exercise puts the company in abetter position to make tough choicesPerhaps in this example the environmentalissues raised by air freighting will have to takea back seat to the needs of agriculturalcommunities in the developing world at leastfor the foreseeable future

Once African farmers are identified asimportant stakeholders market researchtechniques can be used to explore theirexpectations and issuesmdashand subsequently tomeasure the impact of any stakeholderinitiatives implemented Marketing skillscould also be used to engage the farmers andeven to reach out to less friendlystakeholders such as the activists who mayhave exposed the companyrsquos poor sourcingpractices Finally marketers have thecommunication skills required to embed astakeholder-centric attitude in the rest of theorganization

With support from the right quarters inparticular from the CEO this new approachcould cascade from the marketingdepartment throughout the entirecompanymdashperhaps even persuading theaccountants to implement the much-discussed but comparatively little-practicedldquotriple bottom linerdquo which takes into accountldquopeoplerdquo and ldquoplanetrdquo as well as ldquoprofitrdquo Inany event stakeholder marketing could welllead to benefits for that good old-fashionedsingle bottom line ldquodoing well by doinggoodrdquo as itrsquos commonly put

Looking up the supply chain there is nodoubt that innovative fair trade schemes willbe a key component of the new stakeholdermarketing FINE the international federationof fair-trade networks defines fair trade as ldquoatrading partnership based on dialog

transparency and respect that seeks greaterequity in international trade It contributes tosustainable development by offering bettertrading conditions to and securing the rightsof marginalized producers and workersrdquo Itrsquosa loose definition crying out for innovationand creativity

Once the province of NGOs who soughtto challenge multinationals fair trade has nowbeen embraced by large corporations likeUnilever According to the companyrsquoswebsite ldquoConsumers around the world wantreassurance that the products they buy areethically sourced and protect the earthrsquosnatural resources A growing number arechoosing to buy brands such as RainforestAlliance Certified Lipton tea [and] Ben ampJerryrsquos Fairtrade ice creamrdquo

In fact it seems that Ben (Cohen) andJerry (Greenfield) were an importantinfluence on Unileverrsquos new SustainableLiving Plan Sold to the multinational a fulldecade ago their values-driven brand has notonly survived but has been increasing its useof fair-trade ingredients Greenfield thoughno longer a manager remains an advisor andbrand ambassador and says that Unileverexecutives have been remarkably proactive inlearning from their model Indeed theambitious new initiative has fifty concretetargets within three broad objectives to helpmore than a billion people improve theirhealth and well-being to halve theenvironmental impact of Unilever productsand to enhance the livelihoods of hundredsof thousands of people in the supply chain

This is clearly a move in the rightdirection As customers we depend onmarketing professionals not only to tell usabout better corporate behavior but also toencourage it to happen Significantly two ofthe most senior executives at Unilever havetheir pay tied to meeting the fifty targets ofthe Sustainable Living Plan the CEO and theMarketing and Communications Officer

Moreover we believe that marketers havethe skills and the connections to go one stepfurther and contribute to a whole new

By adopting a new name perhapsethical consumerism can be seen asless niche and more mainstream

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 19

phenomenon that reaches far beyond theircompanies ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo Ifyou like itrsquos a different kind of CSRldquoConsumerrdquo Social Responsibility Yes itrsquostime to travel back down the supply chain andreturn to that consumer conscience of yoursDid you really think you could escape itFact 7 In October 2010 the worldcelebrated as 33 Chilean copper minersemerged from the underground depths wherethey had been trapped for over two monthsFact 8 Since 2000 an average of 34 peopleare reported to have died in Chilean miningaccidents every yearT here has of course been much talk

over recent decades about ldquoethicalconsumerismrdquo Broadly speaking

this refers to the purchasing of products andservices that have been produced marketedand distributed ethically In practice it meansgiving preference to goods and services madeand delivered with minimal harm to humansanimals and the natural environmenthellip orboycotting those that arenrsquot

There have been abundant surveys aboutethical consumerism For example in 2009

TIME magazine reported that almost 50percent of Americans said protection of theenvironment should take priority overeconomic growth 78 percent of those polledsaid they would be willing to pay an extra$2000 for more fuel-efficient cars But thesestatistics were not reflected in real-world salesfigures As we have learned from opinionpolls down the ages wishful thinking self-delusion and the desire to please pollsters areall natural human behaviors To be fairrecessionary forces are currently pushingconsumers into particularly price-sensitivedecisions long-term savings and reducedenvironmental impact inevitably take secondplace to short-term cost control Andperhaps thatrsquos the responsible course ofaction for many individual consumers in thecircumstances

Indeed ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo mightbe a better more broadly-applicable labelthan ldquoethical consumerismrdquo By adopting anew name (an old marketing trick as ithappens) perhaps ethical consumerism canbe seen less as a niche phenomenon andmore as a mainstream reality For too longscholars and practitioners alike have tendedto see ldquoethicalrdquo consumers as a discrete smallmarket segment waiting to be captured In

Ron Eady ldquoOver Rosseau 2rdquo encaustic on panel 25 x 50 in

20 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

reality human beings are not that simpleConsumers are not rational actors who willrespond consistently to responsible supplychain practices and related marketingcommunications We know (alas frompersonal experience) that the feel-goodpurchase of organic local produce today cangive way to the temptation of a fast-fashionor high-tech bargain tomorrow The highprice of the former can even be used tojustify the sweatshop price tag of the latter

By broadening the discussion from ethicalto responsible consumerism marketers andthose who do academic research intomarketing also become less exclusiveldquoResponsibilityrdquo unlike ldquoethicsrdquo does notsound as if it is uniquely reserved for someliberal or intellectual elite As Jerry Greenfieldrecently put it ldquoNobody wants to buysomething that was made by exploitingsomebody elserdquo Responsibility is a conceptfor everyone from the teenager shoppingover the Internet to the grandparent in theneighborhood store from the janitor in thebasement to the CEO in the corner office

Of course that CEO has a special part toplay There is no doubt that responsibleconsumerism has to be co-created bycorporations and led by people at the top Butthe marketing director and team haveessential roles too in educating empoweringand transforming existing consumptionhabitsmdashand thus influencing colleagues inproduction logistics purchasing and

financehellip and so on all the way up thesupply chain

Indeed if itrsquos true that many forms ofsocial and environmental harm scatteredalong the supply chains of multinationalcorporations are triggered by marketingdecisions in the first place then it can also beargued that marketers have a moral duty tochange existing practices wherever theyoccur Marketers must move center stage inthe debate on CSRmdashalbeit with a chorus ofNGOs consumer groups scientistsgovernmental bodies and others behindthemmdashif responsible consumerism is tobecome a mainstream phenomenon

Ultimately however your conscience willbe the most important factor in makingresponsible consumerism work Withresponsibility comes complexity anduncertainty (such as whether or not to drinkyour favorite Starbucks skinny latte for fearthat it isnrsquot fair trade) but with the help ofmarketing professionals concerned about allstakeholders you can be steered through themoral mazes to the right choice And if thereis no right choicemdashas those pesky greenbeans seem to demonstratemdashat least yoursquoll beable to make a reasoned decision based onyour own values and the correct information

Asking just how green a green bean has tobe is just the beginning though Anotherquestion for consumers marketers andacademics is how far along the supply chainconsumer conscience has to stretch We

Ron Eady ldquoSquallno1 to 4rdquo encausticon panel 16 x 16 ineach panel

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 21

believe that the more responsible consumersbecome and the more stakeholder-orientedmarketers get the farther we can gomdashright tothe raw materials But first we have to breakout of the old vicious circles and into newvirtuous circles somewhere downstream It ispossible for marketers and consumers tocollude in doing the right thing as well as thewrong if only they can ask honest questionsof each other and of the supply chains inwhich they form links

One thing is sure Your iPhone (substituteyour own model as appropriate) connects youto many more people than there are in yourcontacts list Via its copper circuitry you arenot only connected to factory workers inChina but also to miners in Chile as well asto marketing staff in California Just byhaving the imagination to make theseconnections you and your conscience aretaking a step in the right direction

N Craig Smith is the INSEAD Chaired Professor of Ethics and Social Responsibility atINSEAD the leading international business school with campuses in France Singapore andAbu Dhabi Elin Williams is a freelance writer based in Oxford The article is based on twoacademic papers ldquoMarketingrsquos Consequences Stakeholder Marketing and Supply ChainCorporate Social Responsibility Issuesrdquo published in Business Ethics Quarterly in October2010 and co-authored by Smith with Guido Palazzo and CB Bhattacharya and ldquoThe NewMarketing Myopiardquo published in the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing in spring 2010and co-authored by Smith with Minette E Drumwright and Mary C GentileFor more on Craig Smith visit httpwwwinseadedufacultyresearchfacultyprofilesscraig

About the artistRon Eady is a Canadian artist based in Burlington Ontario His encaustic painting techniqueinvolves as he describes it ldquoa repeated process of painting burning and scrapingrdquo whichallows his images to gradually evolve until judged complete Observed Henry Lehmann inMontreals The Gazette ldquoQuite possibly the true meaning of any one of Eadyrsquos broodingpanels is simply in the paint and in the power of physical pigment to transcend itself andattain a purely visual state full-bodied yet entirely without physical beingrdquo Eady has exhibitedinternationally in Los Angeles New York Japan and the Netherlands his other works can beviewed on his website httproneadycom

16 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Indeed that responsibility spreads farbeyond the supply chain once environmentalissues are taken into account The idea that agas-guzzling SUV is the right vehicle for theschool run is an example of collusionbetween consumers and marketers thatresults in damage to the entire planetFact 3 In 2008 Starbucks was the worldrsquosbiggest buyer of fair-trade coffeeFact 4 In 2008 only 5 of the coffeepurchased by Starbucks was fair-tradecertified

A round the same time that businessethicists were waking up to thecombined responsibilities of the

marketer and the consumer companiesdiscovered Corporate Social Responsibilityknown today as CSR Marketers weredelighted In their ever more sophisticatedworld of branding and within a zeitgeist ofincreasingly individualized consumption theyseized the opportunity By promoting thesocial and environmental good of theirproducts no matter how tenuous the logicthey would assuage their customersrsquoconsciencesmdashand sell more

As a recent paper in the Journal ofBusiness Ethics put it ldquoCSR is one of themost commonly used arguments forconstructing brands with a differentiatedpersonality which satisfy consumersrsquo self-definitional needsrdquo The trouble was thebrands didnrsquot always match the upstreamrealities in a supply chain with values asmixed as its metaphors

Inevitably there was a backlashAccusations of window-dressing andldquogreenwashingrdquo abounded There were evenironic awards for the least crediblecompanies According to one study therewere four times as many consumer boycottsin Western democracies in 1999 than in 1994It is probably no accident that these yearscoincided with the rise of the world wideweb The Internet provides the perfectvehicle both for questioning corporatemessages and for orchestrating action againstoffending companies

Marketers reacted in the only way theyknew with communications campaignsWhen Walmart was facing criticism forworking conditions in supplier factories andin its stores for its impact on the high streetsof local communities and for its poorenvironmental record the company launcheda major public relations campaign thatpresented Walmart as a good corporatecitizen in the communities where it operated

However this didnrsquot put an end to thecriticism Nor should it have PR campaigns

Ron Eady ldquoImposing Elements 1rdquo encaustic on panel 72 x 48 in

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 17

do not solve fundamental structuralproblems Marketers must find a solution thatfully addresses supply chain issuesmdashat least ifthey want to embed CSR in their brand valuesin a credible way In short they must start totake a ldquostakeholderrdquo approach thatencourages a new type of responsibleconsumerism Crucially this new approachrequires marketing professionals to look upthe supply chain to manufacturing andshipping down it to the sales force and theconsumer and outside it altogether to thecommunities on its borders and to theenvironment as a whole

Broadly speaking stakeholder marketinginvolves the design implementation andevaluation of marketing initiatives that willmaximize benefits to all stakeholderscustomers employees shareholders suppliers(all the way up the supply chain) as well asthe environment society in general andrelated non-profit organizations and theirbeneficiaries Stakeholder management theoryhas been around since the 1980s but (incontrast to CSR) marketers have been slow toseize the opportunities it offers Andstakeholder marketing is largely absent fromthe academic literature which still seems totake its cue from Ted Levittrsquos seminal paperon ldquomarketing myopiardquo of 1960 It is almostas if his exhortation to focus on the customerhas become a lesson too well learned bytheoreticians and practitioners alike over theintervening half-century

Yet we believe that marketing more thanany other business discipline is uniquelypositioned to help both companies andstakeholders achieve and benefit from a moresymbiotic relationship between business andsociety Marketingrsquos privileged relationshipwith the mind of the consumer combinedwith its sophisticated research andcommunication techniques makes it the keylink in CSRrsquos supply chain Thatrsquos not to saythat manufacturing finance purchasing orlogistics professionals have no part to playItrsquos just that marketers are probably bestplaced to take the lead They have always

been ldquoboundary spannersrdquo working at theinterface between corporations customersand competitors Spanning a few additionalboundaries shouldnrsquot be hard for themFact 5 In September 2010 a consortium ledby British supermarket chain Waitrose wasawarded a pound200000 ($320000) grant fromthe UK governmentrsquos aid agency to trainKenyan bean farmers in sustainableagricultural methodsFact 6 Kenyarsquos delicate green beans have tobe air-freighted into British supermarketsmdashaform of transport that emits more greenhousegases per food-mile than any otherO f course wersquore not suggesting

that forging a new role formarketing one that addresses the

needs of each and every stakeholder ispossible let alone easy The pair of factsabove serves to underline the complexity ofthe situation But in practical termsestablished techniques can help marketerssucceed where others have failed forexample by mapping key secondarystakeholders (media government consumergroups competitors NGOs) as well as moreobvious primary stakeholders (customersshareholders employees local communities)

Realistically marketers cannot serve all ofthe stakeholders that they identify But inmapping the relationships between themthey will discover that some are moreimportant to their business than they at firstimagined The Kenyan bean producersmentioned above for example suddenlybecome much more salient when theirrelationships with government aid agencies(and by extension the media) are revealed

Marketing is uniquely positioned tohelp companies and stakeholdersachieve a more symbiotic relationship

18 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Even if a companyrsquos stakeholder map doesnot lead to any startling new discoveries themapping exercise puts the company in abetter position to make tough choicesPerhaps in this example the environmentalissues raised by air freighting will have to takea back seat to the needs of agriculturalcommunities in the developing world at leastfor the foreseeable future

Once African farmers are identified asimportant stakeholders market researchtechniques can be used to explore theirexpectations and issuesmdashand subsequently tomeasure the impact of any stakeholderinitiatives implemented Marketing skillscould also be used to engage the farmers andeven to reach out to less friendlystakeholders such as the activists who mayhave exposed the companyrsquos poor sourcingpractices Finally marketers have thecommunication skills required to embed astakeholder-centric attitude in the rest of theorganization

With support from the right quarters inparticular from the CEO this new approachcould cascade from the marketingdepartment throughout the entirecompanymdashperhaps even persuading theaccountants to implement the much-discussed but comparatively little-practicedldquotriple bottom linerdquo which takes into accountldquopeoplerdquo and ldquoplanetrdquo as well as ldquoprofitrdquo Inany event stakeholder marketing could welllead to benefits for that good old-fashionedsingle bottom line ldquodoing well by doinggoodrdquo as itrsquos commonly put

Looking up the supply chain there is nodoubt that innovative fair trade schemes willbe a key component of the new stakeholdermarketing FINE the international federationof fair-trade networks defines fair trade as ldquoatrading partnership based on dialog

transparency and respect that seeks greaterequity in international trade It contributes tosustainable development by offering bettertrading conditions to and securing the rightsof marginalized producers and workersrdquo Itrsquosa loose definition crying out for innovationand creativity

Once the province of NGOs who soughtto challenge multinationals fair trade has nowbeen embraced by large corporations likeUnilever According to the companyrsquoswebsite ldquoConsumers around the world wantreassurance that the products they buy areethically sourced and protect the earthrsquosnatural resources A growing number arechoosing to buy brands such as RainforestAlliance Certified Lipton tea [and] Ben ampJerryrsquos Fairtrade ice creamrdquo

In fact it seems that Ben (Cohen) andJerry (Greenfield) were an importantinfluence on Unileverrsquos new SustainableLiving Plan Sold to the multinational a fulldecade ago their values-driven brand has notonly survived but has been increasing its useof fair-trade ingredients Greenfield thoughno longer a manager remains an advisor andbrand ambassador and says that Unileverexecutives have been remarkably proactive inlearning from their model Indeed theambitious new initiative has fifty concretetargets within three broad objectives to helpmore than a billion people improve theirhealth and well-being to halve theenvironmental impact of Unilever productsand to enhance the livelihoods of hundredsof thousands of people in the supply chain

This is clearly a move in the rightdirection As customers we depend onmarketing professionals not only to tell usabout better corporate behavior but also toencourage it to happen Significantly two ofthe most senior executives at Unilever havetheir pay tied to meeting the fifty targets ofthe Sustainable Living Plan the CEO and theMarketing and Communications Officer

Moreover we believe that marketers havethe skills and the connections to go one stepfurther and contribute to a whole new

By adopting a new name perhapsethical consumerism can be seen asless niche and more mainstream

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 19

phenomenon that reaches far beyond theircompanies ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo Ifyou like itrsquos a different kind of CSRldquoConsumerrdquo Social Responsibility Yes itrsquostime to travel back down the supply chain andreturn to that consumer conscience of yoursDid you really think you could escape itFact 7 In October 2010 the worldcelebrated as 33 Chilean copper minersemerged from the underground depths wherethey had been trapped for over two monthsFact 8 Since 2000 an average of 34 peopleare reported to have died in Chilean miningaccidents every yearT here has of course been much talk

over recent decades about ldquoethicalconsumerismrdquo Broadly speaking

this refers to the purchasing of products andservices that have been produced marketedand distributed ethically In practice it meansgiving preference to goods and services madeand delivered with minimal harm to humansanimals and the natural environmenthellip orboycotting those that arenrsquot

There have been abundant surveys aboutethical consumerism For example in 2009

TIME magazine reported that almost 50percent of Americans said protection of theenvironment should take priority overeconomic growth 78 percent of those polledsaid they would be willing to pay an extra$2000 for more fuel-efficient cars But thesestatistics were not reflected in real-world salesfigures As we have learned from opinionpolls down the ages wishful thinking self-delusion and the desire to please pollsters areall natural human behaviors To be fairrecessionary forces are currently pushingconsumers into particularly price-sensitivedecisions long-term savings and reducedenvironmental impact inevitably take secondplace to short-term cost control Andperhaps thatrsquos the responsible course ofaction for many individual consumers in thecircumstances

Indeed ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo mightbe a better more broadly-applicable labelthan ldquoethical consumerismrdquo By adopting anew name (an old marketing trick as ithappens) perhaps ethical consumerism canbe seen less as a niche phenomenon andmore as a mainstream reality For too longscholars and practitioners alike have tendedto see ldquoethicalrdquo consumers as a discrete smallmarket segment waiting to be captured In

Ron Eady ldquoOver Rosseau 2rdquo encaustic on panel 25 x 50 in

20 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

reality human beings are not that simpleConsumers are not rational actors who willrespond consistently to responsible supplychain practices and related marketingcommunications We know (alas frompersonal experience) that the feel-goodpurchase of organic local produce today cangive way to the temptation of a fast-fashionor high-tech bargain tomorrow The highprice of the former can even be used tojustify the sweatshop price tag of the latter

By broadening the discussion from ethicalto responsible consumerism marketers andthose who do academic research intomarketing also become less exclusiveldquoResponsibilityrdquo unlike ldquoethicsrdquo does notsound as if it is uniquely reserved for someliberal or intellectual elite As Jerry Greenfieldrecently put it ldquoNobody wants to buysomething that was made by exploitingsomebody elserdquo Responsibility is a conceptfor everyone from the teenager shoppingover the Internet to the grandparent in theneighborhood store from the janitor in thebasement to the CEO in the corner office

Of course that CEO has a special part toplay There is no doubt that responsibleconsumerism has to be co-created bycorporations and led by people at the top Butthe marketing director and team haveessential roles too in educating empoweringand transforming existing consumptionhabitsmdashand thus influencing colleagues inproduction logistics purchasing and

financehellip and so on all the way up thesupply chain

Indeed if itrsquos true that many forms ofsocial and environmental harm scatteredalong the supply chains of multinationalcorporations are triggered by marketingdecisions in the first place then it can also beargued that marketers have a moral duty tochange existing practices wherever theyoccur Marketers must move center stage inthe debate on CSRmdashalbeit with a chorus ofNGOs consumer groups scientistsgovernmental bodies and others behindthemmdashif responsible consumerism is tobecome a mainstream phenomenon

Ultimately however your conscience willbe the most important factor in makingresponsible consumerism work Withresponsibility comes complexity anduncertainty (such as whether or not to drinkyour favorite Starbucks skinny latte for fearthat it isnrsquot fair trade) but with the help ofmarketing professionals concerned about allstakeholders you can be steered through themoral mazes to the right choice And if thereis no right choicemdashas those pesky greenbeans seem to demonstratemdashat least yoursquoll beable to make a reasoned decision based onyour own values and the correct information

Asking just how green a green bean has tobe is just the beginning though Anotherquestion for consumers marketers andacademics is how far along the supply chainconsumer conscience has to stretch We

Ron Eady ldquoSquallno1 to 4rdquo encausticon panel 16 x 16 ineach panel

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 21

believe that the more responsible consumersbecome and the more stakeholder-orientedmarketers get the farther we can gomdashright tothe raw materials But first we have to breakout of the old vicious circles and into newvirtuous circles somewhere downstream It ispossible for marketers and consumers tocollude in doing the right thing as well as thewrong if only they can ask honest questionsof each other and of the supply chains inwhich they form links

One thing is sure Your iPhone (substituteyour own model as appropriate) connects youto many more people than there are in yourcontacts list Via its copper circuitry you arenot only connected to factory workers inChina but also to miners in Chile as well asto marketing staff in California Just byhaving the imagination to make theseconnections you and your conscience aretaking a step in the right direction

N Craig Smith is the INSEAD Chaired Professor of Ethics and Social Responsibility atINSEAD the leading international business school with campuses in France Singapore andAbu Dhabi Elin Williams is a freelance writer based in Oxford The article is based on twoacademic papers ldquoMarketingrsquos Consequences Stakeholder Marketing and Supply ChainCorporate Social Responsibility Issuesrdquo published in Business Ethics Quarterly in October2010 and co-authored by Smith with Guido Palazzo and CB Bhattacharya and ldquoThe NewMarketing Myopiardquo published in the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing in spring 2010and co-authored by Smith with Minette E Drumwright and Mary C GentileFor more on Craig Smith visit httpwwwinseadedufacultyresearchfacultyprofilesscraig

About the artistRon Eady is a Canadian artist based in Burlington Ontario His encaustic painting techniqueinvolves as he describes it ldquoa repeated process of painting burning and scrapingrdquo whichallows his images to gradually evolve until judged complete Observed Henry Lehmann inMontreals The Gazette ldquoQuite possibly the true meaning of any one of Eadyrsquos broodingpanels is simply in the paint and in the power of physical pigment to transcend itself andattain a purely visual state full-bodied yet entirely without physical beingrdquo Eady has exhibitedinternationally in Los Angeles New York Japan and the Netherlands his other works can beviewed on his website httproneadycom

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 17

do not solve fundamental structuralproblems Marketers must find a solution thatfully addresses supply chain issuesmdashat least ifthey want to embed CSR in their brand valuesin a credible way In short they must start totake a ldquostakeholderrdquo approach thatencourages a new type of responsibleconsumerism Crucially this new approachrequires marketing professionals to look upthe supply chain to manufacturing andshipping down it to the sales force and theconsumer and outside it altogether to thecommunities on its borders and to theenvironment as a whole

Broadly speaking stakeholder marketinginvolves the design implementation andevaluation of marketing initiatives that willmaximize benefits to all stakeholderscustomers employees shareholders suppliers(all the way up the supply chain) as well asthe environment society in general andrelated non-profit organizations and theirbeneficiaries Stakeholder management theoryhas been around since the 1980s but (incontrast to CSR) marketers have been slow toseize the opportunities it offers Andstakeholder marketing is largely absent fromthe academic literature which still seems totake its cue from Ted Levittrsquos seminal paperon ldquomarketing myopiardquo of 1960 It is almostas if his exhortation to focus on the customerhas become a lesson too well learned bytheoreticians and practitioners alike over theintervening half-century

Yet we believe that marketing more thanany other business discipline is uniquelypositioned to help both companies andstakeholders achieve and benefit from a moresymbiotic relationship between business andsociety Marketingrsquos privileged relationshipwith the mind of the consumer combinedwith its sophisticated research andcommunication techniques makes it the keylink in CSRrsquos supply chain Thatrsquos not to saythat manufacturing finance purchasing orlogistics professionals have no part to playItrsquos just that marketers are probably bestplaced to take the lead They have always

been ldquoboundary spannersrdquo working at theinterface between corporations customersand competitors Spanning a few additionalboundaries shouldnrsquot be hard for themFact 5 In September 2010 a consortium ledby British supermarket chain Waitrose wasawarded a pound200000 ($320000) grant fromthe UK governmentrsquos aid agency to trainKenyan bean farmers in sustainableagricultural methodsFact 6 Kenyarsquos delicate green beans have tobe air-freighted into British supermarketsmdashaform of transport that emits more greenhousegases per food-mile than any otherO f course wersquore not suggesting

that forging a new role formarketing one that addresses the

needs of each and every stakeholder ispossible let alone easy The pair of factsabove serves to underline the complexity ofthe situation But in practical termsestablished techniques can help marketerssucceed where others have failed forexample by mapping key secondarystakeholders (media government consumergroups competitors NGOs) as well as moreobvious primary stakeholders (customersshareholders employees local communities)

Realistically marketers cannot serve all ofthe stakeholders that they identify But inmapping the relationships between themthey will discover that some are moreimportant to their business than they at firstimagined The Kenyan bean producersmentioned above for example suddenlybecome much more salient when theirrelationships with government aid agencies(and by extension the media) are revealed

Marketing is uniquely positioned tohelp companies and stakeholdersachieve a more symbiotic relationship

18 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Even if a companyrsquos stakeholder map doesnot lead to any startling new discoveries themapping exercise puts the company in abetter position to make tough choicesPerhaps in this example the environmentalissues raised by air freighting will have to takea back seat to the needs of agriculturalcommunities in the developing world at leastfor the foreseeable future

Once African farmers are identified asimportant stakeholders market researchtechniques can be used to explore theirexpectations and issuesmdashand subsequently tomeasure the impact of any stakeholderinitiatives implemented Marketing skillscould also be used to engage the farmers andeven to reach out to less friendlystakeholders such as the activists who mayhave exposed the companyrsquos poor sourcingpractices Finally marketers have thecommunication skills required to embed astakeholder-centric attitude in the rest of theorganization

With support from the right quarters inparticular from the CEO this new approachcould cascade from the marketingdepartment throughout the entirecompanymdashperhaps even persuading theaccountants to implement the much-discussed but comparatively little-practicedldquotriple bottom linerdquo which takes into accountldquopeoplerdquo and ldquoplanetrdquo as well as ldquoprofitrdquo Inany event stakeholder marketing could welllead to benefits for that good old-fashionedsingle bottom line ldquodoing well by doinggoodrdquo as itrsquos commonly put

Looking up the supply chain there is nodoubt that innovative fair trade schemes willbe a key component of the new stakeholdermarketing FINE the international federationof fair-trade networks defines fair trade as ldquoatrading partnership based on dialog

transparency and respect that seeks greaterequity in international trade It contributes tosustainable development by offering bettertrading conditions to and securing the rightsof marginalized producers and workersrdquo Itrsquosa loose definition crying out for innovationand creativity

Once the province of NGOs who soughtto challenge multinationals fair trade has nowbeen embraced by large corporations likeUnilever According to the companyrsquoswebsite ldquoConsumers around the world wantreassurance that the products they buy areethically sourced and protect the earthrsquosnatural resources A growing number arechoosing to buy brands such as RainforestAlliance Certified Lipton tea [and] Ben ampJerryrsquos Fairtrade ice creamrdquo

In fact it seems that Ben (Cohen) andJerry (Greenfield) were an importantinfluence on Unileverrsquos new SustainableLiving Plan Sold to the multinational a fulldecade ago their values-driven brand has notonly survived but has been increasing its useof fair-trade ingredients Greenfield thoughno longer a manager remains an advisor andbrand ambassador and says that Unileverexecutives have been remarkably proactive inlearning from their model Indeed theambitious new initiative has fifty concretetargets within three broad objectives to helpmore than a billion people improve theirhealth and well-being to halve theenvironmental impact of Unilever productsand to enhance the livelihoods of hundredsof thousands of people in the supply chain

This is clearly a move in the rightdirection As customers we depend onmarketing professionals not only to tell usabout better corporate behavior but also toencourage it to happen Significantly two ofthe most senior executives at Unilever havetheir pay tied to meeting the fifty targets ofthe Sustainable Living Plan the CEO and theMarketing and Communications Officer

Moreover we believe that marketers havethe skills and the connections to go one stepfurther and contribute to a whole new

By adopting a new name perhapsethical consumerism can be seen asless niche and more mainstream

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 19

phenomenon that reaches far beyond theircompanies ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo Ifyou like itrsquos a different kind of CSRldquoConsumerrdquo Social Responsibility Yes itrsquostime to travel back down the supply chain andreturn to that consumer conscience of yoursDid you really think you could escape itFact 7 In October 2010 the worldcelebrated as 33 Chilean copper minersemerged from the underground depths wherethey had been trapped for over two monthsFact 8 Since 2000 an average of 34 peopleare reported to have died in Chilean miningaccidents every yearT here has of course been much talk

over recent decades about ldquoethicalconsumerismrdquo Broadly speaking

this refers to the purchasing of products andservices that have been produced marketedand distributed ethically In practice it meansgiving preference to goods and services madeand delivered with minimal harm to humansanimals and the natural environmenthellip orboycotting those that arenrsquot

There have been abundant surveys aboutethical consumerism For example in 2009

TIME magazine reported that almost 50percent of Americans said protection of theenvironment should take priority overeconomic growth 78 percent of those polledsaid they would be willing to pay an extra$2000 for more fuel-efficient cars But thesestatistics were not reflected in real-world salesfigures As we have learned from opinionpolls down the ages wishful thinking self-delusion and the desire to please pollsters areall natural human behaviors To be fairrecessionary forces are currently pushingconsumers into particularly price-sensitivedecisions long-term savings and reducedenvironmental impact inevitably take secondplace to short-term cost control Andperhaps thatrsquos the responsible course ofaction for many individual consumers in thecircumstances

Indeed ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo mightbe a better more broadly-applicable labelthan ldquoethical consumerismrdquo By adopting anew name (an old marketing trick as ithappens) perhaps ethical consumerism canbe seen less as a niche phenomenon andmore as a mainstream reality For too longscholars and practitioners alike have tendedto see ldquoethicalrdquo consumers as a discrete smallmarket segment waiting to be captured In

Ron Eady ldquoOver Rosseau 2rdquo encaustic on panel 25 x 50 in

20 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

reality human beings are not that simpleConsumers are not rational actors who willrespond consistently to responsible supplychain practices and related marketingcommunications We know (alas frompersonal experience) that the feel-goodpurchase of organic local produce today cangive way to the temptation of a fast-fashionor high-tech bargain tomorrow The highprice of the former can even be used tojustify the sweatshop price tag of the latter

By broadening the discussion from ethicalto responsible consumerism marketers andthose who do academic research intomarketing also become less exclusiveldquoResponsibilityrdquo unlike ldquoethicsrdquo does notsound as if it is uniquely reserved for someliberal or intellectual elite As Jerry Greenfieldrecently put it ldquoNobody wants to buysomething that was made by exploitingsomebody elserdquo Responsibility is a conceptfor everyone from the teenager shoppingover the Internet to the grandparent in theneighborhood store from the janitor in thebasement to the CEO in the corner office

Of course that CEO has a special part toplay There is no doubt that responsibleconsumerism has to be co-created bycorporations and led by people at the top Butthe marketing director and team haveessential roles too in educating empoweringand transforming existing consumptionhabitsmdashand thus influencing colleagues inproduction logistics purchasing and

financehellip and so on all the way up thesupply chain

Indeed if itrsquos true that many forms ofsocial and environmental harm scatteredalong the supply chains of multinationalcorporations are triggered by marketingdecisions in the first place then it can also beargued that marketers have a moral duty tochange existing practices wherever theyoccur Marketers must move center stage inthe debate on CSRmdashalbeit with a chorus ofNGOs consumer groups scientistsgovernmental bodies and others behindthemmdashif responsible consumerism is tobecome a mainstream phenomenon

Ultimately however your conscience willbe the most important factor in makingresponsible consumerism work Withresponsibility comes complexity anduncertainty (such as whether or not to drinkyour favorite Starbucks skinny latte for fearthat it isnrsquot fair trade) but with the help ofmarketing professionals concerned about allstakeholders you can be steered through themoral mazes to the right choice And if thereis no right choicemdashas those pesky greenbeans seem to demonstratemdashat least yoursquoll beable to make a reasoned decision based onyour own values and the correct information

Asking just how green a green bean has tobe is just the beginning though Anotherquestion for consumers marketers andacademics is how far along the supply chainconsumer conscience has to stretch We

Ron Eady ldquoSquallno1 to 4rdquo encausticon panel 16 x 16 ineach panel

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 21

believe that the more responsible consumersbecome and the more stakeholder-orientedmarketers get the farther we can gomdashright tothe raw materials But first we have to breakout of the old vicious circles and into newvirtuous circles somewhere downstream It ispossible for marketers and consumers tocollude in doing the right thing as well as thewrong if only they can ask honest questionsof each other and of the supply chains inwhich they form links

One thing is sure Your iPhone (substituteyour own model as appropriate) connects youto many more people than there are in yourcontacts list Via its copper circuitry you arenot only connected to factory workers inChina but also to miners in Chile as well asto marketing staff in California Just byhaving the imagination to make theseconnections you and your conscience aretaking a step in the right direction

N Craig Smith is the INSEAD Chaired Professor of Ethics and Social Responsibility atINSEAD the leading international business school with campuses in France Singapore andAbu Dhabi Elin Williams is a freelance writer based in Oxford The article is based on twoacademic papers ldquoMarketingrsquos Consequences Stakeholder Marketing and Supply ChainCorporate Social Responsibility Issuesrdquo published in Business Ethics Quarterly in October2010 and co-authored by Smith with Guido Palazzo and CB Bhattacharya and ldquoThe NewMarketing Myopiardquo published in the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing in spring 2010and co-authored by Smith with Minette E Drumwright and Mary C GentileFor more on Craig Smith visit httpwwwinseadedufacultyresearchfacultyprofilesscraig

About the artistRon Eady is a Canadian artist based in Burlington Ontario His encaustic painting techniqueinvolves as he describes it ldquoa repeated process of painting burning and scrapingrdquo whichallows his images to gradually evolve until judged complete Observed Henry Lehmann inMontreals The Gazette ldquoQuite possibly the true meaning of any one of Eadyrsquos broodingpanels is simply in the paint and in the power of physical pigment to transcend itself andattain a purely visual state full-bodied yet entirely without physical beingrdquo Eady has exhibitedinternationally in Los Angeles New York Japan and the Netherlands his other works can beviewed on his website httproneadycom

18 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Even if a companyrsquos stakeholder map doesnot lead to any startling new discoveries themapping exercise puts the company in abetter position to make tough choicesPerhaps in this example the environmentalissues raised by air freighting will have to takea back seat to the needs of agriculturalcommunities in the developing world at leastfor the foreseeable future

Once African farmers are identified asimportant stakeholders market researchtechniques can be used to explore theirexpectations and issuesmdashand subsequently tomeasure the impact of any stakeholderinitiatives implemented Marketing skillscould also be used to engage the farmers andeven to reach out to less friendlystakeholders such as the activists who mayhave exposed the companyrsquos poor sourcingpractices Finally marketers have thecommunication skills required to embed astakeholder-centric attitude in the rest of theorganization

With support from the right quarters inparticular from the CEO this new approachcould cascade from the marketingdepartment throughout the entirecompanymdashperhaps even persuading theaccountants to implement the much-discussed but comparatively little-practicedldquotriple bottom linerdquo which takes into accountldquopeoplerdquo and ldquoplanetrdquo as well as ldquoprofitrdquo Inany event stakeholder marketing could welllead to benefits for that good old-fashionedsingle bottom line ldquodoing well by doinggoodrdquo as itrsquos commonly put

Looking up the supply chain there is nodoubt that innovative fair trade schemes willbe a key component of the new stakeholdermarketing FINE the international federationof fair-trade networks defines fair trade as ldquoatrading partnership based on dialog

transparency and respect that seeks greaterequity in international trade It contributes tosustainable development by offering bettertrading conditions to and securing the rightsof marginalized producers and workersrdquo Itrsquosa loose definition crying out for innovationand creativity

Once the province of NGOs who soughtto challenge multinationals fair trade has nowbeen embraced by large corporations likeUnilever According to the companyrsquoswebsite ldquoConsumers around the world wantreassurance that the products they buy areethically sourced and protect the earthrsquosnatural resources A growing number arechoosing to buy brands such as RainforestAlliance Certified Lipton tea [and] Ben ampJerryrsquos Fairtrade ice creamrdquo

In fact it seems that Ben (Cohen) andJerry (Greenfield) were an importantinfluence on Unileverrsquos new SustainableLiving Plan Sold to the multinational a fulldecade ago their values-driven brand has notonly survived but has been increasing its useof fair-trade ingredients Greenfield thoughno longer a manager remains an advisor andbrand ambassador and says that Unileverexecutives have been remarkably proactive inlearning from their model Indeed theambitious new initiative has fifty concretetargets within three broad objectives to helpmore than a billion people improve theirhealth and well-being to halve theenvironmental impact of Unilever productsand to enhance the livelihoods of hundredsof thousands of people in the supply chain

This is clearly a move in the rightdirection As customers we depend onmarketing professionals not only to tell usabout better corporate behavior but also toencourage it to happen Significantly two ofthe most senior executives at Unilever havetheir pay tied to meeting the fifty targets ofthe Sustainable Living Plan the CEO and theMarketing and Communications Officer

Moreover we believe that marketers havethe skills and the connections to go one stepfurther and contribute to a whole new

By adopting a new name perhapsethical consumerism can be seen asless niche and more mainstream

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 19

phenomenon that reaches far beyond theircompanies ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo Ifyou like itrsquos a different kind of CSRldquoConsumerrdquo Social Responsibility Yes itrsquostime to travel back down the supply chain andreturn to that consumer conscience of yoursDid you really think you could escape itFact 7 In October 2010 the worldcelebrated as 33 Chilean copper minersemerged from the underground depths wherethey had been trapped for over two monthsFact 8 Since 2000 an average of 34 peopleare reported to have died in Chilean miningaccidents every yearT here has of course been much talk

over recent decades about ldquoethicalconsumerismrdquo Broadly speaking

this refers to the purchasing of products andservices that have been produced marketedand distributed ethically In practice it meansgiving preference to goods and services madeand delivered with minimal harm to humansanimals and the natural environmenthellip orboycotting those that arenrsquot

There have been abundant surveys aboutethical consumerism For example in 2009

TIME magazine reported that almost 50percent of Americans said protection of theenvironment should take priority overeconomic growth 78 percent of those polledsaid they would be willing to pay an extra$2000 for more fuel-efficient cars But thesestatistics were not reflected in real-world salesfigures As we have learned from opinionpolls down the ages wishful thinking self-delusion and the desire to please pollsters areall natural human behaviors To be fairrecessionary forces are currently pushingconsumers into particularly price-sensitivedecisions long-term savings and reducedenvironmental impact inevitably take secondplace to short-term cost control Andperhaps thatrsquos the responsible course ofaction for many individual consumers in thecircumstances

Indeed ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo mightbe a better more broadly-applicable labelthan ldquoethical consumerismrdquo By adopting anew name (an old marketing trick as ithappens) perhaps ethical consumerism canbe seen less as a niche phenomenon andmore as a mainstream reality For too longscholars and practitioners alike have tendedto see ldquoethicalrdquo consumers as a discrete smallmarket segment waiting to be captured In

Ron Eady ldquoOver Rosseau 2rdquo encaustic on panel 25 x 50 in

20 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

reality human beings are not that simpleConsumers are not rational actors who willrespond consistently to responsible supplychain practices and related marketingcommunications We know (alas frompersonal experience) that the feel-goodpurchase of organic local produce today cangive way to the temptation of a fast-fashionor high-tech bargain tomorrow The highprice of the former can even be used tojustify the sweatshop price tag of the latter

By broadening the discussion from ethicalto responsible consumerism marketers andthose who do academic research intomarketing also become less exclusiveldquoResponsibilityrdquo unlike ldquoethicsrdquo does notsound as if it is uniquely reserved for someliberal or intellectual elite As Jerry Greenfieldrecently put it ldquoNobody wants to buysomething that was made by exploitingsomebody elserdquo Responsibility is a conceptfor everyone from the teenager shoppingover the Internet to the grandparent in theneighborhood store from the janitor in thebasement to the CEO in the corner office

Of course that CEO has a special part toplay There is no doubt that responsibleconsumerism has to be co-created bycorporations and led by people at the top Butthe marketing director and team haveessential roles too in educating empoweringand transforming existing consumptionhabitsmdashand thus influencing colleagues inproduction logistics purchasing and

financehellip and so on all the way up thesupply chain

Indeed if itrsquos true that many forms ofsocial and environmental harm scatteredalong the supply chains of multinationalcorporations are triggered by marketingdecisions in the first place then it can also beargued that marketers have a moral duty tochange existing practices wherever theyoccur Marketers must move center stage inthe debate on CSRmdashalbeit with a chorus ofNGOs consumer groups scientistsgovernmental bodies and others behindthemmdashif responsible consumerism is tobecome a mainstream phenomenon

Ultimately however your conscience willbe the most important factor in makingresponsible consumerism work Withresponsibility comes complexity anduncertainty (such as whether or not to drinkyour favorite Starbucks skinny latte for fearthat it isnrsquot fair trade) but with the help ofmarketing professionals concerned about allstakeholders you can be steered through themoral mazes to the right choice And if thereis no right choicemdashas those pesky greenbeans seem to demonstratemdashat least yoursquoll beable to make a reasoned decision based onyour own values and the correct information

Asking just how green a green bean has tobe is just the beginning though Anotherquestion for consumers marketers andacademics is how far along the supply chainconsumer conscience has to stretch We

Ron Eady ldquoSquallno1 to 4rdquo encausticon panel 16 x 16 ineach panel

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 21

believe that the more responsible consumersbecome and the more stakeholder-orientedmarketers get the farther we can gomdashright tothe raw materials But first we have to breakout of the old vicious circles and into newvirtuous circles somewhere downstream It ispossible for marketers and consumers tocollude in doing the right thing as well as thewrong if only they can ask honest questionsof each other and of the supply chains inwhich they form links

One thing is sure Your iPhone (substituteyour own model as appropriate) connects youto many more people than there are in yourcontacts list Via its copper circuitry you arenot only connected to factory workers inChina but also to miners in Chile as well asto marketing staff in California Just byhaving the imagination to make theseconnections you and your conscience aretaking a step in the right direction

N Craig Smith is the INSEAD Chaired Professor of Ethics and Social Responsibility atINSEAD the leading international business school with campuses in France Singapore andAbu Dhabi Elin Williams is a freelance writer based in Oxford The article is based on twoacademic papers ldquoMarketingrsquos Consequences Stakeholder Marketing and Supply ChainCorporate Social Responsibility Issuesrdquo published in Business Ethics Quarterly in October2010 and co-authored by Smith with Guido Palazzo and CB Bhattacharya and ldquoThe NewMarketing Myopiardquo published in the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing in spring 2010and co-authored by Smith with Minette E Drumwright and Mary C GentileFor more on Craig Smith visit httpwwwinseadedufacultyresearchfacultyprofilesscraig

About the artistRon Eady is a Canadian artist based in Burlington Ontario His encaustic painting techniqueinvolves as he describes it ldquoa repeated process of painting burning and scrapingrdquo whichallows his images to gradually evolve until judged complete Observed Henry Lehmann inMontreals The Gazette ldquoQuite possibly the true meaning of any one of Eadyrsquos broodingpanels is simply in the paint and in the power of physical pigment to transcend itself andattain a purely visual state full-bodied yet entirely without physical beingrdquo Eady has exhibitedinternationally in Los Angeles New York Japan and the Netherlands his other works can beviewed on his website httproneadycom

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 19

phenomenon that reaches far beyond theircompanies ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo Ifyou like itrsquos a different kind of CSRldquoConsumerrdquo Social Responsibility Yes itrsquostime to travel back down the supply chain andreturn to that consumer conscience of yoursDid you really think you could escape itFact 7 In October 2010 the worldcelebrated as 33 Chilean copper minersemerged from the underground depths wherethey had been trapped for over two monthsFact 8 Since 2000 an average of 34 peopleare reported to have died in Chilean miningaccidents every yearT here has of course been much talk

over recent decades about ldquoethicalconsumerismrdquo Broadly speaking

this refers to the purchasing of products andservices that have been produced marketedand distributed ethically In practice it meansgiving preference to goods and services madeand delivered with minimal harm to humansanimals and the natural environmenthellip orboycotting those that arenrsquot

There have been abundant surveys aboutethical consumerism For example in 2009

TIME magazine reported that almost 50percent of Americans said protection of theenvironment should take priority overeconomic growth 78 percent of those polledsaid they would be willing to pay an extra$2000 for more fuel-efficient cars But thesestatistics were not reflected in real-world salesfigures As we have learned from opinionpolls down the ages wishful thinking self-delusion and the desire to please pollsters areall natural human behaviors To be fairrecessionary forces are currently pushingconsumers into particularly price-sensitivedecisions long-term savings and reducedenvironmental impact inevitably take secondplace to short-term cost control Andperhaps thatrsquos the responsible course ofaction for many individual consumers in thecircumstances

Indeed ldquoresponsible consumerismrdquo mightbe a better more broadly-applicable labelthan ldquoethical consumerismrdquo By adopting anew name (an old marketing trick as ithappens) perhaps ethical consumerism canbe seen less as a niche phenomenon andmore as a mainstream reality For too longscholars and practitioners alike have tendedto see ldquoethicalrdquo consumers as a discrete smallmarket segment waiting to be captured In

Ron Eady ldquoOver Rosseau 2rdquo encaustic on panel 25 x 50 in

20 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

reality human beings are not that simpleConsumers are not rational actors who willrespond consistently to responsible supplychain practices and related marketingcommunications We know (alas frompersonal experience) that the feel-goodpurchase of organic local produce today cangive way to the temptation of a fast-fashionor high-tech bargain tomorrow The highprice of the former can even be used tojustify the sweatshop price tag of the latter

By broadening the discussion from ethicalto responsible consumerism marketers andthose who do academic research intomarketing also become less exclusiveldquoResponsibilityrdquo unlike ldquoethicsrdquo does notsound as if it is uniquely reserved for someliberal or intellectual elite As Jerry Greenfieldrecently put it ldquoNobody wants to buysomething that was made by exploitingsomebody elserdquo Responsibility is a conceptfor everyone from the teenager shoppingover the Internet to the grandparent in theneighborhood store from the janitor in thebasement to the CEO in the corner office

Of course that CEO has a special part toplay There is no doubt that responsibleconsumerism has to be co-created bycorporations and led by people at the top Butthe marketing director and team haveessential roles too in educating empoweringand transforming existing consumptionhabitsmdashand thus influencing colleagues inproduction logistics purchasing and

financehellip and so on all the way up thesupply chain

Indeed if itrsquos true that many forms ofsocial and environmental harm scatteredalong the supply chains of multinationalcorporations are triggered by marketingdecisions in the first place then it can also beargued that marketers have a moral duty tochange existing practices wherever theyoccur Marketers must move center stage inthe debate on CSRmdashalbeit with a chorus ofNGOs consumer groups scientistsgovernmental bodies and others behindthemmdashif responsible consumerism is tobecome a mainstream phenomenon

Ultimately however your conscience willbe the most important factor in makingresponsible consumerism work Withresponsibility comes complexity anduncertainty (such as whether or not to drinkyour favorite Starbucks skinny latte for fearthat it isnrsquot fair trade) but with the help ofmarketing professionals concerned about allstakeholders you can be steered through themoral mazes to the right choice And if thereis no right choicemdashas those pesky greenbeans seem to demonstratemdashat least yoursquoll beable to make a reasoned decision based onyour own values and the correct information

Asking just how green a green bean has tobe is just the beginning though Anotherquestion for consumers marketers andacademics is how far along the supply chainconsumer conscience has to stretch We

Ron Eady ldquoSquallno1 to 4rdquo encausticon panel 16 x 16 ineach panel

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 21

believe that the more responsible consumersbecome and the more stakeholder-orientedmarketers get the farther we can gomdashright tothe raw materials But first we have to breakout of the old vicious circles and into newvirtuous circles somewhere downstream It ispossible for marketers and consumers tocollude in doing the right thing as well as thewrong if only they can ask honest questionsof each other and of the supply chains inwhich they form links

One thing is sure Your iPhone (substituteyour own model as appropriate) connects youto many more people than there are in yourcontacts list Via its copper circuitry you arenot only connected to factory workers inChina but also to miners in Chile as well asto marketing staff in California Just byhaving the imagination to make theseconnections you and your conscience aretaking a step in the right direction

N Craig Smith is the INSEAD Chaired Professor of Ethics and Social Responsibility atINSEAD the leading international business school with campuses in France Singapore andAbu Dhabi Elin Williams is a freelance writer based in Oxford The article is based on twoacademic papers ldquoMarketingrsquos Consequences Stakeholder Marketing and Supply ChainCorporate Social Responsibility Issuesrdquo published in Business Ethics Quarterly in October2010 and co-authored by Smith with Guido Palazzo and CB Bhattacharya and ldquoThe NewMarketing Myopiardquo published in the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing in spring 2010and co-authored by Smith with Minette E Drumwright and Mary C GentileFor more on Craig Smith visit httpwwwinseadedufacultyresearchfacultyprofilesscraig

About the artistRon Eady is a Canadian artist based in Burlington Ontario His encaustic painting techniqueinvolves as he describes it ldquoa repeated process of painting burning and scrapingrdquo whichallows his images to gradually evolve until judged complete Observed Henry Lehmann inMontreals The Gazette ldquoQuite possibly the true meaning of any one of Eadyrsquos broodingpanels is simply in the paint and in the power of physical pigment to transcend itself andattain a purely visual state full-bodied yet entirely without physical beingrdquo Eady has exhibitedinternationally in Los Angeles New York Japan and the Netherlands his other works can beviewed on his website httproneadycom

20 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

reality human beings are not that simpleConsumers are not rational actors who willrespond consistently to responsible supplychain practices and related marketingcommunications We know (alas frompersonal experience) that the feel-goodpurchase of organic local produce today cangive way to the temptation of a fast-fashionor high-tech bargain tomorrow The highprice of the former can even be used tojustify the sweatshop price tag of the latter

By broadening the discussion from ethicalto responsible consumerism marketers andthose who do academic research intomarketing also become less exclusiveldquoResponsibilityrdquo unlike ldquoethicsrdquo does notsound as if it is uniquely reserved for someliberal or intellectual elite As Jerry Greenfieldrecently put it ldquoNobody wants to buysomething that was made by exploitingsomebody elserdquo Responsibility is a conceptfor everyone from the teenager shoppingover the Internet to the grandparent in theneighborhood store from the janitor in thebasement to the CEO in the corner office

Of course that CEO has a special part toplay There is no doubt that responsibleconsumerism has to be co-created bycorporations and led by people at the top Butthe marketing director and team haveessential roles too in educating empoweringand transforming existing consumptionhabitsmdashand thus influencing colleagues inproduction logistics purchasing and

financehellip and so on all the way up thesupply chain

Indeed if itrsquos true that many forms ofsocial and environmental harm scatteredalong the supply chains of multinationalcorporations are triggered by marketingdecisions in the first place then it can also beargued that marketers have a moral duty tochange existing practices wherever theyoccur Marketers must move center stage inthe debate on CSRmdashalbeit with a chorus ofNGOs consumer groups scientistsgovernmental bodies and others behindthemmdashif responsible consumerism is tobecome a mainstream phenomenon

Ultimately however your conscience willbe the most important factor in makingresponsible consumerism work Withresponsibility comes complexity anduncertainty (such as whether or not to drinkyour favorite Starbucks skinny latte for fearthat it isnrsquot fair trade) but with the help ofmarketing professionals concerned about allstakeholders you can be steered through themoral mazes to the right choice And if thereis no right choicemdashas those pesky greenbeans seem to demonstratemdashat least yoursquoll beable to make a reasoned decision based onyour own values and the correct information

Asking just how green a green bean has tobe is just the beginning though Anotherquestion for consumers marketers andacademics is how far along the supply chainconsumer conscience has to stretch We

Ron Eady ldquoSquallno1 to 4rdquo encausticon panel 16 x 16 ineach panel

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 21

believe that the more responsible consumersbecome and the more stakeholder-orientedmarketers get the farther we can gomdashright tothe raw materials But first we have to breakout of the old vicious circles and into newvirtuous circles somewhere downstream It ispossible for marketers and consumers tocollude in doing the right thing as well as thewrong if only they can ask honest questionsof each other and of the supply chains inwhich they form links

One thing is sure Your iPhone (substituteyour own model as appropriate) connects youto many more people than there are in yourcontacts list Via its copper circuitry you arenot only connected to factory workers inChina but also to miners in Chile as well asto marketing staff in California Just byhaving the imagination to make theseconnections you and your conscience aretaking a step in the right direction

N Craig Smith is the INSEAD Chaired Professor of Ethics and Social Responsibility atINSEAD the leading international business school with campuses in France Singapore andAbu Dhabi Elin Williams is a freelance writer based in Oxford The article is based on twoacademic papers ldquoMarketingrsquos Consequences Stakeholder Marketing and Supply ChainCorporate Social Responsibility Issuesrdquo published in Business Ethics Quarterly in October2010 and co-authored by Smith with Guido Palazzo and CB Bhattacharya and ldquoThe NewMarketing Myopiardquo published in the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing in spring 2010and co-authored by Smith with Minette E Drumwright and Mary C GentileFor more on Craig Smith visit httpwwwinseadedufacultyresearchfacultyprofilesscraig

About the artistRon Eady is a Canadian artist based in Burlington Ontario His encaustic painting techniqueinvolves as he describes it ldquoa repeated process of painting burning and scrapingrdquo whichallows his images to gradually evolve until judged complete Observed Henry Lehmann inMontreals The Gazette ldquoQuite possibly the true meaning of any one of Eadyrsquos broodingpanels is simply in the paint and in the power of physical pigment to transcend itself andattain a purely visual state full-bodied yet entirely without physical beingrdquo Eady has exhibitedinternationally in Los Angeles New York Japan and the Netherlands his other works can beviewed on his website httproneadycom

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 21

believe that the more responsible consumersbecome and the more stakeholder-orientedmarketers get the farther we can gomdashright tothe raw materials But first we have to breakout of the old vicious circles and into newvirtuous circles somewhere downstream It ispossible for marketers and consumers tocollude in doing the right thing as well as thewrong if only they can ask honest questionsof each other and of the supply chains inwhich they form links

One thing is sure Your iPhone (substituteyour own model as appropriate) connects youto many more people than there are in yourcontacts list Via its copper circuitry you arenot only connected to factory workers inChina but also to miners in Chile as well asto marketing staff in California Just byhaving the imagination to make theseconnections you and your conscience aretaking a step in the right direction

N Craig Smith is the INSEAD Chaired Professor of Ethics and Social Responsibility atINSEAD the leading international business school with campuses in France Singapore andAbu Dhabi Elin Williams is a freelance writer based in Oxford The article is based on twoacademic papers ldquoMarketingrsquos Consequences Stakeholder Marketing and Supply ChainCorporate Social Responsibility Issuesrdquo published in Business Ethics Quarterly in October2010 and co-authored by Smith with Guido Palazzo and CB Bhattacharya and ldquoThe NewMarketing Myopiardquo published in the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing in spring 2010and co-authored by Smith with Minette E Drumwright and Mary C GentileFor more on Craig Smith visit httpwwwinseadedufacultyresearchfacultyprofilesscraig

About the artistRon Eady is a Canadian artist based in Burlington Ontario His encaustic painting techniqueinvolves as he describes it ldquoa repeated process of painting burning and scrapingrdquo whichallows his images to gradually evolve until judged complete Observed Henry Lehmann inMontreals The Gazette ldquoQuite possibly the true meaning of any one of Eadyrsquos broodingpanels is simply in the paint and in the power of physical pigment to transcend itself andattain a purely visual state full-bodied yet entirely without physical beingrdquo Eady has exhibitedinternationally in Los Angeles New York Japan and the Netherlands his other works can beviewed on his website httproneadycom

22 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

That the United States supports anastonishingly large number ofcomposers has been a factrepeatedly remarked upon

especially since the middle of the twentiethcentury This is a large country with a largeamount of musical activity and almost all ofthat music requires composers From concertmusic to popular music from film scores tothe soundtracks of computer games fromjazz to hip-hop the idea of what it means tobe a ldquocomposerrdquo finds itself covered by anever-widening umbrella Yet perhapsironically it is the act of composing classicalconcert music that is today the least

understood or the least ldquorequiredrdquo of all theforms In a society that judges quality interms of album sales it is often difficult forcomposers of art music to compete Nolonger able to support themselves simplythrough commissions and appearance feesconcert music composers are more likely tobe university professors researchers orentrepreneurs who write music simplybecause they feel called to do so

A further complication is the fact that theprofession of composing has almost alwaysbeen male-dominated With the exception ofa few scattered bright lights (Hildegard ofBingen Amy Beach Clara Schumann and

Composer in waitingElizabeth R Austins music is meticulous andcomplex filled with movement growth and turningpoints Not a bad description for her own life

BY MICHAEL K SLAYTON

ART BY MARGUERITA BORNSTEIN

Marguerita Bornstein ldquoOrgasmoThe Spiralrdquo 1983-84Used as an avatar by Brazilian social networking site Peabirus(httpwwwpeabiruscombr)

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 23

24 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Germaine Tailleferre spring to mind) musichistory textbooks are saturated with storiesof the ldquogreat menrdquo of the compositionalworld Of course this has had much to dowith the cultural climates and social stigmasof those times which have been graduallyfading But as recently as sixty years agomany of those attitudes had not yet changedInside the walls of academia heroic effortshave been made to give female composerstheir proper due efforts led by pioneeringscholars and writers like JoAnn SkowronskiCarol Neus-Bates Karin Pendle Diane JezicJane Bowers and Judith Tick But for manylisteners outside of academia the questionyet lingers are women writing music If sowhy donrsquot we know more about it If notwhy not

For the past ten years I have had thepleasure to work closely with theextraordinary composer Elizabeth R AustinI studied her music accompanied her toconcert premieres travelled throughGermany with her and visited the locations inwhich she began her career My time spentwith Austin and her music drew all of thesequestions and more to the foregroundmdashquestions pertinent to an understanding ofthe shifting societal and artistic landscapes ofour more recent history What exactly is thestate of American culture concerning womenwho seek to develop careers as composersWhat stories would other women tell wholike Austin had chosen this path in the early1950s What about now How have thingschanged over the past sixty years Are therethings that havenrsquot changed And how mightsuch issues be addressed without drawingfurther undesired attention to genderdifferences Elizabeth Austinrsquos personal storyis not one of great struggle tragedy or lossnor is it a story of malevolent gender bias or

discrimination Her story isnrsquot melodramaticFor these reasons it represents a particularlysalient control sample of what the culturewas like for the typical middle-class youngwoman who chose an unorthodox path in atime characterized by slow changeB orn in Baltimore in 1938 Austinrsquos

earliest musical memories includestudying piano and composing her

first piece (a lullaby for her baby brother)when she was seven years old By the age often she was attending the PeabodyPreparatory Department and at age thirteenmusic educator Grace Newsom Cushmaninvited her to begin summer studies at theJunior Conservatory Camp in NewHampshire ldquoCushman was unique inrequiring her students to hear play sing andwrite building blocks of soundrdquo says Austinldquoto think in time to stand outside the soundas well as to inhabit it I owe this woman theacquisition of a good ear And at an agewhere I was beginning to realize the auralimages in my mind she gave her students theonly temporal power worth having thepower to communicate and enhance themeasure of beauty on this earthrdquo

By the age of sixteen Austin (thenElizabeth Rhudy) had already won severalawards for her compositions but it wasduring her studies at Baltimores GoucherCollege that a single fortuitous event wouldpitch her headlong into the composerrsquos lifewhen Mlle Nadia Boulanger arguably themost influential and important music teacherof the past century came to visit the schoolUpon hearing Austinrsquos ldquoRilke Liederrdquo in anevening student concert an impressedBoulanger offered the (now) nineteen-year-old a scholarship to study at the prestigiousConservatoire Americain in FontainebleauHer parents sent her to France despite thesignificant financial strain the voyage placedupon the household The composer recallsthat family and friends sparingly projected aldquodutiful sense of being impressedrdquo by hermany accomplishments includingBoulangerrsquos unpredicted invitation but more

During a dinner party Boulangersuddenly asked her to improvise apiece of music in front of everyone

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 25

often than not they seemedrather puzzled about thesurrounding stir Most ofAustinrsquos younger life was spentin this type of artistic turmoilshe found herselfoverachieving not only inmusic but also in academics inan attempt to engender someform of supporting reactionfrom those close to her whilechoking back her own privateinsecurities over the prodigiousopportunities afforded her

Studying at the piano ofBoulanger was an intimidatingexperience for any youngcomposer and for Austin theexperience was no less so Notonly was she treading in thefootsteps of Elliott CarterAaron Copland Louise Talmaand Virgil Thompson she wasalso confronting the socialstigmas of that eramdashand theremarkable fact that Boulangerherself openly discouragedwomen from pursuing musicalcareers Because of herexcellent training Austin feltwell-equipped to brave the challenges of herlessons with Boulanger but she soon beganto understand that she would be continuouslypressed to strive for revelations above herown present cognitive powers For exampleAustin tells of one occasion during a dinnerparty for several of the areas social elitewhen Boulanger suddenly asked her to go tothe piano and improvise a piece of music (infront of everyone) utilizing all the possiblediminished seventh chord resolutions Thesesorts of surprises were commonplace andthough Boulanger was pleased with Austinrsquosmusical abilities she could also be hard anddiscouraging when dealing with Austin as ayoung woman

I will never forget a time inFontainebleau when my friend Ruth

and I strolled along a path apparentlyin full view of Boulanger with a youngman whom we had met on board theboat we took to France Within thevery next lesson the event was broughtup Boulanger said to me her voicemarked with disdain ldquoMy dear gohome and have eight childrenrdquo I wascrushed Of course she wasnrsquot actuallytelling me to leave she was making apoint about priorities But commentssuch as that leave their mark

Upon returning from France Austinfinished her diploma at Goucher CollegeAfter graduation she continued to live athome with her recently widowed motherwhile teaching in the Baltimore public schoolsystem (a compulsory choice ndash there werefew options for women and Austin needed away to support herself) Within a year she

Marguerita Bornstein Sketchbook series 2004

26 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

was married as was prescribed by the timeThe birth of twins in 1962 was at the samemoment a source of joy and undeniably amammoth roadblock in the buddingcomposers career A third child was borninto the family six years later and the nexteleven years were spent nurturing her familyIn 1979 Austin decided to continue hereducation a rational decision to ensure herfamily a means of secondary support Sheenrolled in the University of Hartfordrsquos HarttSchool of Music with the purpose ofobtaining her state public teachingcertification in doing so however she foundthat she had reopened Pandorarsquos Box ldquothetrue self-centering of learning and itsaccompanying ecstasyrdquo as she describes it Itwas a signal point in time for Austin as acomposer and suddenly an unbounded rushof music began to pour forth AustinrsquosZodiac Suite for piano solo (1980) was herbreakthrough work a monumental virtuosiceruption laden with fifteen years of pent-upfury and wonder Austin has called the Zodiacacerbic penetrating this was her moment ofrebirth and deep down she knew it was likelycoming at a price

She candidly acknowledges that duringthis phase she became distant from herdomestic priorities succumbing to the lure ofthe artsmdashldquothat fiercesome lure whichThomas Mann describesrdquo says Austin ldquonotromantic actually quite unpleasant andpainful for surrounding and unsuspectingfamilyrdquo She finished her masters degree inmusic composition and immediately began aPhD program at the University ofConnecticut Before long the rigors ofgraduate studies the demands of professionalwork as an organist and a teacher and thechallenges and chaos of home life forced the

end of Austinrsquos first marriage But shepersisted with her music steadily workingand writing and several pieces were born outof the subsequent period of relativeseclusion After the Zodiac Suite came thestring quartet Inscapes (1981) Christmas theReason (1981) for womenrsquos choir andamplified piano and The Song of Simeon(Nunc Dimittis) (1983) for mixed choir andorgan

I had always considered it a cheap shotto empower myself as lsquoartistrsquo havingbeen raised in an enlightened but quitemiddle-class family circle Bachrsquos imagewas my guide he never put on the airof pseudo-artist but went about hiscomposing as his lifersquos work andcalling hellip The lsquopearl of great pricersquo isalways in the back of my mind as Iwrite music How many friends andfamily did I hurt as I pulled awaytowards my own center and how doesone ever redeem this act

Austinrsquos career moved steadily forward inthe 1980s and 90s she won several awardsand honors in the years following for piecessuch as the Cantata Beatitudines (1982)Klavier Double (1983) and her SymphonyNo 1 ldquoWildernessrdquo which was performedby the Hartford Symphony in 1987 As thesocio-musical climate grew more tolerant ofa variety of musical styles Austin discoverednew opportunities for herself as a composerShe remarried in 1989 and in June of thatyear GEDOK (Society of Women Artists inGerman-speaking Countries) sponsored aretrospective portrait concert of her music inMannheim Performances of her works werealso given in Fiuggi Italy and RheinsbergGermany as well as in Virginia Nebraskaand Connecticut By the turn of the centuryElizabeth Austin had established herself asone of Americarsquos distinct compositionalvoices ldquo[German poet dramatist essayistand librettist] Hugo von Hofmannstahlbelieved in three things essentiallyrdquo saysAustin ldquolsquoDurch das Werk durch das Kinddurch die Tatrsquo (lsquoThrough your work (art)through a child through actionrsquo) Your life

Even after almost fifteen yearsof studying Austins music I am stillsurprised by its wealth and depth

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 27

can be justified by any one or all of thesethings I believe thatrdquo And though it hastaken Elizabeth Austin nigh upon fifty yearsto finally feel ldquojustified through her artrdquo itwas worth the wait

Now at age seventy-three we mightexpect Austin to be in a time of reflectionmaking customary over-the-shoulder glancesat life taking inventory of the journey Butthis is no customary woman She is in factfacing ever-forward making up for lost timeShe is the organist and choir director at herchurch She walks several miles eachafternoon with her neighborrsquos dog Shecreates piano pieces for children She is agrandmother to four adoring grandchildrenShe is writing an opera Elizabeth Austin is inmotionmdashit might be more appropriate to saythat she is reflecting everything around herT urning specifically to

Austinrsquos music I have tostart by saying that even

after almost fifteen years ofstudying it I am still surprised byitmdashby its wealth and depth itsaustere beauty Hearing Austinrsquosmusic creates a desire tounderstand it Juxtaposed withinits walls are the zealous strains ofunbridled Romanticism seeminglyimpenetrable dissonances andsudden flashes of lucid tonalclarity Her writing is meticulouslyconstructed and it is no smallundertaking to expose thecompositional processes whichsynthesize her works

When I am asked to discussAustinrsquos compositional style Iinevitably turn to several specificelements that create the distinctldquoAustinianrdquo sound She employs aharmonic system of her owncreationmdasha crafted intertwiningof minor sixths and minor thirdsthat generates an array ofharmonies dutifully struggling toavoid the perfect fifth and

especially the perfect octave therebypromoting Major sevenths and Major ninthsto what Austin calls ldquothe new octaverdquo that isthe liberation of the octavemdashlike Schoenbergbefore her Austin believes that avoidance ofperfect intervals (especially octaves andfifths) is a gateway to creating structured andcoherent non-tonalism Instead of the octaveCndashC for instance the minor sixthminorthird system instead generates C-B or C-D

Though this is arguably an intellectualapproach to musical creation the systemgenerates an astonishing level of grace andbeauty Part of its beauty is auralaestheticmdashbut part of it derives simply fromcohesion Even if the ear doesnrsquot quiteunderstand what itrsquos hearing the brain gentlyaffirms that all of the sounds somehowldquobelong togetherrdquo born of the same motherFor the listener then the experience is at the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

28 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

same time challenging and comfortingAustinrsquos music also betrays a penchant for

literary catalysts indeed many of her piecesfeature embedded recitations from writerssuch as Goethe Kleist and Rilke pieces likethe haunting Rose Sonata (2002) Wie EineBlume (2001) and Ginkgo Novo (2002)These particular pieces shed light on yetanother of Austinrsquos stylistic traits turningbotanical structures into musical onesGinkgo Novo for instance asks theperformers (English horn and cello) tophysically move around on the stage comingtogether only at the end celebrating thenatural phenomenon of the ginkgo bilobaleaf which is born in two halves thatgradually over the span of their existencefuse themselves into a single entity

Austinrsquos intense belief in the governingprinciples of the Fibonacci series and GoldenMean are evidenced by many of her worksbut nowhere more so than in her famousHomage for Hildegard (1997) Its meticulousconstruction demonstrates Austinrsquosunderstanding that true fidelity to thephilosophies of Hildegard of Bingen mustinvolve a supreme awareness of the mysticalproperties of balance and proportion Shemakes painstaking efforts to approach thesymbolism of Hildegardrsquos era to create musicwhich not only honors the sacred feminineequilibrium of the pentacle star but likewisecelebrates the timeless rule of the GoldenMean

Austinrsquos music isnrsquot quite atonal in thetradition of the Second Viennese School (egSchoenberg Berg Webern) but due primarilyto the minor sixthminor third system thereis virtually no sense of harmonic centeringwithin its walls Indeed this music seemsstrangely balanced unto itself often relying

entirely upon non-harmonic entities toengage the ear It isnrsquot difficult therefore toimagine the aural shock and surprise ofsuddenly encountering an excerpt fromSchubert or Schumann replete with thestrong melodic content and angular harmonyof the German Romantic style This is justone example of what is perhaps Austinrsquosmost distinctive compositional trait atechnique she calls ldquowindowpaningrdquo

Windowpaning is a quotation techniquein which Austin embeds musical passagesfrom the past into her own work Somewhatsimilar to techniques of ldquosamplingrdquo inpopular music Austinrsquos idea is to pay homageto the past while retaining a contemporaryvoice This makes perfect sense for her asthe entirety of her harmonic palette is one inwhich opacity adjoins clarity and thetraditional is freely juxtaposed with theunconventional ldquoI use the word non-tonalversus tonalrdquo says Austin ldquobecause this is inmy music an agent for contrast This is theway I approach tonality to set it against anon-tonality I think we are all looking forthis balance but how do we approach itrdquo

The importance of windowpaning toAustinrsquos oeuvre is inestimable as works suchas A Birthday Bouquet (1990) PuzzlePreludes (1994) American Triptych (2001)and A Celebration Concerto (2007) are allconstructed around the central idea ofincorporating the music of the past into thefabric of the present Austin is seeking tocreate a channel through which quotedpassages actually become the alternativesonorities if due only to their stark relativeconsonance As threads of musical nostalgiaare woven in and out of Austinrsquoscontemporary tapestry they create fleetingmoments of revelation

What engages me is to so imbed tonalquotes in a non-tonal or pan-tonalfabric that what has sounded familiarbecomes transformed into somethingregarded as foreign and invasive It isas though the body allows the cunninginvader wrapped in recognizable guiseto catch it off balance The musical

It isnrsquot difficult to imagine the auralshock of suddenly encounteringan excerpt from Schubert

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 29

remembrance exists withoutexpansion but it is madeeccentric through this adjacentpane technique My aim is for thecontemporary sounding fabric tobegin to sound ldquorightrdquo to thelistener and the tonal quote tosound oddly out of placeA ustinrsquos Symphony No 2

ldquoLighthouserdquo (2002) is apremiere example of all

of the above-mentioned stylistictraits but especially of thewindowpane technique The piecewas conceived after Austin visitedthe Watch Hill lighthouse inWesterly Rhode Island Thebuilding has undergone severalrenovations over the past twocenturies the last one in 1986when its automated rotating lightwas installed Watch Hill has beena Mecca of sorts for Austin aplace to which she is continuallydrawn to meditate on its mysteries

It isnrsquot difficult to imagineElizabeth Austin in this settingsitting in reflective quiescencefacing a red-orange sunset over the water Inthe distance from the tower on the hill shinesa beacon of light slowly swinging aroundcloser and closer then rushing over in arapid flashing momentmdashand gone But thewatcher will wait for the next pass for thenext moment And as the sunlight fades thebeacon becomes the single focus all elsedisappears into darkness The imagery isvivid we may put ourselves in that momentand see the colors and hues our mindrsquos eyewatching the lighthouse anticipating itsunhurried light But the penetrating questionis can we hear it This was Austinrsquos task

Naming my first chamber CDReflected Light underlined my lifelongpreoccupation with vibrational energywith ones self as a spiritual vesselthrough which this divine spark mightmove As I spent many summer hoursat the ocean taking in the Watch Hill

Lighthouse and listening to the bellbuoys at close proximity I was drawnto the power of that arc of light thatbeacon which seemed to illuminate thewaves If there were musical snippetsin that choppy water the all-embracinglight would pull them towards itwould unify and merge them in thatsilken surf

Within the first movement alone onehears such ldquomusical snippetsrdquo from Barber(Dover Beach) Debussy (La Mer and Lrsquoislejoyeuse) R Schumann (Liederkreis)Schubert (Die schoumlne Muumlllerin) and Mozart(Requiem) Interestingly all of these quotesshare two distinct attributes first they allrelate to water in some way and second theyeach contain the same tiny musical cell ahalf-step constructed with the pitches A-GThis particular sound is Austinrsquosrepresentation of the ldquoDoppler effectrdquo as the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

30 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

rotating beam of the lighthouse sweeps pastthe listener In the first quotes one hears thedirection of this musical cell is alwaysdescending falling (literally A down to G)but near the middle of the movement thereis a turning point after which the directionturns upward (G-A) and the quotes afterthat point celebrate a new hopeful risingdirection

And so Austinrsquos particular selection ofquoted materials in the movement providesinsight not only into her musical reasoningbut also her spiritual approach to thelighthouse as life-metaphor If the fallinghalf-step represents the doubts struggles andapprehension of her early life while shewaited for the light to turn the antitheticalrising motives must symbolize the successesof middle life representing the joy ofemerging stretching and growing of livingin the lightrsquos radiant beam We are left thenwondering what questions remainunanswered for Austin as the movementabruptly closes in sudden unanticipatedsilence What is the great mystery of theLighthouse What secrets does it hold for thecomposer Do these windowpanes of thepast mirror instead Austinrsquos own reflectionlooking out

Continuing to compose daily Austinrecently completed Brainstorm (for concertdouble bass and piano) and a clarinet quartetentitled Weep No More She is currentlydevoting most of her time to her first operawhich is based on Kleistrsquos The Marquise ofO Austin continues her teaching and herservice as organist and choir director at StPaulrsquos Church while still finding time forinvolvement in Connecticut Composers Incdiligently searching for venues to showcasethe talents of its membership

In Elizabeth Austin we find a distinctAmerican voice Analysis of her worksdemonstrates unswerving dedication tocompositional craftsmanship coupled withartistic passion Her approach to compositionis simultaneously simple and complexaustere yet gracefully personal As Austinrsquosmusic continues to reach audiences aroundthe world it is undoubtedly her hope that inthis there may be a positive reaffirmation ofartistic goals and that the lesson foundwithin her writing will make itself evident tolisteners that compositional craft andindividual personality can and must meld intoone entity enlarging the boundaries ofhuman understanding to touch the divine

Michael Slayton is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Music Compositionand Theory at Vanderbilt Universityrsquos Blair School of Music His music (published by ACA) isregularly programmed in the US and abroad Since moving to Nashville in 1999 Slayton hasreceived numerous commissions for choral solo and chamber works including two works forthe Nashville Balletrsquos ldquoEmergencerdquo project A member of the American Composerrsquos AllianceSociety of Composers Inc the College Music Society Connecticut Composers Inc andBroadcast Music Inc Slayton is an active participant in the national and international musiccommunityMuch of the material in the essay above has been drawn from Women of Influence inContemporary Music Nine American Composers (Scarecrow Press 2010) a book detailing thelives and music of several of Americarsquos notable women in composition Slayton served aseditor-in-chief for the volume and author for chapters on Elizabeth R Austin and CindyMcTee Other featured composers include Susan Botti Gabriela Lena Frank Jennifer HigdonLibby Larson Tania Leon Marga Richter and Judith Shatin

24 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Germaine Tailleferre spring to mind) musichistory textbooks are saturated with storiesof the ldquogreat menrdquo of the compositionalworld Of course this has had much to dowith the cultural climates and social stigmasof those times which have been graduallyfading But as recently as sixty years agomany of those attitudes had not yet changedInside the walls of academia heroic effortshave been made to give female composerstheir proper due efforts led by pioneeringscholars and writers like JoAnn SkowronskiCarol Neus-Bates Karin Pendle Diane JezicJane Bowers and Judith Tick But for manylisteners outside of academia the questionyet lingers are women writing music If sowhy donrsquot we know more about it If notwhy not

For the past ten years I have had thepleasure to work closely with theextraordinary composer Elizabeth R AustinI studied her music accompanied her toconcert premieres travelled throughGermany with her and visited the locations inwhich she began her career My time spentwith Austin and her music drew all of thesequestions and more to the foregroundmdashquestions pertinent to an understanding ofthe shifting societal and artistic landscapes ofour more recent history What exactly is thestate of American culture concerning womenwho seek to develop careers as composersWhat stories would other women tell wholike Austin had chosen this path in the early1950s What about now How have thingschanged over the past sixty years Are therethings that havenrsquot changed And how mightsuch issues be addressed without drawingfurther undesired attention to genderdifferences Elizabeth Austinrsquos personal storyis not one of great struggle tragedy or lossnor is it a story of malevolent gender bias or

discrimination Her story isnrsquot melodramaticFor these reasons it represents a particularlysalient control sample of what the culturewas like for the typical middle-class youngwoman who chose an unorthodox path in atime characterized by slow changeB orn in Baltimore in 1938 Austinrsquos

earliest musical memories includestudying piano and composing her

first piece (a lullaby for her baby brother)when she was seven years old By the age often she was attending the PeabodyPreparatory Department and at age thirteenmusic educator Grace Newsom Cushmaninvited her to begin summer studies at theJunior Conservatory Camp in NewHampshire ldquoCushman was unique inrequiring her students to hear play sing andwrite building blocks of soundrdquo says Austinldquoto think in time to stand outside the soundas well as to inhabit it I owe this woman theacquisition of a good ear And at an agewhere I was beginning to realize the auralimages in my mind she gave her students theonly temporal power worth having thepower to communicate and enhance themeasure of beauty on this earthrdquo

By the age of sixteen Austin (thenElizabeth Rhudy) had already won severalawards for her compositions but it wasduring her studies at Baltimores GoucherCollege that a single fortuitous event wouldpitch her headlong into the composerrsquos lifewhen Mlle Nadia Boulanger arguably themost influential and important music teacherof the past century came to visit the schoolUpon hearing Austinrsquos ldquoRilke Liederrdquo in anevening student concert an impressedBoulanger offered the (now) nineteen-year-old a scholarship to study at the prestigiousConservatoire Americain in FontainebleauHer parents sent her to France despite thesignificant financial strain the voyage placedupon the household The composer recallsthat family and friends sparingly projected aldquodutiful sense of being impressedrdquo by hermany accomplishments includingBoulangerrsquos unpredicted invitation but more

During a dinner party Boulangersuddenly asked her to improvise apiece of music in front of everyone

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 25

often than not they seemedrather puzzled about thesurrounding stir Most ofAustinrsquos younger life was spentin this type of artistic turmoilshe found herselfoverachieving not only inmusic but also in academics inan attempt to engender someform of supporting reactionfrom those close to her whilechoking back her own privateinsecurities over the prodigiousopportunities afforded her

Studying at the piano ofBoulanger was an intimidatingexperience for any youngcomposer and for Austin theexperience was no less so Notonly was she treading in thefootsteps of Elliott CarterAaron Copland Louise Talmaand Virgil Thompson she wasalso confronting the socialstigmas of that eramdashand theremarkable fact that Boulangerherself openly discouragedwomen from pursuing musicalcareers Because of herexcellent training Austin feltwell-equipped to brave the challenges of herlessons with Boulanger but she soon beganto understand that she would be continuouslypressed to strive for revelations above herown present cognitive powers For exampleAustin tells of one occasion during a dinnerparty for several of the areas social elitewhen Boulanger suddenly asked her to go tothe piano and improvise a piece of music (infront of everyone) utilizing all the possiblediminished seventh chord resolutions Thesesorts of surprises were commonplace andthough Boulanger was pleased with Austinrsquosmusical abilities she could also be hard anddiscouraging when dealing with Austin as ayoung woman

I will never forget a time inFontainebleau when my friend Ruth

and I strolled along a path apparentlyin full view of Boulanger with a youngman whom we had met on board theboat we took to France Within thevery next lesson the event was broughtup Boulanger said to me her voicemarked with disdain ldquoMy dear gohome and have eight childrenrdquo I wascrushed Of course she wasnrsquot actuallytelling me to leave she was making apoint about priorities But commentssuch as that leave their mark

Upon returning from France Austinfinished her diploma at Goucher CollegeAfter graduation she continued to live athome with her recently widowed motherwhile teaching in the Baltimore public schoolsystem (a compulsory choice ndash there werefew options for women and Austin needed away to support herself) Within a year she

Marguerita Bornstein Sketchbook series 2004

26 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

was married as was prescribed by the timeThe birth of twins in 1962 was at the samemoment a source of joy and undeniably amammoth roadblock in the buddingcomposers career A third child was borninto the family six years later and the nexteleven years were spent nurturing her familyIn 1979 Austin decided to continue hereducation a rational decision to ensure herfamily a means of secondary support Sheenrolled in the University of Hartfordrsquos HarttSchool of Music with the purpose ofobtaining her state public teachingcertification in doing so however she foundthat she had reopened Pandorarsquos Box ldquothetrue self-centering of learning and itsaccompanying ecstasyrdquo as she describes it Itwas a signal point in time for Austin as acomposer and suddenly an unbounded rushof music began to pour forth AustinrsquosZodiac Suite for piano solo (1980) was herbreakthrough work a monumental virtuosiceruption laden with fifteen years of pent-upfury and wonder Austin has called the Zodiacacerbic penetrating this was her moment ofrebirth and deep down she knew it was likelycoming at a price

She candidly acknowledges that duringthis phase she became distant from herdomestic priorities succumbing to the lure ofthe artsmdashldquothat fiercesome lure whichThomas Mann describesrdquo says Austin ldquonotromantic actually quite unpleasant andpainful for surrounding and unsuspectingfamilyrdquo She finished her masters degree inmusic composition and immediately began aPhD program at the University ofConnecticut Before long the rigors ofgraduate studies the demands of professionalwork as an organist and a teacher and thechallenges and chaos of home life forced the

end of Austinrsquos first marriage But shepersisted with her music steadily workingand writing and several pieces were born outof the subsequent period of relativeseclusion After the Zodiac Suite came thestring quartet Inscapes (1981) Christmas theReason (1981) for womenrsquos choir andamplified piano and The Song of Simeon(Nunc Dimittis) (1983) for mixed choir andorgan

I had always considered it a cheap shotto empower myself as lsquoartistrsquo havingbeen raised in an enlightened but quitemiddle-class family circle Bachrsquos imagewas my guide he never put on the airof pseudo-artist but went about hiscomposing as his lifersquos work andcalling hellip The lsquopearl of great pricersquo isalways in the back of my mind as Iwrite music How many friends andfamily did I hurt as I pulled awaytowards my own center and how doesone ever redeem this act

Austinrsquos career moved steadily forward inthe 1980s and 90s she won several awardsand honors in the years following for piecessuch as the Cantata Beatitudines (1982)Klavier Double (1983) and her SymphonyNo 1 ldquoWildernessrdquo which was performedby the Hartford Symphony in 1987 As thesocio-musical climate grew more tolerant ofa variety of musical styles Austin discoverednew opportunities for herself as a composerShe remarried in 1989 and in June of thatyear GEDOK (Society of Women Artists inGerman-speaking Countries) sponsored aretrospective portrait concert of her music inMannheim Performances of her works werealso given in Fiuggi Italy and RheinsbergGermany as well as in Virginia Nebraskaand Connecticut By the turn of the centuryElizabeth Austin had established herself asone of Americarsquos distinct compositionalvoices ldquo[German poet dramatist essayistand librettist] Hugo von Hofmannstahlbelieved in three things essentiallyrdquo saysAustin ldquolsquoDurch das Werk durch das Kinddurch die Tatrsquo (lsquoThrough your work (art)through a child through actionrsquo) Your life

Even after almost fifteen yearsof studying Austins music I am stillsurprised by its wealth and depth

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 27

can be justified by any one or all of thesethings I believe thatrdquo And though it hastaken Elizabeth Austin nigh upon fifty yearsto finally feel ldquojustified through her artrdquo itwas worth the wait

Now at age seventy-three we mightexpect Austin to be in a time of reflectionmaking customary over-the-shoulder glancesat life taking inventory of the journey Butthis is no customary woman She is in factfacing ever-forward making up for lost timeShe is the organist and choir director at herchurch She walks several miles eachafternoon with her neighborrsquos dog Shecreates piano pieces for children She is agrandmother to four adoring grandchildrenShe is writing an opera Elizabeth Austin is inmotionmdashit might be more appropriate to saythat she is reflecting everything around herT urning specifically to

Austinrsquos music I have tostart by saying that even

after almost fifteen years ofstudying it I am still surprised byitmdashby its wealth and depth itsaustere beauty Hearing Austinrsquosmusic creates a desire tounderstand it Juxtaposed withinits walls are the zealous strains ofunbridled Romanticism seeminglyimpenetrable dissonances andsudden flashes of lucid tonalclarity Her writing is meticulouslyconstructed and it is no smallundertaking to expose thecompositional processes whichsynthesize her works

When I am asked to discussAustinrsquos compositional style Iinevitably turn to several specificelements that create the distinctldquoAustinianrdquo sound She employs aharmonic system of her owncreationmdasha crafted intertwiningof minor sixths and minor thirdsthat generates an array ofharmonies dutifully struggling toavoid the perfect fifth and

especially the perfect octave therebypromoting Major sevenths and Major ninthsto what Austin calls ldquothe new octaverdquo that isthe liberation of the octavemdashlike Schoenbergbefore her Austin believes that avoidance ofperfect intervals (especially octaves andfifths) is a gateway to creating structured andcoherent non-tonalism Instead of the octaveCndashC for instance the minor sixthminorthird system instead generates C-B or C-D

Though this is arguably an intellectualapproach to musical creation the systemgenerates an astonishing level of grace andbeauty Part of its beauty is auralaestheticmdashbut part of it derives simply fromcohesion Even if the ear doesnrsquot quiteunderstand what itrsquos hearing the brain gentlyaffirms that all of the sounds somehowldquobelong togetherrdquo born of the same motherFor the listener then the experience is at the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

28 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

same time challenging and comfortingAustinrsquos music also betrays a penchant for

literary catalysts indeed many of her piecesfeature embedded recitations from writerssuch as Goethe Kleist and Rilke pieces likethe haunting Rose Sonata (2002) Wie EineBlume (2001) and Ginkgo Novo (2002)These particular pieces shed light on yetanother of Austinrsquos stylistic traits turningbotanical structures into musical onesGinkgo Novo for instance asks theperformers (English horn and cello) tophysically move around on the stage comingtogether only at the end celebrating thenatural phenomenon of the ginkgo bilobaleaf which is born in two halves thatgradually over the span of their existencefuse themselves into a single entity

Austinrsquos intense belief in the governingprinciples of the Fibonacci series and GoldenMean are evidenced by many of her worksbut nowhere more so than in her famousHomage for Hildegard (1997) Its meticulousconstruction demonstrates Austinrsquosunderstanding that true fidelity to thephilosophies of Hildegard of Bingen mustinvolve a supreme awareness of the mysticalproperties of balance and proportion Shemakes painstaking efforts to approach thesymbolism of Hildegardrsquos era to create musicwhich not only honors the sacred feminineequilibrium of the pentacle star but likewisecelebrates the timeless rule of the GoldenMean

Austinrsquos music isnrsquot quite atonal in thetradition of the Second Viennese School (egSchoenberg Berg Webern) but due primarilyto the minor sixthminor third system thereis virtually no sense of harmonic centeringwithin its walls Indeed this music seemsstrangely balanced unto itself often relying

entirely upon non-harmonic entities toengage the ear It isnrsquot difficult therefore toimagine the aural shock and surprise ofsuddenly encountering an excerpt fromSchubert or Schumann replete with thestrong melodic content and angular harmonyof the German Romantic style This is justone example of what is perhaps Austinrsquosmost distinctive compositional trait atechnique she calls ldquowindowpaningrdquo

Windowpaning is a quotation techniquein which Austin embeds musical passagesfrom the past into her own work Somewhatsimilar to techniques of ldquosamplingrdquo inpopular music Austinrsquos idea is to pay homageto the past while retaining a contemporaryvoice This makes perfect sense for her asthe entirety of her harmonic palette is one inwhich opacity adjoins clarity and thetraditional is freely juxtaposed with theunconventional ldquoI use the word non-tonalversus tonalrdquo says Austin ldquobecause this is inmy music an agent for contrast This is theway I approach tonality to set it against anon-tonality I think we are all looking forthis balance but how do we approach itrdquo

The importance of windowpaning toAustinrsquos oeuvre is inestimable as works suchas A Birthday Bouquet (1990) PuzzlePreludes (1994) American Triptych (2001)and A Celebration Concerto (2007) are allconstructed around the central idea ofincorporating the music of the past into thefabric of the present Austin is seeking tocreate a channel through which quotedpassages actually become the alternativesonorities if due only to their stark relativeconsonance As threads of musical nostalgiaare woven in and out of Austinrsquoscontemporary tapestry they create fleetingmoments of revelation

What engages me is to so imbed tonalquotes in a non-tonal or pan-tonalfabric that what has sounded familiarbecomes transformed into somethingregarded as foreign and invasive It isas though the body allows the cunninginvader wrapped in recognizable guiseto catch it off balance The musical

It isnrsquot difficult to imagine the auralshock of suddenly encounteringan excerpt from Schubert

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 29

remembrance exists withoutexpansion but it is madeeccentric through this adjacentpane technique My aim is for thecontemporary sounding fabric tobegin to sound ldquorightrdquo to thelistener and the tonal quote tosound oddly out of placeA ustinrsquos Symphony No 2

ldquoLighthouserdquo (2002) is apremiere example of all

of the above-mentioned stylistictraits but especially of thewindowpane technique The piecewas conceived after Austin visitedthe Watch Hill lighthouse inWesterly Rhode Island Thebuilding has undergone severalrenovations over the past twocenturies the last one in 1986when its automated rotating lightwas installed Watch Hill has beena Mecca of sorts for Austin aplace to which she is continuallydrawn to meditate on its mysteries

It isnrsquot difficult to imagineElizabeth Austin in this settingsitting in reflective quiescencefacing a red-orange sunset over the water Inthe distance from the tower on the hill shinesa beacon of light slowly swinging aroundcloser and closer then rushing over in arapid flashing momentmdashand gone But thewatcher will wait for the next pass for thenext moment And as the sunlight fades thebeacon becomes the single focus all elsedisappears into darkness The imagery isvivid we may put ourselves in that momentand see the colors and hues our mindrsquos eyewatching the lighthouse anticipating itsunhurried light But the penetrating questionis can we hear it This was Austinrsquos task

Naming my first chamber CDReflected Light underlined my lifelongpreoccupation with vibrational energywith ones self as a spiritual vesselthrough which this divine spark mightmove As I spent many summer hoursat the ocean taking in the Watch Hill

Lighthouse and listening to the bellbuoys at close proximity I was drawnto the power of that arc of light thatbeacon which seemed to illuminate thewaves If there were musical snippetsin that choppy water the all-embracinglight would pull them towards itwould unify and merge them in thatsilken surf

Within the first movement alone onehears such ldquomusical snippetsrdquo from Barber(Dover Beach) Debussy (La Mer and Lrsquoislejoyeuse) R Schumann (Liederkreis)Schubert (Die schoumlne Muumlllerin) and Mozart(Requiem) Interestingly all of these quotesshare two distinct attributes first they allrelate to water in some way and second theyeach contain the same tiny musical cell ahalf-step constructed with the pitches A-GThis particular sound is Austinrsquosrepresentation of the ldquoDoppler effectrdquo as the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

30 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

rotating beam of the lighthouse sweeps pastthe listener In the first quotes one hears thedirection of this musical cell is alwaysdescending falling (literally A down to G)but near the middle of the movement thereis a turning point after which the directionturns upward (G-A) and the quotes afterthat point celebrate a new hopeful risingdirection

And so Austinrsquos particular selection ofquoted materials in the movement providesinsight not only into her musical reasoningbut also her spiritual approach to thelighthouse as life-metaphor If the fallinghalf-step represents the doubts struggles andapprehension of her early life while shewaited for the light to turn the antitheticalrising motives must symbolize the successesof middle life representing the joy ofemerging stretching and growing of livingin the lightrsquos radiant beam We are left thenwondering what questions remainunanswered for Austin as the movementabruptly closes in sudden unanticipatedsilence What is the great mystery of theLighthouse What secrets does it hold for thecomposer Do these windowpanes of thepast mirror instead Austinrsquos own reflectionlooking out

Continuing to compose daily Austinrecently completed Brainstorm (for concertdouble bass and piano) and a clarinet quartetentitled Weep No More She is currentlydevoting most of her time to her first operawhich is based on Kleistrsquos The Marquise ofO Austin continues her teaching and herservice as organist and choir director at StPaulrsquos Church while still finding time forinvolvement in Connecticut Composers Incdiligently searching for venues to showcasethe talents of its membership

In Elizabeth Austin we find a distinctAmerican voice Analysis of her worksdemonstrates unswerving dedication tocompositional craftsmanship coupled withartistic passion Her approach to compositionis simultaneously simple and complexaustere yet gracefully personal As Austinrsquosmusic continues to reach audiences aroundthe world it is undoubtedly her hope that inthis there may be a positive reaffirmation ofartistic goals and that the lesson foundwithin her writing will make itself evident tolisteners that compositional craft andindividual personality can and must meld intoone entity enlarging the boundaries ofhuman understanding to touch the divine

Michael Slayton is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Music Compositionand Theory at Vanderbilt Universityrsquos Blair School of Music His music (published by ACA) isregularly programmed in the US and abroad Since moving to Nashville in 1999 Slayton hasreceived numerous commissions for choral solo and chamber works including two works forthe Nashville Balletrsquos ldquoEmergencerdquo project A member of the American Composerrsquos AllianceSociety of Composers Inc the College Music Society Connecticut Composers Inc andBroadcast Music Inc Slayton is an active participant in the national and international musiccommunityMuch of the material in the essay above has been drawn from Women of Influence inContemporary Music Nine American Composers (Scarecrow Press 2010) a book detailing thelives and music of several of Americarsquos notable women in composition Slayton served aseditor-in-chief for the volume and author for chapters on Elizabeth R Austin and CindyMcTee Other featured composers include Susan Botti Gabriela Lena Frank Jennifer HigdonLibby Larson Tania Leon Marga Richter and Judith Shatin

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 25

often than not they seemedrather puzzled about thesurrounding stir Most ofAustinrsquos younger life was spentin this type of artistic turmoilshe found herselfoverachieving not only inmusic but also in academics inan attempt to engender someform of supporting reactionfrom those close to her whilechoking back her own privateinsecurities over the prodigiousopportunities afforded her

Studying at the piano ofBoulanger was an intimidatingexperience for any youngcomposer and for Austin theexperience was no less so Notonly was she treading in thefootsteps of Elliott CarterAaron Copland Louise Talmaand Virgil Thompson she wasalso confronting the socialstigmas of that eramdashand theremarkable fact that Boulangerherself openly discouragedwomen from pursuing musicalcareers Because of herexcellent training Austin feltwell-equipped to brave the challenges of herlessons with Boulanger but she soon beganto understand that she would be continuouslypressed to strive for revelations above herown present cognitive powers For exampleAustin tells of one occasion during a dinnerparty for several of the areas social elitewhen Boulanger suddenly asked her to go tothe piano and improvise a piece of music (infront of everyone) utilizing all the possiblediminished seventh chord resolutions Thesesorts of surprises were commonplace andthough Boulanger was pleased with Austinrsquosmusical abilities she could also be hard anddiscouraging when dealing with Austin as ayoung woman

I will never forget a time inFontainebleau when my friend Ruth

and I strolled along a path apparentlyin full view of Boulanger with a youngman whom we had met on board theboat we took to France Within thevery next lesson the event was broughtup Boulanger said to me her voicemarked with disdain ldquoMy dear gohome and have eight childrenrdquo I wascrushed Of course she wasnrsquot actuallytelling me to leave she was making apoint about priorities But commentssuch as that leave their mark

Upon returning from France Austinfinished her diploma at Goucher CollegeAfter graduation she continued to live athome with her recently widowed motherwhile teaching in the Baltimore public schoolsystem (a compulsory choice ndash there werefew options for women and Austin needed away to support herself) Within a year she

Marguerita Bornstein Sketchbook series 2004

26 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

was married as was prescribed by the timeThe birth of twins in 1962 was at the samemoment a source of joy and undeniably amammoth roadblock in the buddingcomposers career A third child was borninto the family six years later and the nexteleven years were spent nurturing her familyIn 1979 Austin decided to continue hereducation a rational decision to ensure herfamily a means of secondary support Sheenrolled in the University of Hartfordrsquos HarttSchool of Music with the purpose ofobtaining her state public teachingcertification in doing so however she foundthat she had reopened Pandorarsquos Box ldquothetrue self-centering of learning and itsaccompanying ecstasyrdquo as she describes it Itwas a signal point in time for Austin as acomposer and suddenly an unbounded rushof music began to pour forth AustinrsquosZodiac Suite for piano solo (1980) was herbreakthrough work a monumental virtuosiceruption laden with fifteen years of pent-upfury and wonder Austin has called the Zodiacacerbic penetrating this was her moment ofrebirth and deep down she knew it was likelycoming at a price

She candidly acknowledges that duringthis phase she became distant from herdomestic priorities succumbing to the lure ofthe artsmdashldquothat fiercesome lure whichThomas Mann describesrdquo says Austin ldquonotromantic actually quite unpleasant andpainful for surrounding and unsuspectingfamilyrdquo She finished her masters degree inmusic composition and immediately began aPhD program at the University ofConnecticut Before long the rigors ofgraduate studies the demands of professionalwork as an organist and a teacher and thechallenges and chaos of home life forced the

end of Austinrsquos first marriage But shepersisted with her music steadily workingand writing and several pieces were born outof the subsequent period of relativeseclusion After the Zodiac Suite came thestring quartet Inscapes (1981) Christmas theReason (1981) for womenrsquos choir andamplified piano and The Song of Simeon(Nunc Dimittis) (1983) for mixed choir andorgan

I had always considered it a cheap shotto empower myself as lsquoartistrsquo havingbeen raised in an enlightened but quitemiddle-class family circle Bachrsquos imagewas my guide he never put on the airof pseudo-artist but went about hiscomposing as his lifersquos work andcalling hellip The lsquopearl of great pricersquo isalways in the back of my mind as Iwrite music How many friends andfamily did I hurt as I pulled awaytowards my own center and how doesone ever redeem this act

Austinrsquos career moved steadily forward inthe 1980s and 90s she won several awardsand honors in the years following for piecessuch as the Cantata Beatitudines (1982)Klavier Double (1983) and her SymphonyNo 1 ldquoWildernessrdquo which was performedby the Hartford Symphony in 1987 As thesocio-musical climate grew more tolerant ofa variety of musical styles Austin discoverednew opportunities for herself as a composerShe remarried in 1989 and in June of thatyear GEDOK (Society of Women Artists inGerman-speaking Countries) sponsored aretrospective portrait concert of her music inMannheim Performances of her works werealso given in Fiuggi Italy and RheinsbergGermany as well as in Virginia Nebraskaand Connecticut By the turn of the centuryElizabeth Austin had established herself asone of Americarsquos distinct compositionalvoices ldquo[German poet dramatist essayistand librettist] Hugo von Hofmannstahlbelieved in three things essentiallyrdquo saysAustin ldquolsquoDurch das Werk durch das Kinddurch die Tatrsquo (lsquoThrough your work (art)through a child through actionrsquo) Your life

Even after almost fifteen yearsof studying Austins music I am stillsurprised by its wealth and depth

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 27

can be justified by any one or all of thesethings I believe thatrdquo And though it hastaken Elizabeth Austin nigh upon fifty yearsto finally feel ldquojustified through her artrdquo itwas worth the wait

Now at age seventy-three we mightexpect Austin to be in a time of reflectionmaking customary over-the-shoulder glancesat life taking inventory of the journey Butthis is no customary woman She is in factfacing ever-forward making up for lost timeShe is the organist and choir director at herchurch She walks several miles eachafternoon with her neighborrsquos dog Shecreates piano pieces for children She is agrandmother to four adoring grandchildrenShe is writing an opera Elizabeth Austin is inmotionmdashit might be more appropriate to saythat she is reflecting everything around herT urning specifically to

Austinrsquos music I have tostart by saying that even

after almost fifteen years ofstudying it I am still surprised byitmdashby its wealth and depth itsaustere beauty Hearing Austinrsquosmusic creates a desire tounderstand it Juxtaposed withinits walls are the zealous strains ofunbridled Romanticism seeminglyimpenetrable dissonances andsudden flashes of lucid tonalclarity Her writing is meticulouslyconstructed and it is no smallundertaking to expose thecompositional processes whichsynthesize her works

When I am asked to discussAustinrsquos compositional style Iinevitably turn to several specificelements that create the distinctldquoAustinianrdquo sound She employs aharmonic system of her owncreationmdasha crafted intertwiningof minor sixths and minor thirdsthat generates an array ofharmonies dutifully struggling toavoid the perfect fifth and

especially the perfect octave therebypromoting Major sevenths and Major ninthsto what Austin calls ldquothe new octaverdquo that isthe liberation of the octavemdashlike Schoenbergbefore her Austin believes that avoidance ofperfect intervals (especially octaves andfifths) is a gateway to creating structured andcoherent non-tonalism Instead of the octaveCndashC for instance the minor sixthminorthird system instead generates C-B or C-D

Though this is arguably an intellectualapproach to musical creation the systemgenerates an astonishing level of grace andbeauty Part of its beauty is auralaestheticmdashbut part of it derives simply fromcohesion Even if the ear doesnrsquot quiteunderstand what itrsquos hearing the brain gentlyaffirms that all of the sounds somehowldquobelong togetherrdquo born of the same motherFor the listener then the experience is at the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

28 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

same time challenging and comfortingAustinrsquos music also betrays a penchant for

literary catalysts indeed many of her piecesfeature embedded recitations from writerssuch as Goethe Kleist and Rilke pieces likethe haunting Rose Sonata (2002) Wie EineBlume (2001) and Ginkgo Novo (2002)These particular pieces shed light on yetanother of Austinrsquos stylistic traits turningbotanical structures into musical onesGinkgo Novo for instance asks theperformers (English horn and cello) tophysically move around on the stage comingtogether only at the end celebrating thenatural phenomenon of the ginkgo bilobaleaf which is born in two halves thatgradually over the span of their existencefuse themselves into a single entity

Austinrsquos intense belief in the governingprinciples of the Fibonacci series and GoldenMean are evidenced by many of her worksbut nowhere more so than in her famousHomage for Hildegard (1997) Its meticulousconstruction demonstrates Austinrsquosunderstanding that true fidelity to thephilosophies of Hildegard of Bingen mustinvolve a supreme awareness of the mysticalproperties of balance and proportion Shemakes painstaking efforts to approach thesymbolism of Hildegardrsquos era to create musicwhich not only honors the sacred feminineequilibrium of the pentacle star but likewisecelebrates the timeless rule of the GoldenMean

Austinrsquos music isnrsquot quite atonal in thetradition of the Second Viennese School (egSchoenberg Berg Webern) but due primarilyto the minor sixthminor third system thereis virtually no sense of harmonic centeringwithin its walls Indeed this music seemsstrangely balanced unto itself often relying

entirely upon non-harmonic entities toengage the ear It isnrsquot difficult therefore toimagine the aural shock and surprise ofsuddenly encountering an excerpt fromSchubert or Schumann replete with thestrong melodic content and angular harmonyof the German Romantic style This is justone example of what is perhaps Austinrsquosmost distinctive compositional trait atechnique she calls ldquowindowpaningrdquo

Windowpaning is a quotation techniquein which Austin embeds musical passagesfrom the past into her own work Somewhatsimilar to techniques of ldquosamplingrdquo inpopular music Austinrsquos idea is to pay homageto the past while retaining a contemporaryvoice This makes perfect sense for her asthe entirety of her harmonic palette is one inwhich opacity adjoins clarity and thetraditional is freely juxtaposed with theunconventional ldquoI use the word non-tonalversus tonalrdquo says Austin ldquobecause this is inmy music an agent for contrast This is theway I approach tonality to set it against anon-tonality I think we are all looking forthis balance but how do we approach itrdquo

The importance of windowpaning toAustinrsquos oeuvre is inestimable as works suchas A Birthday Bouquet (1990) PuzzlePreludes (1994) American Triptych (2001)and A Celebration Concerto (2007) are allconstructed around the central idea ofincorporating the music of the past into thefabric of the present Austin is seeking tocreate a channel through which quotedpassages actually become the alternativesonorities if due only to their stark relativeconsonance As threads of musical nostalgiaare woven in and out of Austinrsquoscontemporary tapestry they create fleetingmoments of revelation

What engages me is to so imbed tonalquotes in a non-tonal or pan-tonalfabric that what has sounded familiarbecomes transformed into somethingregarded as foreign and invasive It isas though the body allows the cunninginvader wrapped in recognizable guiseto catch it off balance The musical

It isnrsquot difficult to imagine the auralshock of suddenly encounteringan excerpt from Schubert

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 29

remembrance exists withoutexpansion but it is madeeccentric through this adjacentpane technique My aim is for thecontemporary sounding fabric tobegin to sound ldquorightrdquo to thelistener and the tonal quote tosound oddly out of placeA ustinrsquos Symphony No 2

ldquoLighthouserdquo (2002) is apremiere example of all

of the above-mentioned stylistictraits but especially of thewindowpane technique The piecewas conceived after Austin visitedthe Watch Hill lighthouse inWesterly Rhode Island Thebuilding has undergone severalrenovations over the past twocenturies the last one in 1986when its automated rotating lightwas installed Watch Hill has beena Mecca of sorts for Austin aplace to which she is continuallydrawn to meditate on its mysteries

It isnrsquot difficult to imagineElizabeth Austin in this settingsitting in reflective quiescencefacing a red-orange sunset over the water Inthe distance from the tower on the hill shinesa beacon of light slowly swinging aroundcloser and closer then rushing over in arapid flashing momentmdashand gone But thewatcher will wait for the next pass for thenext moment And as the sunlight fades thebeacon becomes the single focus all elsedisappears into darkness The imagery isvivid we may put ourselves in that momentand see the colors and hues our mindrsquos eyewatching the lighthouse anticipating itsunhurried light But the penetrating questionis can we hear it This was Austinrsquos task

Naming my first chamber CDReflected Light underlined my lifelongpreoccupation with vibrational energywith ones self as a spiritual vesselthrough which this divine spark mightmove As I spent many summer hoursat the ocean taking in the Watch Hill

Lighthouse and listening to the bellbuoys at close proximity I was drawnto the power of that arc of light thatbeacon which seemed to illuminate thewaves If there were musical snippetsin that choppy water the all-embracinglight would pull them towards itwould unify and merge them in thatsilken surf

Within the first movement alone onehears such ldquomusical snippetsrdquo from Barber(Dover Beach) Debussy (La Mer and Lrsquoislejoyeuse) R Schumann (Liederkreis)Schubert (Die schoumlne Muumlllerin) and Mozart(Requiem) Interestingly all of these quotesshare two distinct attributes first they allrelate to water in some way and second theyeach contain the same tiny musical cell ahalf-step constructed with the pitches A-GThis particular sound is Austinrsquosrepresentation of the ldquoDoppler effectrdquo as the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

30 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

rotating beam of the lighthouse sweeps pastthe listener In the first quotes one hears thedirection of this musical cell is alwaysdescending falling (literally A down to G)but near the middle of the movement thereis a turning point after which the directionturns upward (G-A) and the quotes afterthat point celebrate a new hopeful risingdirection

And so Austinrsquos particular selection ofquoted materials in the movement providesinsight not only into her musical reasoningbut also her spiritual approach to thelighthouse as life-metaphor If the fallinghalf-step represents the doubts struggles andapprehension of her early life while shewaited for the light to turn the antitheticalrising motives must symbolize the successesof middle life representing the joy ofemerging stretching and growing of livingin the lightrsquos radiant beam We are left thenwondering what questions remainunanswered for Austin as the movementabruptly closes in sudden unanticipatedsilence What is the great mystery of theLighthouse What secrets does it hold for thecomposer Do these windowpanes of thepast mirror instead Austinrsquos own reflectionlooking out

Continuing to compose daily Austinrecently completed Brainstorm (for concertdouble bass and piano) and a clarinet quartetentitled Weep No More She is currentlydevoting most of her time to her first operawhich is based on Kleistrsquos The Marquise ofO Austin continues her teaching and herservice as organist and choir director at StPaulrsquos Church while still finding time forinvolvement in Connecticut Composers Incdiligently searching for venues to showcasethe talents of its membership

In Elizabeth Austin we find a distinctAmerican voice Analysis of her worksdemonstrates unswerving dedication tocompositional craftsmanship coupled withartistic passion Her approach to compositionis simultaneously simple and complexaustere yet gracefully personal As Austinrsquosmusic continues to reach audiences aroundthe world it is undoubtedly her hope that inthis there may be a positive reaffirmation ofartistic goals and that the lesson foundwithin her writing will make itself evident tolisteners that compositional craft andindividual personality can and must meld intoone entity enlarging the boundaries ofhuman understanding to touch the divine

Michael Slayton is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Music Compositionand Theory at Vanderbilt Universityrsquos Blair School of Music His music (published by ACA) isregularly programmed in the US and abroad Since moving to Nashville in 1999 Slayton hasreceived numerous commissions for choral solo and chamber works including two works forthe Nashville Balletrsquos ldquoEmergencerdquo project A member of the American Composerrsquos AllianceSociety of Composers Inc the College Music Society Connecticut Composers Inc andBroadcast Music Inc Slayton is an active participant in the national and international musiccommunityMuch of the material in the essay above has been drawn from Women of Influence inContemporary Music Nine American Composers (Scarecrow Press 2010) a book detailing thelives and music of several of Americarsquos notable women in composition Slayton served aseditor-in-chief for the volume and author for chapters on Elizabeth R Austin and CindyMcTee Other featured composers include Susan Botti Gabriela Lena Frank Jennifer HigdonLibby Larson Tania Leon Marga Richter and Judith Shatin

26 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

was married as was prescribed by the timeThe birth of twins in 1962 was at the samemoment a source of joy and undeniably amammoth roadblock in the buddingcomposers career A third child was borninto the family six years later and the nexteleven years were spent nurturing her familyIn 1979 Austin decided to continue hereducation a rational decision to ensure herfamily a means of secondary support Sheenrolled in the University of Hartfordrsquos HarttSchool of Music with the purpose ofobtaining her state public teachingcertification in doing so however she foundthat she had reopened Pandorarsquos Box ldquothetrue self-centering of learning and itsaccompanying ecstasyrdquo as she describes it Itwas a signal point in time for Austin as acomposer and suddenly an unbounded rushof music began to pour forth AustinrsquosZodiac Suite for piano solo (1980) was herbreakthrough work a monumental virtuosiceruption laden with fifteen years of pent-upfury and wonder Austin has called the Zodiacacerbic penetrating this was her moment ofrebirth and deep down she knew it was likelycoming at a price

She candidly acknowledges that duringthis phase she became distant from herdomestic priorities succumbing to the lure ofthe artsmdashldquothat fiercesome lure whichThomas Mann describesrdquo says Austin ldquonotromantic actually quite unpleasant andpainful for surrounding and unsuspectingfamilyrdquo She finished her masters degree inmusic composition and immediately began aPhD program at the University ofConnecticut Before long the rigors ofgraduate studies the demands of professionalwork as an organist and a teacher and thechallenges and chaos of home life forced the

end of Austinrsquos first marriage But shepersisted with her music steadily workingand writing and several pieces were born outof the subsequent period of relativeseclusion After the Zodiac Suite came thestring quartet Inscapes (1981) Christmas theReason (1981) for womenrsquos choir andamplified piano and The Song of Simeon(Nunc Dimittis) (1983) for mixed choir andorgan

I had always considered it a cheap shotto empower myself as lsquoartistrsquo havingbeen raised in an enlightened but quitemiddle-class family circle Bachrsquos imagewas my guide he never put on the airof pseudo-artist but went about hiscomposing as his lifersquos work andcalling hellip The lsquopearl of great pricersquo isalways in the back of my mind as Iwrite music How many friends andfamily did I hurt as I pulled awaytowards my own center and how doesone ever redeem this act

Austinrsquos career moved steadily forward inthe 1980s and 90s she won several awardsand honors in the years following for piecessuch as the Cantata Beatitudines (1982)Klavier Double (1983) and her SymphonyNo 1 ldquoWildernessrdquo which was performedby the Hartford Symphony in 1987 As thesocio-musical climate grew more tolerant ofa variety of musical styles Austin discoverednew opportunities for herself as a composerShe remarried in 1989 and in June of thatyear GEDOK (Society of Women Artists inGerman-speaking Countries) sponsored aretrospective portrait concert of her music inMannheim Performances of her works werealso given in Fiuggi Italy and RheinsbergGermany as well as in Virginia Nebraskaand Connecticut By the turn of the centuryElizabeth Austin had established herself asone of Americarsquos distinct compositionalvoices ldquo[German poet dramatist essayistand librettist] Hugo von Hofmannstahlbelieved in three things essentiallyrdquo saysAustin ldquolsquoDurch das Werk durch das Kinddurch die Tatrsquo (lsquoThrough your work (art)through a child through actionrsquo) Your life

Even after almost fifteen yearsof studying Austins music I am stillsurprised by its wealth and depth

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 27

can be justified by any one or all of thesethings I believe thatrdquo And though it hastaken Elizabeth Austin nigh upon fifty yearsto finally feel ldquojustified through her artrdquo itwas worth the wait

Now at age seventy-three we mightexpect Austin to be in a time of reflectionmaking customary over-the-shoulder glancesat life taking inventory of the journey Butthis is no customary woman She is in factfacing ever-forward making up for lost timeShe is the organist and choir director at herchurch She walks several miles eachafternoon with her neighborrsquos dog Shecreates piano pieces for children She is agrandmother to four adoring grandchildrenShe is writing an opera Elizabeth Austin is inmotionmdashit might be more appropriate to saythat she is reflecting everything around herT urning specifically to

Austinrsquos music I have tostart by saying that even

after almost fifteen years ofstudying it I am still surprised byitmdashby its wealth and depth itsaustere beauty Hearing Austinrsquosmusic creates a desire tounderstand it Juxtaposed withinits walls are the zealous strains ofunbridled Romanticism seeminglyimpenetrable dissonances andsudden flashes of lucid tonalclarity Her writing is meticulouslyconstructed and it is no smallundertaking to expose thecompositional processes whichsynthesize her works

When I am asked to discussAustinrsquos compositional style Iinevitably turn to several specificelements that create the distinctldquoAustinianrdquo sound She employs aharmonic system of her owncreationmdasha crafted intertwiningof minor sixths and minor thirdsthat generates an array ofharmonies dutifully struggling toavoid the perfect fifth and

especially the perfect octave therebypromoting Major sevenths and Major ninthsto what Austin calls ldquothe new octaverdquo that isthe liberation of the octavemdashlike Schoenbergbefore her Austin believes that avoidance ofperfect intervals (especially octaves andfifths) is a gateway to creating structured andcoherent non-tonalism Instead of the octaveCndashC for instance the minor sixthminorthird system instead generates C-B or C-D

Though this is arguably an intellectualapproach to musical creation the systemgenerates an astonishing level of grace andbeauty Part of its beauty is auralaestheticmdashbut part of it derives simply fromcohesion Even if the ear doesnrsquot quiteunderstand what itrsquos hearing the brain gentlyaffirms that all of the sounds somehowldquobelong togetherrdquo born of the same motherFor the listener then the experience is at the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

28 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

same time challenging and comfortingAustinrsquos music also betrays a penchant for

literary catalysts indeed many of her piecesfeature embedded recitations from writerssuch as Goethe Kleist and Rilke pieces likethe haunting Rose Sonata (2002) Wie EineBlume (2001) and Ginkgo Novo (2002)These particular pieces shed light on yetanother of Austinrsquos stylistic traits turningbotanical structures into musical onesGinkgo Novo for instance asks theperformers (English horn and cello) tophysically move around on the stage comingtogether only at the end celebrating thenatural phenomenon of the ginkgo bilobaleaf which is born in two halves thatgradually over the span of their existencefuse themselves into a single entity

Austinrsquos intense belief in the governingprinciples of the Fibonacci series and GoldenMean are evidenced by many of her worksbut nowhere more so than in her famousHomage for Hildegard (1997) Its meticulousconstruction demonstrates Austinrsquosunderstanding that true fidelity to thephilosophies of Hildegard of Bingen mustinvolve a supreme awareness of the mysticalproperties of balance and proportion Shemakes painstaking efforts to approach thesymbolism of Hildegardrsquos era to create musicwhich not only honors the sacred feminineequilibrium of the pentacle star but likewisecelebrates the timeless rule of the GoldenMean

Austinrsquos music isnrsquot quite atonal in thetradition of the Second Viennese School (egSchoenberg Berg Webern) but due primarilyto the minor sixthminor third system thereis virtually no sense of harmonic centeringwithin its walls Indeed this music seemsstrangely balanced unto itself often relying

entirely upon non-harmonic entities toengage the ear It isnrsquot difficult therefore toimagine the aural shock and surprise ofsuddenly encountering an excerpt fromSchubert or Schumann replete with thestrong melodic content and angular harmonyof the German Romantic style This is justone example of what is perhaps Austinrsquosmost distinctive compositional trait atechnique she calls ldquowindowpaningrdquo

Windowpaning is a quotation techniquein which Austin embeds musical passagesfrom the past into her own work Somewhatsimilar to techniques of ldquosamplingrdquo inpopular music Austinrsquos idea is to pay homageto the past while retaining a contemporaryvoice This makes perfect sense for her asthe entirety of her harmonic palette is one inwhich opacity adjoins clarity and thetraditional is freely juxtaposed with theunconventional ldquoI use the word non-tonalversus tonalrdquo says Austin ldquobecause this is inmy music an agent for contrast This is theway I approach tonality to set it against anon-tonality I think we are all looking forthis balance but how do we approach itrdquo

The importance of windowpaning toAustinrsquos oeuvre is inestimable as works suchas A Birthday Bouquet (1990) PuzzlePreludes (1994) American Triptych (2001)and A Celebration Concerto (2007) are allconstructed around the central idea ofincorporating the music of the past into thefabric of the present Austin is seeking tocreate a channel through which quotedpassages actually become the alternativesonorities if due only to their stark relativeconsonance As threads of musical nostalgiaare woven in and out of Austinrsquoscontemporary tapestry they create fleetingmoments of revelation

What engages me is to so imbed tonalquotes in a non-tonal or pan-tonalfabric that what has sounded familiarbecomes transformed into somethingregarded as foreign and invasive It isas though the body allows the cunninginvader wrapped in recognizable guiseto catch it off balance The musical

It isnrsquot difficult to imagine the auralshock of suddenly encounteringan excerpt from Schubert

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 29

remembrance exists withoutexpansion but it is madeeccentric through this adjacentpane technique My aim is for thecontemporary sounding fabric tobegin to sound ldquorightrdquo to thelistener and the tonal quote tosound oddly out of placeA ustinrsquos Symphony No 2

ldquoLighthouserdquo (2002) is apremiere example of all

of the above-mentioned stylistictraits but especially of thewindowpane technique The piecewas conceived after Austin visitedthe Watch Hill lighthouse inWesterly Rhode Island Thebuilding has undergone severalrenovations over the past twocenturies the last one in 1986when its automated rotating lightwas installed Watch Hill has beena Mecca of sorts for Austin aplace to which she is continuallydrawn to meditate on its mysteries

It isnrsquot difficult to imagineElizabeth Austin in this settingsitting in reflective quiescencefacing a red-orange sunset over the water Inthe distance from the tower on the hill shinesa beacon of light slowly swinging aroundcloser and closer then rushing over in arapid flashing momentmdashand gone But thewatcher will wait for the next pass for thenext moment And as the sunlight fades thebeacon becomes the single focus all elsedisappears into darkness The imagery isvivid we may put ourselves in that momentand see the colors and hues our mindrsquos eyewatching the lighthouse anticipating itsunhurried light But the penetrating questionis can we hear it This was Austinrsquos task

Naming my first chamber CDReflected Light underlined my lifelongpreoccupation with vibrational energywith ones self as a spiritual vesselthrough which this divine spark mightmove As I spent many summer hoursat the ocean taking in the Watch Hill

Lighthouse and listening to the bellbuoys at close proximity I was drawnto the power of that arc of light thatbeacon which seemed to illuminate thewaves If there were musical snippetsin that choppy water the all-embracinglight would pull them towards itwould unify and merge them in thatsilken surf

Within the first movement alone onehears such ldquomusical snippetsrdquo from Barber(Dover Beach) Debussy (La Mer and Lrsquoislejoyeuse) R Schumann (Liederkreis)Schubert (Die schoumlne Muumlllerin) and Mozart(Requiem) Interestingly all of these quotesshare two distinct attributes first they allrelate to water in some way and second theyeach contain the same tiny musical cell ahalf-step constructed with the pitches A-GThis particular sound is Austinrsquosrepresentation of the ldquoDoppler effectrdquo as the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

30 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

rotating beam of the lighthouse sweeps pastthe listener In the first quotes one hears thedirection of this musical cell is alwaysdescending falling (literally A down to G)but near the middle of the movement thereis a turning point after which the directionturns upward (G-A) and the quotes afterthat point celebrate a new hopeful risingdirection

And so Austinrsquos particular selection ofquoted materials in the movement providesinsight not only into her musical reasoningbut also her spiritual approach to thelighthouse as life-metaphor If the fallinghalf-step represents the doubts struggles andapprehension of her early life while shewaited for the light to turn the antitheticalrising motives must symbolize the successesof middle life representing the joy ofemerging stretching and growing of livingin the lightrsquos radiant beam We are left thenwondering what questions remainunanswered for Austin as the movementabruptly closes in sudden unanticipatedsilence What is the great mystery of theLighthouse What secrets does it hold for thecomposer Do these windowpanes of thepast mirror instead Austinrsquos own reflectionlooking out

Continuing to compose daily Austinrecently completed Brainstorm (for concertdouble bass and piano) and a clarinet quartetentitled Weep No More She is currentlydevoting most of her time to her first operawhich is based on Kleistrsquos The Marquise ofO Austin continues her teaching and herservice as organist and choir director at StPaulrsquos Church while still finding time forinvolvement in Connecticut Composers Incdiligently searching for venues to showcasethe talents of its membership

In Elizabeth Austin we find a distinctAmerican voice Analysis of her worksdemonstrates unswerving dedication tocompositional craftsmanship coupled withartistic passion Her approach to compositionis simultaneously simple and complexaustere yet gracefully personal As Austinrsquosmusic continues to reach audiences aroundthe world it is undoubtedly her hope that inthis there may be a positive reaffirmation ofartistic goals and that the lesson foundwithin her writing will make itself evident tolisteners that compositional craft andindividual personality can and must meld intoone entity enlarging the boundaries ofhuman understanding to touch the divine

Michael Slayton is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Music Compositionand Theory at Vanderbilt Universityrsquos Blair School of Music His music (published by ACA) isregularly programmed in the US and abroad Since moving to Nashville in 1999 Slayton hasreceived numerous commissions for choral solo and chamber works including two works forthe Nashville Balletrsquos ldquoEmergencerdquo project A member of the American Composerrsquos AllianceSociety of Composers Inc the College Music Society Connecticut Composers Inc andBroadcast Music Inc Slayton is an active participant in the national and international musiccommunityMuch of the material in the essay above has been drawn from Women of Influence inContemporary Music Nine American Composers (Scarecrow Press 2010) a book detailing thelives and music of several of Americarsquos notable women in composition Slayton served aseditor-in-chief for the volume and author for chapters on Elizabeth R Austin and CindyMcTee Other featured composers include Susan Botti Gabriela Lena Frank Jennifer HigdonLibby Larson Tania Leon Marga Richter and Judith Shatin

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 27

can be justified by any one or all of thesethings I believe thatrdquo And though it hastaken Elizabeth Austin nigh upon fifty yearsto finally feel ldquojustified through her artrdquo itwas worth the wait

Now at age seventy-three we mightexpect Austin to be in a time of reflectionmaking customary over-the-shoulder glancesat life taking inventory of the journey Butthis is no customary woman She is in factfacing ever-forward making up for lost timeShe is the organist and choir director at herchurch She walks several miles eachafternoon with her neighborrsquos dog Shecreates piano pieces for children She is agrandmother to four adoring grandchildrenShe is writing an opera Elizabeth Austin is inmotionmdashit might be more appropriate to saythat she is reflecting everything around herT urning specifically to

Austinrsquos music I have tostart by saying that even

after almost fifteen years ofstudying it I am still surprised byitmdashby its wealth and depth itsaustere beauty Hearing Austinrsquosmusic creates a desire tounderstand it Juxtaposed withinits walls are the zealous strains ofunbridled Romanticism seeminglyimpenetrable dissonances andsudden flashes of lucid tonalclarity Her writing is meticulouslyconstructed and it is no smallundertaking to expose thecompositional processes whichsynthesize her works

When I am asked to discussAustinrsquos compositional style Iinevitably turn to several specificelements that create the distinctldquoAustinianrdquo sound She employs aharmonic system of her owncreationmdasha crafted intertwiningof minor sixths and minor thirdsthat generates an array ofharmonies dutifully struggling toavoid the perfect fifth and

especially the perfect octave therebypromoting Major sevenths and Major ninthsto what Austin calls ldquothe new octaverdquo that isthe liberation of the octavemdashlike Schoenbergbefore her Austin believes that avoidance ofperfect intervals (especially octaves andfifths) is a gateway to creating structured andcoherent non-tonalism Instead of the octaveCndashC for instance the minor sixthminorthird system instead generates C-B or C-D

Though this is arguably an intellectualapproach to musical creation the systemgenerates an astonishing level of grace andbeauty Part of its beauty is auralaestheticmdashbut part of it derives simply fromcohesion Even if the ear doesnrsquot quiteunderstand what itrsquos hearing the brain gentlyaffirms that all of the sounds somehowldquobelong togetherrdquo born of the same motherFor the listener then the experience is at the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

28 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

same time challenging and comfortingAustinrsquos music also betrays a penchant for

literary catalysts indeed many of her piecesfeature embedded recitations from writerssuch as Goethe Kleist and Rilke pieces likethe haunting Rose Sonata (2002) Wie EineBlume (2001) and Ginkgo Novo (2002)These particular pieces shed light on yetanother of Austinrsquos stylistic traits turningbotanical structures into musical onesGinkgo Novo for instance asks theperformers (English horn and cello) tophysically move around on the stage comingtogether only at the end celebrating thenatural phenomenon of the ginkgo bilobaleaf which is born in two halves thatgradually over the span of their existencefuse themselves into a single entity

Austinrsquos intense belief in the governingprinciples of the Fibonacci series and GoldenMean are evidenced by many of her worksbut nowhere more so than in her famousHomage for Hildegard (1997) Its meticulousconstruction demonstrates Austinrsquosunderstanding that true fidelity to thephilosophies of Hildegard of Bingen mustinvolve a supreme awareness of the mysticalproperties of balance and proportion Shemakes painstaking efforts to approach thesymbolism of Hildegardrsquos era to create musicwhich not only honors the sacred feminineequilibrium of the pentacle star but likewisecelebrates the timeless rule of the GoldenMean

Austinrsquos music isnrsquot quite atonal in thetradition of the Second Viennese School (egSchoenberg Berg Webern) but due primarilyto the minor sixthminor third system thereis virtually no sense of harmonic centeringwithin its walls Indeed this music seemsstrangely balanced unto itself often relying

entirely upon non-harmonic entities toengage the ear It isnrsquot difficult therefore toimagine the aural shock and surprise ofsuddenly encountering an excerpt fromSchubert or Schumann replete with thestrong melodic content and angular harmonyof the German Romantic style This is justone example of what is perhaps Austinrsquosmost distinctive compositional trait atechnique she calls ldquowindowpaningrdquo

Windowpaning is a quotation techniquein which Austin embeds musical passagesfrom the past into her own work Somewhatsimilar to techniques of ldquosamplingrdquo inpopular music Austinrsquos idea is to pay homageto the past while retaining a contemporaryvoice This makes perfect sense for her asthe entirety of her harmonic palette is one inwhich opacity adjoins clarity and thetraditional is freely juxtaposed with theunconventional ldquoI use the word non-tonalversus tonalrdquo says Austin ldquobecause this is inmy music an agent for contrast This is theway I approach tonality to set it against anon-tonality I think we are all looking forthis balance but how do we approach itrdquo

The importance of windowpaning toAustinrsquos oeuvre is inestimable as works suchas A Birthday Bouquet (1990) PuzzlePreludes (1994) American Triptych (2001)and A Celebration Concerto (2007) are allconstructed around the central idea ofincorporating the music of the past into thefabric of the present Austin is seeking tocreate a channel through which quotedpassages actually become the alternativesonorities if due only to their stark relativeconsonance As threads of musical nostalgiaare woven in and out of Austinrsquoscontemporary tapestry they create fleetingmoments of revelation

What engages me is to so imbed tonalquotes in a non-tonal or pan-tonalfabric that what has sounded familiarbecomes transformed into somethingregarded as foreign and invasive It isas though the body allows the cunninginvader wrapped in recognizable guiseto catch it off balance The musical

It isnrsquot difficult to imagine the auralshock of suddenly encounteringan excerpt from Schubert

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 29

remembrance exists withoutexpansion but it is madeeccentric through this adjacentpane technique My aim is for thecontemporary sounding fabric tobegin to sound ldquorightrdquo to thelistener and the tonal quote tosound oddly out of placeA ustinrsquos Symphony No 2

ldquoLighthouserdquo (2002) is apremiere example of all

of the above-mentioned stylistictraits but especially of thewindowpane technique The piecewas conceived after Austin visitedthe Watch Hill lighthouse inWesterly Rhode Island Thebuilding has undergone severalrenovations over the past twocenturies the last one in 1986when its automated rotating lightwas installed Watch Hill has beena Mecca of sorts for Austin aplace to which she is continuallydrawn to meditate on its mysteries

It isnrsquot difficult to imagineElizabeth Austin in this settingsitting in reflective quiescencefacing a red-orange sunset over the water Inthe distance from the tower on the hill shinesa beacon of light slowly swinging aroundcloser and closer then rushing over in arapid flashing momentmdashand gone But thewatcher will wait for the next pass for thenext moment And as the sunlight fades thebeacon becomes the single focus all elsedisappears into darkness The imagery isvivid we may put ourselves in that momentand see the colors and hues our mindrsquos eyewatching the lighthouse anticipating itsunhurried light But the penetrating questionis can we hear it This was Austinrsquos task

Naming my first chamber CDReflected Light underlined my lifelongpreoccupation with vibrational energywith ones self as a spiritual vesselthrough which this divine spark mightmove As I spent many summer hoursat the ocean taking in the Watch Hill

Lighthouse and listening to the bellbuoys at close proximity I was drawnto the power of that arc of light thatbeacon which seemed to illuminate thewaves If there were musical snippetsin that choppy water the all-embracinglight would pull them towards itwould unify and merge them in thatsilken surf

Within the first movement alone onehears such ldquomusical snippetsrdquo from Barber(Dover Beach) Debussy (La Mer and Lrsquoislejoyeuse) R Schumann (Liederkreis)Schubert (Die schoumlne Muumlllerin) and Mozart(Requiem) Interestingly all of these quotesshare two distinct attributes first they allrelate to water in some way and second theyeach contain the same tiny musical cell ahalf-step constructed with the pitches A-GThis particular sound is Austinrsquosrepresentation of the ldquoDoppler effectrdquo as the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

30 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

rotating beam of the lighthouse sweeps pastthe listener In the first quotes one hears thedirection of this musical cell is alwaysdescending falling (literally A down to G)but near the middle of the movement thereis a turning point after which the directionturns upward (G-A) and the quotes afterthat point celebrate a new hopeful risingdirection

And so Austinrsquos particular selection ofquoted materials in the movement providesinsight not only into her musical reasoningbut also her spiritual approach to thelighthouse as life-metaphor If the fallinghalf-step represents the doubts struggles andapprehension of her early life while shewaited for the light to turn the antitheticalrising motives must symbolize the successesof middle life representing the joy ofemerging stretching and growing of livingin the lightrsquos radiant beam We are left thenwondering what questions remainunanswered for Austin as the movementabruptly closes in sudden unanticipatedsilence What is the great mystery of theLighthouse What secrets does it hold for thecomposer Do these windowpanes of thepast mirror instead Austinrsquos own reflectionlooking out

Continuing to compose daily Austinrecently completed Brainstorm (for concertdouble bass and piano) and a clarinet quartetentitled Weep No More She is currentlydevoting most of her time to her first operawhich is based on Kleistrsquos The Marquise ofO Austin continues her teaching and herservice as organist and choir director at StPaulrsquos Church while still finding time forinvolvement in Connecticut Composers Incdiligently searching for venues to showcasethe talents of its membership

In Elizabeth Austin we find a distinctAmerican voice Analysis of her worksdemonstrates unswerving dedication tocompositional craftsmanship coupled withartistic passion Her approach to compositionis simultaneously simple and complexaustere yet gracefully personal As Austinrsquosmusic continues to reach audiences aroundthe world it is undoubtedly her hope that inthis there may be a positive reaffirmation ofartistic goals and that the lesson foundwithin her writing will make itself evident tolisteners that compositional craft andindividual personality can and must meld intoone entity enlarging the boundaries ofhuman understanding to touch the divine

Michael Slayton is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Music Compositionand Theory at Vanderbilt Universityrsquos Blair School of Music His music (published by ACA) isregularly programmed in the US and abroad Since moving to Nashville in 1999 Slayton hasreceived numerous commissions for choral solo and chamber works including two works forthe Nashville Balletrsquos ldquoEmergencerdquo project A member of the American Composerrsquos AllianceSociety of Composers Inc the College Music Society Connecticut Composers Inc andBroadcast Music Inc Slayton is an active participant in the national and international musiccommunityMuch of the material in the essay above has been drawn from Women of Influence inContemporary Music Nine American Composers (Scarecrow Press 2010) a book detailing thelives and music of several of Americarsquos notable women in composition Slayton served aseditor-in-chief for the volume and author for chapters on Elizabeth R Austin and CindyMcTee Other featured composers include Susan Botti Gabriela Lena Frank Jennifer HigdonLibby Larson Tania Leon Marga Richter and Judith Shatin

28 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

same time challenging and comfortingAustinrsquos music also betrays a penchant for

literary catalysts indeed many of her piecesfeature embedded recitations from writerssuch as Goethe Kleist and Rilke pieces likethe haunting Rose Sonata (2002) Wie EineBlume (2001) and Ginkgo Novo (2002)These particular pieces shed light on yetanother of Austinrsquos stylistic traits turningbotanical structures into musical onesGinkgo Novo for instance asks theperformers (English horn and cello) tophysically move around on the stage comingtogether only at the end celebrating thenatural phenomenon of the ginkgo bilobaleaf which is born in two halves thatgradually over the span of their existencefuse themselves into a single entity

Austinrsquos intense belief in the governingprinciples of the Fibonacci series and GoldenMean are evidenced by many of her worksbut nowhere more so than in her famousHomage for Hildegard (1997) Its meticulousconstruction demonstrates Austinrsquosunderstanding that true fidelity to thephilosophies of Hildegard of Bingen mustinvolve a supreme awareness of the mysticalproperties of balance and proportion Shemakes painstaking efforts to approach thesymbolism of Hildegardrsquos era to create musicwhich not only honors the sacred feminineequilibrium of the pentacle star but likewisecelebrates the timeless rule of the GoldenMean

Austinrsquos music isnrsquot quite atonal in thetradition of the Second Viennese School (egSchoenberg Berg Webern) but due primarilyto the minor sixthminor third system thereis virtually no sense of harmonic centeringwithin its walls Indeed this music seemsstrangely balanced unto itself often relying

entirely upon non-harmonic entities toengage the ear It isnrsquot difficult therefore toimagine the aural shock and surprise ofsuddenly encountering an excerpt fromSchubert or Schumann replete with thestrong melodic content and angular harmonyof the German Romantic style This is justone example of what is perhaps Austinrsquosmost distinctive compositional trait atechnique she calls ldquowindowpaningrdquo

Windowpaning is a quotation techniquein which Austin embeds musical passagesfrom the past into her own work Somewhatsimilar to techniques of ldquosamplingrdquo inpopular music Austinrsquos idea is to pay homageto the past while retaining a contemporaryvoice This makes perfect sense for her asthe entirety of her harmonic palette is one inwhich opacity adjoins clarity and thetraditional is freely juxtaposed with theunconventional ldquoI use the word non-tonalversus tonalrdquo says Austin ldquobecause this is inmy music an agent for contrast This is theway I approach tonality to set it against anon-tonality I think we are all looking forthis balance but how do we approach itrdquo

The importance of windowpaning toAustinrsquos oeuvre is inestimable as works suchas A Birthday Bouquet (1990) PuzzlePreludes (1994) American Triptych (2001)and A Celebration Concerto (2007) are allconstructed around the central idea ofincorporating the music of the past into thefabric of the present Austin is seeking tocreate a channel through which quotedpassages actually become the alternativesonorities if due only to their stark relativeconsonance As threads of musical nostalgiaare woven in and out of Austinrsquoscontemporary tapestry they create fleetingmoments of revelation

What engages me is to so imbed tonalquotes in a non-tonal or pan-tonalfabric that what has sounded familiarbecomes transformed into somethingregarded as foreign and invasive It isas though the body allows the cunninginvader wrapped in recognizable guiseto catch it off balance The musical

It isnrsquot difficult to imagine the auralshock of suddenly encounteringan excerpt from Schubert

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 29

remembrance exists withoutexpansion but it is madeeccentric through this adjacentpane technique My aim is for thecontemporary sounding fabric tobegin to sound ldquorightrdquo to thelistener and the tonal quote tosound oddly out of placeA ustinrsquos Symphony No 2

ldquoLighthouserdquo (2002) is apremiere example of all

of the above-mentioned stylistictraits but especially of thewindowpane technique The piecewas conceived after Austin visitedthe Watch Hill lighthouse inWesterly Rhode Island Thebuilding has undergone severalrenovations over the past twocenturies the last one in 1986when its automated rotating lightwas installed Watch Hill has beena Mecca of sorts for Austin aplace to which she is continuallydrawn to meditate on its mysteries

It isnrsquot difficult to imagineElizabeth Austin in this settingsitting in reflective quiescencefacing a red-orange sunset over the water Inthe distance from the tower on the hill shinesa beacon of light slowly swinging aroundcloser and closer then rushing over in arapid flashing momentmdashand gone But thewatcher will wait for the next pass for thenext moment And as the sunlight fades thebeacon becomes the single focus all elsedisappears into darkness The imagery isvivid we may put ourselves in that momentand see the colors and hues our mindrsquos eyewatching the lighthouse anticipating itsunhurried light But the penetrating questionis can we hear it This was Austinrsquos task

Naming my first chamber CDReflected Light underlined my lifelongpreoccupation with vibrational energywith ones self as a spiritual vesselthrough which this divine spark mightmove As I spent many summer hoursat the ocean taking in the Watch Hill

Lighthouse and listening to the bellbuoys at close proximity I was drawnto the power of that arc of light thatbeacon which seemed to illuminate thewaves If there were musical snippetsin that choppy water the all-embracinglight would pull them towards itwould unify and merge them in thatsilken surf

Within the first movement alone onehears such ldquomusical snippetsrdquo from Barber(Dover Beach) Debussy (La Mer and Lrsquoislejoyeuse) R Schumann (Liederkreis)Schubert (Die schoumlne Muumlllerin) and Mozart(Requiem) Interestingly all of these quotesshare two distinct attributes first they allrelate to water in some way and second theyeach contain the same tiny musical cell ahalf-step constructed with the pitches A-GThis particular sound is Austinrsquosrepresentation of the ldquoDoppler effectrdquo as the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

30 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

rotating beam of the lighthouse sweeps pastthe listener In the first quotes one hears thedirection of this musical cell is alwaysdescending falling (literally A down to G)but near the middle of the movement thereis a turning point after which the directionturns upward (G-A) and the quotes afterthat point celebrate a new hopeful risingdirection

And so Austinrsquos particular selection ofquoted materials in the movement providesinsight not only into her musical reasoningbut also her spiritual approach to thelighthouse as life-metaphor If the fallinghalf-step represents the doubts struggles andapprehension of her early life while shewaited for the light to turn the antitheticalrising motives must symbolize the successesof middle life representing the joy ofemerging stretching and growing of livingin the lightrsquos radiant beam We are left thenwondering what questions remainunanswered for Austin as the movementabruptly closes in sudden unanticipatedsilence What is the great mystery of theLighthouse What secrets does it hold for thecomposer Do these windowpanes of thepast mirror instead Austinrsquos own reflectionlooking out

Continuing to compose daily Austinrecently completed Brainstorm (for concertdouble bass and piano) and a clarinet quartetentitled Weep No More She is currentlydevoting most of her time to her first operawhich is based on Kleistrsquos The Marquise ofO Austin continues her teaching and herservice as organist and choir director at StPaulrsquos Church while still finding time forinvolvement in Connecticut Composers Incdiligently searching for venues to showcasethe talents of its membership

In Elizabeth Austin we find a distinctAmerican voice Analysis of her worksdemonstrates unswerving dedication tocompositional craftsmanship coupled withartistic passion Her approach to compositionis simultaneously simple and complexaustere yet gracefully personal As Austinrsquosmusic continues to reach audiences aroundthe world it is undoubtedly her hope that inthis there may be a positive reaffirmation ofartistic goals and that the lesson foundwithin her writing will make itself evident tolisteners that compositional craft andindividual personality can and must meld intoone entity enlarging the boundaries ofhuman understanding to touch the divine

Michael Slayton is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Music Compositionand Theory at Vanderbilt Universityrsquos Blair School of Music His music (published by ACA) isregularly programmed in the US and abroad Since moving to Nashville in 1999 Slayton hasreceived numerous commissions for choral solo and chamber works including two works forthe Nashville Balletrsquos ldquoEmergencerdquo project A member of the American Composerrsquos AllianceSociety of Composers Inc the College Music Society Connecticut Composers Inc andBroadcast Music Inc Slayton is an active participant in the national and international musiccommunityMuch of the material in the essay above has been drawn from Women of Influence inContemporary Music Nine American Composers (Scarecrow Press 2010) a book detailing thelives and music of several of Americarsquos notable women in composition Slayton served aseditor-in-chief for the volume and author for chapters on Elizabeth R Austin and CindyMcTee Other featured composers include Susan Botti Gabriela Lena Frank Jennifer HigdonLibby Larson Tania Leon Marga Richter and Judith Shatin

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 29

remembrance exists withoutexpansion but it is madeeccentric through this adjacentpane technique My aim is for thecontemporary sounding fabric tobegin to sound ldquorightrdquo to thelistener and the tonal quote tosound oddly out of placeA ustinrsquos Symphony No 2

ldquoLighthouserdquo (2002) is apremiere example of all

of the above-mentioned stylistictraits but especially of thewindowpane technique The piecewas conceived after Austin visitedthe Watch Hill lighthouse inWesterly Rhode Island Thebuilding has undergone severalrenovations over the past twocenturies the last one in 1986when its automated rotating lightwas installed Watch Hill has beena Mecca of sorts for Austin aplace to which she is continuallydrawn to meditate on its mysteries

It isnrsquot difficult to imagineElizabeth Austin in this settingsitting in reflective quiescencefacing a red-orange sunset over the water Inthe distance from the tower on the hill shinesa beacon of light slowly swinging aroundcloser and closer then rushing over in arapid flashing momentmdashand gone But thewatcher will wait for the next pass for thenext moment And as the sunlight fades thebeacon becomes the single focus all elsedisappears into darkness The imagery isvivid we may put ourselves in that momentand see the colors and hues our mindrsquos eyewatching the lighthouse anticipating itsunhurried light But the penetrating questionis can we hear it This was Austinrsquos task

Naming my first chamber CDReflected Light underlined my lifelongpreoccupation with vibrational energywith ones self as a spiritual vesselthrough which this divine spark mightmove As I spent many summer hoursat the ocean taking in the Watch Hill

Lighthouse and listening to the bellbuoys at close proximity I was drawnto the power of that arc of light thatbeacon which seemed to illuminate thewaves If there were musical snippetsin that choppy water the all-embracinglight would pull them towards itwould unify and merge them in thatsilken surf

Within the first movement alone onehears such ldquomusical snippetsrdquo from Barber(Dover Beach) Debussy (La Mer and Lrsquoislejoyeuse) R Schumann (Liederkreis)Schubert (Die schoumlne Muumlllerin) and Mozart(Requiem) Interestingly all of these quotesshare two distinct attributes first they allrelate to water in some way and second theyeach contain the same tiny musical cell ahalf-step constructed with the pitches A-GThis particular sound is Austinrsquosrepresentation of the ldquoDoppler effectrdquo as the

Marguerita Bornstein Scherzo series 2003-06

30 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

rotating beam of the lighthouse sweeps pastthe listener In the first quotes one hears thedirection of this musical cell is alwaysdescending falling (literally A down to G)but near the middle of the movement thereis a turning point after which the directionturns upward (G-A) and the quotes afterthat point celebrate a new hopeful risingdirection

And so Austinrsquos particular selection ofquoted materials in the movement providesinsight not only into her musical reasoningbut also her spiritual approach to thelighthouse as life-metaphor If the fallinghalf-step represents the doubts struggles andapprehension of her early life while shewaited for the light to turn the antitheticalrising motives must symbolize the successesof middle life representing the joy ofemerging stretching and growing of livingin the lightrsquos radiant beam We are left thenwondering what questions remainunanswered for Austin as the movementabruptly closes in sudden unanticipatedsilence What is the great mystery of theLighthouse What secrets does it hold for thecomposer Do these windowpanes of thepast mirror instead Austinrsquos own reflectionlooking out

Continuing to compose daily Austinrecently completed Brainstorm (for concertdouble bass and piano) and a clarinet quartetentitled Weep No More She is currentlydevoting most of her time to her first operawhich is based on Kleistrsquos The Marquise ofO Austin continues her teaching and herservice as organist and choir director at StPaulrsquos Church while still finding time forinvolvement in Connecticut Composers Incdiligently searching for venues to showcasethe talents of its membership

In Elizabeth Austin we find a distinctAmerican voice Analysis of her worksdemonstrates unswerving dedication tocompositional craftsmanship coupled withartistic passion Her approach to compositionis simultaneously simple and complexaustere yet gracefully personal As Austinrsquosmusic continues to reach audiences aroundthe world it is undoubtedly her hope that inthis there may be a positive reaffirmation ofartistic goals and that the lesson foundwithin her writing will make itself evident tolisteners that compositional craft andindividual personality can and must meld intoone entity enlarging the boundaries ofhuman understanding to touch the divine

Michael Slayton is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Music Compositionand Theory at Vanderbilt Universityrsquos Blair School of Music His music (published by ACA) isregularly programmed in the US and abroad Since moving to Nashville in 1999 Slayton hasreceived numerous commissions for choral solo and chamber works including two works forthe Nashville Balletrsquos ldquoEmergencerdquo project A member of the American Composerrsquos AllianceSociety of Composers Inc the College Music Society Connecticut Composers Inc andBroadcast Music Inc Slayton is an active participant in the national and international musiccommunityMuch of the material in the essay above has been drawn from Women of Influence inContemporary Music Nine American Composers (Scarecrow Press 2010) a book detailing thelives and music of several of Americarsquos notable women in composition Slayton served aseditor-in-chief for the volume and author for chapters on Elizabeth R Austin and CindyMcTee Other featured composers include Susan Botti Gabriela Lena Frank Jennifer HigdonLibby Larson Tania Leon Marga Richter and Judith Shatin

30 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

rotating beam of the lighthouse sweeps pastthe listener In the first quotes one hears thedirection of this musical cell is alwaysdescending falling (literally A down to G)but near the middle of the movement thereis a turning point after which the directionturns upward (G-A) and the quotes afterthat point celebrate a new hopeful risingdirection

And so Austinrsquos particular selection ofquoted materials in the movement providesinsight not only into her musical reasoningbut also her spiritual approach to thelighthouse as life-metaphor If the fallinghalf-step represents the doubts struggles andapprehension of her early life while shewaited for the light to turn the antitheticalrising motives must symbolize the successesof middle life representing the joy ofemerging stretching and growing of livingin the lightrsquos radiant beam We are left thenwondering what questions remainunanswered for Austin as the movementabruptly closes in sudden unanticipatedsilence What is the great mystery of theLighthouse What secrets does it hold for thecomposer Do these windowpanes of thepast mirror instead Austinrsquos own reflectionlooking out

Continuing to compose daily Austinrecently completed Brainstorm (for concertdouble bass and piano) and a clarinet quartetentitled Weep No More She is currentlydevoting most of her time to her first operawhich is based on Kleistrsquos The Marquise ofO Austin continues her teaching and herservice as organist and choir director at StPaulrsquos Church while still finding time forinvolvement in Connecticut Composers Incdiligently searching for venues to showcasethe talents of its membership

In Elizabeth Austin we find a distinctAmerican voice Analysis of her worksdemonstrates unswerving dedication tocompositional craftsmanship coupled withartistic passion Her approach to compositionis simultaneously simple and complexaustere yet gracefully personal As Austinrsquosmusic continues to reach audiences aroundthe world it is undoubtedly her hope that inthis there may be a positive reaffirmation ofartistic goals and that the lesson foundwithin her writing will make itself evident tolisteners that compositional craft andindividual personality can and must meld intoone entity enlarging the boundaries ofhuman understanding to touch the divine

Michael Slayton is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Music Compositionand Theory at Vanderbilt Universityrsquos Blair School of Music His music (published by ACA) isregularly programmed in the US and abroad Since moving to Nashville in 1999 Slayton hasreceived numerous commissions for choral solo and chamber works including two works forthe Nashville Balletrsquos ldquoEmergencerdquo project A member of the American Composerrsquos AllianceSociety of Composers Inc the College Music Society Connecticut Composers Inc andBroadcast Music Inc Slayton is an active participant in the national and international musiccommunityMuch of the material in the essay above has been drawn from Women of Influence inContemporary Music Nine American Composers (Scarecrow Press 2010) a book detailing thelives and music of several of Americarsquos notable women in composition Slayton served aseditor-in-chief for the volume and author for chapters on Elizabeth R Austin and CindyMcTee Other featured composers include Susan Botti Gabriela Lena Frank Jennifer HigdonLibby Larson Tania Leon Marga Richter and Judith Shatin

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 31

Michael Slayton Could you talk about yourreturn to America after the time withBoulanger What did you doElizabeth Austin I had no guidance andabsolutely no wherewithal My widowedmother despite her pride in me discourageda professional career as a composer and Ialso felt partially responsible for her well-being The late fifties was a traditional timeThe world had not changed and we hadtraditional roles I lacked the tenacity or theaudacity to rise above my middle class destinyand I had little means So I compromised Irealized that my two younger brothers neededthe financial attention for their collegeeducation and that I was more or lessexpected to move on I had to haveemployment so I obtained a provisionalpublic school teaching certificate I taughtschool music during the day and tookgraduate courses toward a teachingcertificate at night Then I was marriedand within ten months I had the twinsThat really put a stop to my career for awhileSlayton An escape into marriageAustin Perhapsmdashif so I am certainly notproud of thismdashI had thought to disprovemy beloved Mlle Boulanger and here Iwas I already had creative fire burning butit had to wait until I had raised myprecious daughter one of the twins whosuffered so terribly from debilitatingasthma One cannot write music whenlistening for the nightly wheezing of apoor asthmatic struggling for each breathOf course I have no regrets today butremember with three children I diaperedmy way through the revolutionary sixtiesSlayton And when your children wereolder did you feel yourself to be re-birthedso to speak

Austin Yes I emerged again on the otherside and did not realize luckily in a way thatthe world had changed so Here I was in myforties with a glaring hole in my resume andI became starkly aware for the first time inmy life that my primary identity like it or notwas one of composer Up until this time Ihad consciously and unconsciously devaluedmy basic raison drsquoecirctremdashhaving childrenmade this lack of priority so much easier Mygeneration did not have a Betty Friedan untilwe were in our mid-twenties and already inmaternity clothes Reading The FeminineMystique in the early 60rsquos was tough to dobetween doctor visits and diapering May Irepeat however that without the remarkable

Elizabeth R Austin en personneExcerpted from Women of Influence in Contemporary Music Nine American Composers

Marguerita Bornstein EYES series 2002-03

32 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

and rewarding experience of sharingparenthood Irsquom not totally certain I wouldhave felt such an irresistible compulsion toreturn to composing later in lifeSlayton How does one champion womenartistscomposers without marginalizationOr without becoming such a champion thatone loses a correct vision of the art simplydue to the gender of the artistAustin Well gender should never enter intomusic composition In music the differenceis in the end product the quality of thecreation with gender there is no differencein the end product only in the processes Butto refuse to admit that there exist differencesbetween the chronology of a male and afemale is rather to have onersquos head in thesand Life is biological isnrsquot it A woman atthe end of her life often looks at hersupposed creation as her children for a manit is typically his work If the woman looks ather lifersquos work as her important output doesthat devalue her devotion to her children Ifshe doesnrsquot does that devalue her work Inwhose eyes I donrsquot consider that womenhave ever been crybabiesmdashthere has certainlybeen a difference in the programming ofmusic but the stride that has been made isthe realization that gender has absolutelynothing to do with qualityhellip I simply donrsquothonor the attitude that if one is an intelligentwoman (composer scholar) one must bemilitant and ever on the offensive seeking toknock male composers down a peg in orderto rise as woman Itrsquos not in my natureObviously there has been a problem andhopefully wersquore on the road to recovery butthere are lingering questionsSlayton Ageism is an issue for manycomposers and I think it is rather linked tothose lingering questionsAustin At least for me this is a moredifficult problem even than the gender issue

There are many competitions for instancefor the so-called emerging composer Whatdoes that mean Shouldnrsquot competitions besearching for the best music regardless ofage So many composers emerge late in life Idonrsquot want to sound like sour grapes but thisis tough for many of us We paid our dueswersquove devoted ourselves to family childrenmarriagehellip And now when there is finallytime to get down to the serious business ofwriting all of this music that has been takingroot for years and years we are told we aretoo old to emerge It is yes in a way relatedto gender because it is societal that men donot typically stop their careers for childrenBut men also have ageism issues to face So itis a problem for everyone but a particularlyknotty one for womenSlayton How do you think these sorts ofissues will affect young women who arestudying composition in the twenty-firstcentury What do you see for their futuresAustin Thanks to the fine efforts of IAWM[the International Alliance for Women inMusic] New York Women ComposersGEDOK etc women composing today havea broader support system upon which to callfor various questions such as whichorchestras are more sympathetic to womencomposers which publishers accept musicfrom women more readily and so on Onlinewebsites offer daily chats regarding practicaland scholarly matters related to composingFrankly many significant women composersdidnt bat an eye at gender issues but simplyproceeded to communicate ardently Themilitancy of earlier times has beenameliorated today by the same seriousness ofpurpose on the part of women artists onlynow coupled with the realization thatcomposers of both genders must unite tofind a way to promote new concert musicespecially in America

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 33

Marguerita Bornstein is the kind of personwhose need to create and whose talent for itspurs her to work across a range of formsIllustrator animator painter sculptorphotographer and mixed media artist shehas been lauded for drawings that havegraced the covers of major magazines and forher contributions to art exhibitions

The child of Holocaust survivorsMarguerita was born in Sydney Australia in1950 but subsequently grew up in Brazil Shebegan her career as a commercial artistremarkably early selling her first drawing atthe age of nine (to Riorsquos Correio da Manha)earning a living as an illustrator from agethirteen and (at twenty-four) creating theanimated title sequence for the phenomenallysuccessful Brazilian drama O Rebu Invited towork in New York in 1976 after beingprofiled in Graphis magazine and sponsoredinto the United States by luminaries like NewYork Times art director Louis Silverstein artcritic Robert Hughes and preeminent graphicdesigners Herb Lubalin and Milton GlaserMarguerita has since illustrated book covers

for Viking designed posters for The VillageVoice and contributed covers and drawingsfor The Nation Vogue Harpers and otherpublications

Margueritarsquos recent work spans both thecommercial and the fine arts Considered as awhole her vividly-coloured pictures offer afascinating and often provocativecombination of surrealism ghostly overlapsand iconography ldquoHer quality is rather sheermischievousness coupled with a goodmeasure of sparkling gaietyrdquo observed UampLcMagazine in 1977 This seems as true todayas it was then

mdash I Garrick MasonEditors note I published a slightly longer versionof this profile in 2009 on the blog sans everything(sanseverythingwordpresscom) and since itconveys my enthusiasm for Margueritas art inwords I can only marginally improve upon in2011 we have adapted it for SCOPEVisit Margueritas websitehttpthepoignantfrogblogspotcom

Marguerita

Marguerita Bornstein ldquoBirds Butterflies Flowersrdquo 1995

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 33

Marguerita Bornstein is the kind of personwhose need to create and whose talent for itspurs her to work across a range of formsIllustrator animator painter sculptorphotographer and mixed media artist shehas been lauded for drawings that havegraced the covers of major magazines and forher contributions to art exhibitions

The child of Holocaust survivorsMarguerita was born in Sydney Australia in1950 but subsequently grew up in Brazil Shebegan her career as a commercial artistremarkably early selling her first drawing atthe age of nine (to Riorsquos Correio da Manha)earning a living as an illustrator from agethirteen and (at twenty-four) creating theanimated title sequence for the phenomenallysuccessful Brazilian drama O Rebu Invited towork in New York in 1976 after beingprofiled in Graphis magazine and sponsoredinto the United States by luminaries like NewYork Times art director Louis Silverstein artcritic Robert Hughes and preeminent graphicdesigners Herb Lubalin and Milton GlaserMarguerita has since illustrated book covers

for Viking designed posters for The VillageVoice and contributed covers and drawingsfor The Nation Vogue Harpers and otherpublications

Margueritarsquos recent work spans both thecommercial and the fine arts Considered as awhole her vividly-coloured pictures offer afascinating and often provocativecombination of surrealism ghostly overlapsand iconography ldquoHer quality is rather sheermischievousness coupled with a goodmeasure of sparkling gaietyrdquo observed UampLcMagazine in 1977 This seems as true todayas it was then

mdash I Garrick MasonEditors note I published a slightly longer versionof this profile in 2009 on the blog sans everything(sanseverythingwordpresscom) and since itconveys my enthusiasm for Margueritas art inwords I can only marginally improve upon in2011 we have adapted it for SCOPEVisit Margueritas websitehttpthepoignantfrogblogspotcom

Marguerita

Marguerita Bornstein ldquoBirds Butterflies Flowersrdquo 1995

34 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

This article is about robots thatIve worked on Before Idescribe them to you however Iwant to start with an admission

I dont own a cell phone A mobile is almostas basic as pants these days but frankly I hatebeing accessible As it is I dread the ring of aland line Itrsquos not that I dislike people but thatI find interacting with them draining Ivenever felt totally comfortable in socialsituations Parties are particularly anxiety-

inducing my solution has been to stop goingto them By contrast Im a very good loner Ican work by myself in my apartment forweeks at a time and feel pretty good about itI concentrate my energy in my career and inthe few relationships I value Its not themost exciting life but it works for me

Yet almost weekly I hear of another newsocial media app that is changing the waypeople communicate Facebook TwitterFlickr Tumblr Masher Crush3r 4chan

My faceless friendsldquoSocial roboticsrdquo is heading in the wrongdirection by making machines that look like us

BY NICHOLAS STEDMAN

ART BY JASON THIELKE

Jason Thielke ldquoMuserdquo 17 x 23 2009

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 35

36 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Plurk Digg Diigo Bebo Skype FacetimeCrowdstorm Doof I have no doubts abouttheir benefits enabling users to know moreabout each other and about events thatmatter to them and helping them organizefor whatever cause tickles their fancy Socialmedia harnesses the amplifying force ofcrowds to carry individual participants rapidlyupstream towards personal empowermentYet why is it that when these applicationscome up in conversation a subtle maniaoften sets in Networks exert a kind ofinhumane control on us They seek constantattention repeatedly tugging us out of ourphysical engagement with the world Themachines buzz and our bleary eyes swingonce again to the 4-inch screens

To clarify I am not anti-technology Quite

the opposite I am enthralled with thecreative opportunities it affords I work withmany of the same hardware components andsoftware as some of the social media setincluding wireless technologiesmicroprocessors programming and so forthBut I use these to build devices that exploredifferent ways people can relate to the worldIt is an art practice of sorts though onelargely unfamiliar to gallery-goers Some callit ldquodevice artrdquo others ldquophysical computingrdquoand to many it is simply ldquomakingrdquo It is aburgeoning area in which non-engineers likemyself can learn to work with lower leveltechnologies through DIY (do it yourself)principles Fundamentally it is not sodifferent than the hobbyism of yore butthere are new twists First and foremostinformation abounds on the Internet Thenon-expert has access to a vast array ofdocuments tutorials and forums to aid theirdesign efforts Secondly electronics havebecome increasingly modular without toomuch effort devices can be hacked andremixed A GPS system can be combinedwith a motorized-propeller and stitched intoan inflatable garmentmdashnot that yoursquodactually want to do that The bar to inventionhas been lowered and new blood brings withit ideas and interest from different fields

Specifically I design what are calledldquosocialrdquo robots Despite the irony in thename it is a good fit Machines that fall intothis category are intended to serve peoplewho have limited social interactions Theelderly and children with social-affectivedisorders are two commonly cited audiencesbut really anyone who is unsociable like memight be a candidate The social robotcategory has a few permutations includingrobots that assist with multiple householdtasks (ldquobutlersrdquo) and those that entertain andprovide companionship (ldquofriendsrdquo) I ammore interested in the second of these I seerobots as being able to provide unobtrusivecomfortmdashthe antithesis of social media Iimagine stretching out with a robot in myarms at the end of a long day and being

Jason Thielke ldquoDreamerrdquo 23 x 30 2009

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 37

soothed by it with no demands orexpectations not unlike a pet Yet while thisprospect is intriguing it is not what drivesme Pets already exist after all The reason Ido the work is for the challenge of makingsomething that seems alive This is a stronghuman impulse that has been expressedthroughout the ages from the tales of ancientmythology to the life-simulating computergame The Sims and in physical efforts thatdate back at least to the mechanical automataof the thirteenth century Today a quickYouTube search will reveal robots that arecapable of acting with impressive agency andwith new funding from DARPA (the USagency that famously gave birth to theInternet) Irsquod only expect to see a surge insuch developments But at what stage will webe able to say that these machines are in somesense alive To my mind the answer is foundin the words of the late US Supreme CourtJustice Potter Stewart ldquoI know it when I seeitrdquo And so I choose to work on socialrobotics because it offers a chance to engagewith and to get a feel for a robot in such away that we can assess that proposition ofartificial life for ourselvesO ne tendency in social robotics is

really vexing however Themachines are almost always

designed as imitations of people or otheranimals and endowed with features like lipsears and tails Likewise the machines areprogrammed to convey fear happinessboredom and other emotions in response tostimulus and history These features are usedto guide participants through theirinteractions Cynthia Breazeal the MITprofessor and founder of this movementargues that bio-mimicry affords a ldquonaturaland intuitive understanding of [a robotrsquos]emotional behavior and how to influence itrdquoThis seems reasonable enough If you wantto command a robot natural language wouldbe an easy way to do so and a robots facewould offer a focal point for your attention

This principle has encouraged a wholestream of social robotics that focuses on

outward appearance Hiroshi Ishiguro atOsaka University uses silicone skin to coverelectromechanical parts resulting insurprisingly attractive humanoids Yet whenthey interact with people the robots seemtrapped in their own hermetic universesbarely aware of our presence The result iseerie not unlike going to a wax figuremuseum If you know the feeling then youhave experienced the ldquoUncanny Valleyrdquo wecan feel comfortable with and even haveaffection for robots that look mechanicaland unlike people but we feel revulsion whenrobots become too lifelike It has long beentheorized that if robots could be made just alittle more realistic then we would arrive atthe other side of the valley and accept themas social agents I doubt this

Human-like features mask a fundamentaldisconnect A robot in fact doesnrsquot have aface nor does it experience happiness at leastnot the way we do Our features have evolvedover millions of years in parallel with ourfleshy bodies and the planet as a whole Ourappearances are derived both from nuancedrelationships between organs and fromfunctions that extend beyond simplecommunication So when silicone lips areglued onto an electromechanical systemthere is a huge gap between the equipmentthe robot has at its disposal and theldquofeaturesrdquo it purports to have The UncannyValley then is our apprehension of thecontradiction It is a real problem one thatdesigners need to come to terms withBreazealrsquos own PhD advisor Rodney Brooksonce warned that building humanoid robotsthough generally desirable carries a dangerof engaging in cargo-cult science where onlythe broad outline form is mimicked but noneof the internal essentials are there at allrdquo

Were comfortable with robots thatlook mechanical but feel revulsionwhen they become too lifelike

38 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Indeed it seems that some researchershave fallen into the trappings of pseudo-science Studies Irsquove looked at fail to appraisehow robots affect human subjects There isan assumption that since the robots look likepeople that we accept them in the same waywhich is debatable Here is the entire list ofcriteria offered in an evaluation of Paro oneof the more renowned social robots and afuzzy white seal to boot 1) Cute 2) Want topet it 3) Want to talk to it 4) Has vitality 5)Easy to get friendly with 6) Has realexpressions 7) Natural 8) Feels good to thetouch 9) Fun to play with 10) Comfortableto play with 11) Relaxing 12) Like 13)Needed in this world 14) Want it for myself15) Would give as present Every single oneof these categories contextualizes Paro as afriendly companion and begs respondents torecount their enjoyment It is the epitome ofexperimenter bias What is learned here aboutParorsquos effectiveness as a robot They might aswell be asking about a stuffed animal Maybeit all works but it seems rather silly and if thecurrent lack of social robots tucking us in atnight is any sign then it appears thatsomething in the discipline is off trackW hatrsquos needed is good dose of

aesthetic critique After allthese robots are artifacts that

are intended to function primarily byoperating on our human sensitivities to evokeemotional responses Is this not one of thedefinitions of a work of art We can be morespecific Over the past century art has beengenerally considered to fall into one of twocategories There is the representationalapproach in which artists depict peoplelandscapes and other recognizable objectsThough ldquorealisticrdquo the depictions are alsoillusory in that the paint on the canvas isobviously not the same thing as the person itrepresents Spectators willingly suspend theirdisbelief allowing their imaginations to runwith the scene We do something similarwhen we accept the actor Robert Downey Jras a superhero in a summer blockbuster for acouple of hours By contrast non-

representational artists explore the materialproperties of a medium to see what kind ofaesthetics are possible They look at how lineshape color and movement can be renderedand how these renderings affect the viewerThis is the approach famously associatedwith abstract expressionist icons like JacksonPollock and Mark Rothko but the approachis equally applicable to instrumental musicMany artists are at ease with these twotraditions often borrowing from each todepict figures with individualistic style

The principles of representational art areat play within the field of social roboticsalthough no one talks about them explicitlyWhen we encounter a robot built to mimicpeople we suspend our disbelief and pretendthat the machine is alive as we would withany toy But researchers are too ready topoint to this emotional engagement asthough it is induced by the robotrsquos engineeredbehavior and not in fact by our ownimagination Engineers are creating illusionsbut claiming reality a stance as absurd as afilmmaker asserting that we root for RobertDowney Jr because he actually is asuperhero In this context the UncannyValley is not a valley at all but a sloping cliffWe sense the gap between the robotrsquosappearance and the underlying reality and itmakes us as uncomfortable as any fib Weaccept mechanical-looking robots becausetheir appearance makes sense because robotsare machine We may also ldquoacceptrdquoillusionistic robots but we do so with a grainof salt

Machines that are like us are easy toimagine but extremely difficult to make Thetask involves reproducing the mechanismsthat make us human including ourmorphology our senses our memory ourlanguage and our emotions Cracking thestock market is probably an easier taskProgress is happening but authentic human-like behavior is still a good distace awayThere is much work to be done in order tobuild the necessary capacities

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 39

M y own designs are probably bestintroduced by way of a story AsI said before Irsquom okay with

being on my own but Irsquom not a lonely guy Iknow because at one point I was I feltuncomfortable so I isolated myself It was adownward spiral the more I avoided peoplethe more awkward I felt in social situationsand the more I wanted to get away It gotextremely intense at times I couldnrsquot makeeye contact I feigned contentment whenreally I felt constantly and intenselydepressed

During this period I began working on myfirst robot in an effort called the BlanketProject When I originally proposed it Iimagined making social-enabling devices apair of robotic blankets each filled with a gridof many motors and sensors They would benetworked to convey touch across distancephysically connecting two remote peopleOne person would move and the other wouldfeel it The idea still has potential but itrsquos notthe one I ended up pursuing Instead afterstarting the project I quickly becamefascinated with basic lifelike motions Thefirst time the blanket animated was in a fitfuldance of random movements As I workedon it I felt like I was training a wild animalvery laboriously I soon lost interest inconnecting to other people My life wasdefined by my relationship with this device Ibegan to think of it as a repository of mythoughts and feelings and believed thatanyone who experienced the device wouldexperience me

Things got weird at times At one stage Iwas trying to get the blanket to crawl aroundso I needed a large surface I purchased asecond-hand bed and pushed it up against myown The floor of my bedroom vanished thenew floor was a mattress starting at knee-height at the doorway and stretching out to allthe walls During the day the robot wouldwiggle to and fro across the surface At nightthere was no need to relocate it so I wouldrest my head next to the machine sleepingside by side It was a strange period but if I

ever I was a true artist it was thenIt turned out that the Blanket was too

challenging a goal for me at the time and thebest I could do was to make it move byremote-control But the project helped clarifymy interests and ideas For one I learned thatpeople will project life onto just aboutanything that moves or has behaviour Thatmeans there is no special need to dress thingsup Secondly the more joints a robot has themore organic its movements appear This is asimple matter of resolution like the numberof pixels it takes to make a face on a screenlook genuine Thirdly feelings can be inducedin humans through tactile interaction insteadof through representation Vigorous motionsexcite participants while gentle movementsare generally relaxing Touch also works aswell for the machines as it does for people soJason Thielke ldquoCompartmentsrdquo 23 x 30 2009

40 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

it is good means of communication Finally Irealized that when designers are freed fromthe constraints of mimesis they can explorean array of different robotic shapes andmovements to learn what kind of effects theyhave on us This I believe is the low-levelaesthetic work that needs to be done in orderto understand how people and machines canrelate

I followed up on the Blanket with anumber of other projects The Tribot was athree legged robot also remote-controlledThe most interesting thing about it was itsaudience it was specially made for dogs Iwanted to test my concepts out on creaturesthat didnrsquot have a past history with robotsFive dogs were brought one at a time into aroom containing me and the Tribot I turnedthe machine on and watched as theinteractions unfolded In most cases the dogsfollowed a recognizable pattern At first theywere suspicious and kept their distance fromthe machine Then they approachedhesitantly and started sniffing it Then theytypically got more aggressive barkingnipping and eventually chewing on themachine Then they became boredmdashI thinkbecause the machine was not responsiveenough to them

The Tribot was sufficiently effective that Idecided to jump into my current biggerproject a fully autonomous companion robotfor people After Deep Blue or ADB forshort is a robot designed for direct physicalinteractions with people Vaguely snake-like inform it is composed of a series of identicalmodules each containing a motor and varioustouch sensors It is about the size of a smallpersons thigh and fits nicely in ones armsADB writhes wriggles twists and squeezes

in response to how it is held and touched Itadapts to you and reciprocates the energyyou put into it though your body Whentouched it comes to life When stroked itseeks more contact And soon when it isharmed it will defend itself or try to getaway

ADB is a work in progress three years inthe making with probably two more to go Ithasnrsquot been easy nor smooth which is one ofthe disadvantages of not being an engineer Ihave shown it publicly only a few times andonly for a few days each time Yet I amalready familiar with most peoplersquos reactionsto it which closely parallel how the dogsresponded to the Tribot with suspicionprobing full engagement and eventualabandonement With this project I am moreinterested in the few people who stick aroundand come back again and again the ones whosimply like the way ADB feels the way itanimates They sit down and caress it for longperiods sometimes forgetting itrsquos there Itbecomes like second nature to them

Thatrsquos the kind of relationship I hope toaugment one in which a person accepts arobot as its own unique entity and yet iswilling to engage it emotionally Some peoplejust feel at ease with machines perhaps moreso than with other people A really usefulkind of social robot is therefore one which isable to service emotional needs preciselybecause it is different from us providingsensation without expectation being morelike hands than eyes Hands make contactafter all whereas eyes seek and judge Handsclose the gap whereas eyes always remain at adistance We experience too many eyesalready Itrsquos rare that we just let go

Nicholas Stedman is a Toronto-based artist who makes electronic devices with unusualapplications These have ranged from tactile robots to a machine for feeling ice from a distanceto a chalice that automates transubstantiation of wine The devices are enacted in galleriesfestivals or other public forums where people can try them out or watch as others exploreNicholasrsquos projects have been shown in Canada and abroad some highlights of which includeArs Electronica SIGGRAPH and a Japanese game show Nicholas also teaches Digital Mediaat Canadas York University and keeps a blog at httpnickstedmanwordpresscom

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 35

36 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Plurk Digg Diigo Bebo Skype FacetimeCrowdstorm Doof I have no doubts abouttheir benefits enabling users to know moreabout each other and about events thatmatter to them and helping them organizefor whatever cause tickles their fancy Socialmedia harnesses the amplifying force ofcrowds to carry individual participants rapidlyupstream towards personal empowermentYet why is it that when these applicationscome up in conversation a subtle maniaoften sets in Networks exert a kind ofinhumane control on us They seek constantattention repeatedly tugging us out of ourphysical engagement with the world Themachines buzz and our bleary eyes swingonce again to the 4-inch screens

To clarify I am not anti-technology Quite

the opposite I am enthralled with thecreative opportunities it affords I work withmany of the same hardware components andsoftware as some of the social media setincluding wireless technologiesmicroprocessors programming and so forthBut I use these to build devices that exploredifferent ways people can relate to the worldIt is an art practice of sorts though onelargely unfamiliar to gallery-goers Some callit ldquodevice artrdquo others ldquophysical computingrdquoand to many it is simply ldquomakingrdquo It is aburgeoning area in which non-engineers likemyself can learn to work with lower leveltechnologies through DIY (do it yourself)principles Fundamentally it is not sodifferent than the hobbyism of yore butthere are new twists First and foremostinformation abounds on the Internet Thenon-expert has access to a vast array ofdocuments tutorials and forums to aid theirdesign efforts Secondly electronics havebecome increasingly modular without toomuch effort devices can be hacked andremixed A GPS system can be combinedwith a motorized-propeller and stitched intoan inflatable garmentmdashnot that yoursquodactually want to do that The bar to inventionhas been lowered and new blood brings withit ideas and interest from different fields

Specifically I design what are calledldquosocialrdquo robots Despite the irony in thename it is a good fit Machines that fall intothis category are intended to serve peoplewho have limited social interactions Theelderly and children with social-affectivedisorders are two commonly cited audiencesbut really anyone who is unsociable like memight be a candidate The social robotcategory has a few permutations includingrobots that assist with multiple householdtasks (ldquobutlersrdquo) and those that entertain andprovide companionship (ldquofriendsrdquo) I ammore interested in the second of these I seerobots as being able to provide unobtrusivecomfortmdashthe antithesis of social media Iimagine stretching out with a robot in myarms at the end of a long day and being

Jason Thielke ldquoDreamerrdquo 23 x 30 2009

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 37

soothed by it with no demands orexpectations not unlike a pet Yet while thisprospect is intriguing it is not what drivesme Pets already exist after all The reason Ido the work is for the challenge of makingsomething that seems alive This is a stronghuman impulse that has been expressedthroughout the ages from the tales of ancientmythology to the life-simulating computergame The Sims and in physical efforts thatdate back at least to the mechanical automataof the thirteenth century Today a quickYouTube search will reveal robots that arecapable of acting with impressive agency andwith new funding from DARPA (the USagency that famously gave birth to theInternet) Irsquod only expect to see a surge insuch developments But at what stage will webe able to say that these machines are in somesense alive To my mind the answer is foundin the words of the late US Supreme CourtJustice Potter Stewart ldquoI know it when I seeitrdquo And so I choose to work on socialrobotics because it offers a chance to engagewith and to get a feel for a robot in such away that we can assess that proposition ofartificial life for ourselvesO ne tendency in social robotics is

really vexing however Themachines are almost always

designed as imitations of people or otheranimals and endowed with features like lipsears and tails Likewise the machines areprogrammed to convey fear happinessboredom and other emotions in response tostimulus and history These features are usedto guide participants through theirinteractions Cynthia Breazeal the MITprofessor and founder of this movementargues that bio-mimicry affords a ldquonaturaland intuitive understanding of [a robotrsquos]emotional behavior and how to influence itrdquoThis seems reasonable enough If you wantto command a robot natural language wouldbe an easy way to do so and a robots facewould offer a focal point for your attention

This principle has encouraged a wholestream of social robotics that focuses on

outward appearance Hiroshi Ishiguro atOsaka University uses silicone skin to coverelectromechanical parts resulting insurprisingly attractive humanoids Yet whenthey interact with people the robots seemtrapped in their own hermetic universesbarely aware of our presence The result iseerie not unlike going to a wax figuremuseum If you know the feeling then youhave experienced the ldquoUncanny Valleyrdquo wecan feel comfortable with and even haveaffection for robots that look mechanicaland unlike people but we feel revulsion whenrobots become too lifelike It has long beentheorized that if robots could be made just alittle more realistic then we would arrive atthe other side of the valley and accept themas social agents I doubt this

Human-like features mask a fundamentaldisconnect A robot in fact doesnrsquot have aface nor does it experience happiness at leastnot the way we do Our features have evolvedover millions of years in parallel with ourfleshy bodies and the planet as a whole Ourappearances are derived both from nuancedrelationships between organs and fromfunctions that extend beyond simplecommunication So when silicone lips areglued onto an electromechanical systemthere is a huge gap between the equipmentthe robot has at its disposal and theldquofeaturesrdquo it purports to have The UncannyValley then is our apprehension of thecontradiction It is a real problem one thatdesigners need to come to terms withBreazealrsquos own PhD advisor Rodney Brooksonce warned that building humanoid robotsthough generally desirable carries a dangerof engaging in cargo-cult science where onlythe broad outline form is mimicked but noneof the internal essentials are there at allrdquo

Were comfortable with robots thatlook mechanical but feel revulsionwhen they become too lifelike

38 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Indeed it seems that some researchershave fallen into the trappings of pseudo-science Studies Irsquove looked at fail to appraisehow robots affect human subjects There isan assumption that since the robots look likepeople that we accept them in the same waywhich is debatable Here is the entire list ofcriteria offered in an evaluation of Paro oneof the more renowned social robots and afuzzy white seal to boot 1) Cute 2) Want topet it 3) Want to talk to it 4) Has vitality 5)Easy to get friendly with 6) Has realexpressions 7) Natural 8) Feels good to thetouch 9) Fun to play with 10) Comfortableto play with 11) Relaxing 12) Like 13)Needed in this world 14) Want it for myself15) Would give as present Every single oneof these categories contextualizes Paro as afriendly companion and begs respondents torecount their enjoyment It is the epitome ofexperimenter bias What is learned here aboutParorsquos effectiveness as a robot They might aswell be asking about a stuffed animal Maybeit all works but it seems rather silly and if thecurrent lack of social robots tucking us in atnight is any sign then it appears thatsomething in the discipline is off trackW hatrsquos needed is good dose of

aesthetic critique After allthese robots are artifacts that

are intended to function primarily byoperating on our human sensitivities to evokeemotional responses Is this not one of thedefinitions of a work of art We can be morespecific Over the past century art has beengenerally considered to fall into one of twocategories There is the representationalapproach in which artists depict peoplelandscapes and other recognizable objectsThough ldquorealisticrdquo the depictions are alsoillusory in that the paint on the canvas isobviously not the same thing as the person itrepresents Spectators willingly suspend theirdisbelief allowing their imaginations to runwith the scene We do something similarwhen we accept the actor Robert Downey Jras a superhero in a summer blockbuster for acouple of hours By contrast non-

representational artists explore the materialproperties of a medium to see what kind ofaesthetics are possible They look at how lineshape color and movement can be renderedand how these renderings affect the viewerThis is the approach famously associatedwith abstract expressionist icons like JacksonPollock and Mark Rothko but the approachis equally applicable to instrumental musicMany artists are at ease with these twotraditions often borrowing from each todepict figures with individualistic style

The principles of representational art areat play within the field of social roboticsalthough no one talks about them explicitlyWhen we encounter a robot built to mimicpeople we suspend our disbelief and pretendthat the machine is alive as we would withany toy But researchers are too ready topoint to this emotional engagement asthough it is induced by the robotrsquos engineeredbehavior and not in fact by our ownimagination Engineers are creating illusionsbut claiming reality a stance as absurd as afilmmaker asserting that we root for RobertDowney Jr because he actually is asuperhero In this context the UncannyValley is not a valley at all but a sloping cliffWe sense the gap between the robotrsquosappearance and the underlying reality and itmakes us as uncomfortable as any fib Weaccept mechanical-looking robots becausetheir appearance makes sense because robotsare machine We may also ldquoacceptrdquoillusionistic robots but we do so with a grainof salt

Machines that are like us are easy toimagine but extremely difficult to make Thetask involves reproducing the mechanismsthat make us human including ourmorphology our senses our memory ourlanguage and our emotions Cracking thestock market is probably an easier taskProgress is happening but authentic human-like behavior is still a good distace awayThere is much work to be done in order tobuild the necessary capacities

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 39

M y own designs are probably bestintroduced by way of a story AsI said before Irsquom okay with

being on my own but Irsquom not a lonely guy Iknow because at one point I was I feltuncomfortable so I isolated myself It was adownward spiral the more I avoided peoplethe more awkward I felt in social situationsand the more I wanted to get away It gotextremely intense at times I couldnrsquot makeeye contact I feigned contentment whenreally I felt constantly and intenselydepressed

During this period I began working on myfirst robot in an effort called the BlanketProject When I originally proposed it Iimagined making social-enabling devices apair of robotic blankets each filled with a gridof many motors and sensors They would benetworked to convey touch across distancephysically connecting two remote peopleOne person would move and the other wouldfeel it The idea still has potential but itrsquos notthe one I ended up pursuing Instead afterstarting the project I quickly becamefascinated with basic lifelike motions Thefirst time the blanket animated was in a fitfuldance of random movements As I workedon it I felt like I was training a wild animalvery laboriously I soon lost interest inconnecting to other people My life wasdefined by my relationship with this device Ibegan to think of it as a repository of mythoughts and feelings and believed thatanyone who experienced the device wouldexperience me

Things got weird at times At one stage Iwas trying to get the blanket to crawl aroundso I needed a large surface I purchased asecond-hand bed and pushed it up against myown The floor of my bedroom vanished thenew floor was a mattress starting at knee-height at the doorway and stretching out to allthe walls During the day the robot wouldwiggle to and fro across the surface At nightthere was no need to relocate it so I wouldrest my head next to the machine sleepingside by side It was a strange period but if I

ever I was a true artist it was thenIt turned out that the Blanket was too

challenging a goal for me at the time and thebest I could do was to make it move byremote-control But the project helped clarifymy interests and ideas For one I learned thatpeople will project life onto just aboutanything that moves or has behaviour Thatmeans there is no special need to dress thingsup Secondly the more joints a robot has themore organic its movements appear This is asimple matter of resolution like the numberof pixels it takes to make a face on a screenlook genuine Thirdly feelings can be inducedin humans through tactile interaction insteadof through representation Vigorous motionsexcite participants while gentle movementsare generally relaxing Touch also works aswell for the machines as it does for people soJason Thielke ldquoCompartmentsrdquo 23 x 30 2009

40 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

it is good means of communication Finally Irealized that when designers are freed fromthe constraints of mimesis they can explorean array of different robotic shapes andmovements to learn what kind of effects theyhave on us This I believe is the low-levelaesthetic work that needs to be done in orderto understand how people and machines canrelate

I followed up on the Blanket with anumber of other projects The Tribot was athree legged robot also remote-controlledThe most interesting thing about it was itsaudience it was specially made for dogs Iwanted to test my concepts out on creaturesthat didnrsquot have a past history with robotsFive dogs were brought one at a time into aroom containing me and the Tribot I turnedthe machine on and watched as theinteractions unfolded In most cases the dogsfollowed a recognizable pattern At first theywere suspicious and kept their distance fromthe machine Then they approachedhesitantly and started sniffing it Then theytypically got more aggressive barkingnipping and eventually chewing on themachine Then they became boredmdashI thinkbecause the machine was not responsiveenough to them

The Tribot was sufficiently effective that Idecided to jump into my current biggerproject a fully autonomous companion robotfor people After Deep Blue or ADB forshort is a robot designed for direct physicalinteractions with people Vaguely snake-like inform it is composed of a series of identicalmodules each containing a motor and varioustouch sensors It is about the size of a smallpersons thigh and fits nicely in ones armsADB writhes wriggles twists and squeezes

in response to how it is held and touched Itadapts to you and reciprocates the energyyou put into it though your body Whentouched it comes to life When stroked itseeks more contact And soon when it isharmed it will defend itself or try to getaway

ADB is a work in progress three years inthe making with probably two more to go Ithasnrsquot been easy nor smooth which is one ofthe disadvantages of not being an engineer Ihave shown it publicly only a few times andonly for a few days each time Yet I amalready familiar with most peoplersquos reactionsto it which closely parallel how the dogsresponded to the Tribot with suspicionprobing full engagement and eventualabandonement With this project I am moreinterested in the few people who stick aroundand come back again and again the ones whosimply like the way ADB feels the way itanimates They sit down and caress it for longperiods sometimes forgetting itrsquos there Itbecomes like second nature to them

Thatrsquos the kind of relationship I hope toaugment one in which a person accepts arobot as its own unique entity and yet iswilling to engage it emotionally Some peoplejust feel at ease with machines perhaps moreso than with other people A really usefulkind of social robot is therefore one which isable to service emotional needs preciselybecause it is different from us providingsensation without expectation being morelike hands than eyes Hands make contactafter all whereas eyes seek and judge Handsclose the gap whereas eyes always remain at adistance We experience too many eyesalready Itrsquos rare that we just let go

Nicholas Stedman is a Toronto-based artist who makes electronic devices with unusualapplications These have ranged from tactile robots to a machine for feeling ice from a distanceto a chalice that automates transubstantiation of wine The devices are enacted in galleriesfestivals or other public forums where people can try them out or watch as others exploreNicholasrsquos projects have been shown in Canada and abroad some highlights of which includeArs Electronica SIGGRAPH and a Japanese game show Nicholas also teaches Digital Mediaat Canadas York University and keeps a blog at httpnickstedmanwordpresscom

36 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Plurk Digg Diigo Bebo Skype FacetimeCrowdstorm Doof I have no doubts abouttheir benefits enabling users to know moreabout each other and about events thatmatter to them and helping them organizefor whatever cause tickles their fancy Socialmedia harnesses the amplifying force ofcrowds to carry individual participants rapidlyupstream towards personal empowermentYet why is it that when these applicationscome up in conversation a subtle maniaoften sets in Networks exert a kind ofinhumane control on us They seek constantattention repeatedly tugging us out of ourphysical engagement with the world Themachines buzz and our bleary eyes swingonce again to the 4-inch screens

To clarify I am not anti-technology Quite

the opposite I am enthralled with thecreative opportunities it affords I work withmany of the same hardware components andsoftware as some of the social media setincluding wireless technologiesmicroprocessors programming and so forthBut I use these to build devices that exploredifferent ways people can relate to the worldIt is an art practice of sorts though onelargely unfamiliar to gallery-goers Some callit ldquodevice artrdquo others ldquophysical computingrdquoand to many it is simply ldquomakingrdquo It is aburgeoning area in which non-engineers likemyself can learn to work with lower leveltechnologies through DIY (do it yourself)principles Fundamentally it is not sodifferent than the hobbyism of yore butthere are new twists First and foremostinformation abounds on the Internet Thenon-expert has access to a vast array ofdocuments tutorials and forums to aid theirdesign efforts Secondly electronics havebecome increasingly modular without toomuch effort devices can be hacked andremixed A GPS system can be combinedwith a motorized-propeller and stitched intoan inflatable garmentmdashnot that yoursquodactually want to do that The bar to inventionhas been lowered and new blood brings withit ideas and interest from different fields

Specifically I design what are calledldquosocialrdquo robots Despite the irony in thename it is a good fit Machines that fall intothis category are intended to serve peoplewho have limited social interactions Theelderly and children with social-affectivedisorders are two commonly cited audiencesbut really anyone who is unsociable like memight be a candidate The social robotcategory has a few permutations includingrobots that assist with multiple householdtasks (ldquobutlersrdquo) and those that entertain andprovide companionship (ldquofriendsrdquo) I ammore interested in the second of these I seerobots as being able to provide unobtrusivecomfortmdashthe antithesis of social media Iimagine stretching out with a robot in myarms at the end of a long day and being

Jason Thielke ldquoDreamerrdquo 23 x 30 2009

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 37

soothed by it with no demands orexpectations not unlike a pet Yet while thisprospect is intriguing it is not what drivesme Pets already exist after all The reason Ido the work is for the challenge of makingsomething that seems alive This is a stronghuman impulse that has been expressedthroughout the ages from the tales of ancientmythology to the life-simulating computergame The Sims and in physical efforts thatdate back at least to the mechanical automataof the thirteenth century Today a quickYouTube search will reveal robots that arecapable of acting with impressive agency andwith new funding from DARPA (the USagency that famously gave birth to theInternet) Irsquod only expect to see a surge insuch developments But at what stage will webe able to say that these machines are in somesense alive To my mind the answer is foundin the words of the late US Supreme CourtJustice Potter Stewart ldquoI know it when I seeitrdquo And so I choose to work on socialrobotics because it offers a chance to engagewith and to get a feel for a robot in such away that we can assess that proposition ofartificial life for ourselvesO ne tendency in social robotics is

really vexing however Themachines are almost always

designed as imitations of people or otheranimals and endowed with features like lipsears and tails Likewise the machines areprogrammed to convey fear happinessboredom and other emotions in response tostimulus and history These features are usedto guide participants through theirinteractions Cynthia Breazeal the MITprofessor and founder of this movementargues that bio-mimicry affords a ldquonaturaland intuitive understanding of [a robotrsquos]emotional behavior and how to influence itrdquoThis seems reasonable enough If you wantto command a robot natural language wouldbe an easy way to do so and a robots facewould offer a focal point for your attention

This principle has encouraged a wholestream of social robotics that focuses on

outward appearance Hiroshi Ishiguro atOsaka University uses silicone skin to coverelectromechanical parts resulting insurprisingly attractive humanoids Yet whenthey interact with people the robots seemtrapped in their own hermetic universesbarely aware of our presence The result iseerie not unlike going to a wax figuremuseum If you know the feeling then youhave experienced the ldquoUncanny Valleyrdquo wecan feel comfortable with and even haveaffection for robots that look mechanicaland unlike people but we feel revulsion whenrobots become too lifelike It has long beentheorized that if robots could be made just alittle more realistic then we would arrive atthe other side of the valley and accept themas social agents I doubt this

Human-like features mask a fundamentaldisconnect A robot in fact doesnrsquot have aface nor does it experience happiness at leastnot the way we do Our features have evolvedover millions of years in parallel with ourfleshy bodies and the planet as a whole Ourappearances are derived both from nuancedrelationships between organs and fromfunctions that extend beyond simplecommunication So when silicone lips areglued onto an electromechanical systemthere is a huge gap between the equipmentthe robot has at its disposal and theldquofeaturesrdquo it purports to have The UncannyValley then is our apprehension of thecontradiction It is a real problem one thatdesigners need to come to terms withBreazealrsquos own PhD advisor Rodney Brooksonce warned that building humanoid robotsthough generally desirable carries a dangerof engaging in cargo-cult science where onlythe broad outline form is mimicked but noneof the internal essentials are there at allrdquo

Were comfortable with robots thatlook mechanical but feel revulsionwhen they become too lifelike

38 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Indeed it seems that some researchershave fallen into the trappings of pseudo-science Studies Irsquove looked at fail to appraisehow robots affect human subjects There isan assumption that since the robots look likepeople that we accept them in the same waywhich is debatable Here is the entire list ofcriteria offered in an evaluation of Paro oneof the more renowned social robots and afuzzy white seal to boot 1) Cute 2) Want topet it 3) Want to talk to it 4) Has vitality 5)Easy to get friendly with 6) Has realexpressions 7) Natural 8) Feels good to thetouch 9) Fun to play with 10) Comfortableto play with 11) Relaxing 12) Like 13)Needed in this world 14) Want it for myself15) Would give as present Every single oneof these categories contextualizes Paro as afriendly companion and begs respondents torecount their enjoyment It is the epitome ofexperimenter bias What is learned here aboutParorsquos effectiveness as a robot They might aswell be asking about a stuffed animal Maybeit all works but it seems rather silly and if thecurrent lack of social robots tucking us in atnight is any sign then it appears thatsomething in the discipline is off trackW hatrsquos needed is good dose of

aesthetic critique After allthese robots are artifacts that

are intended to function primarily byoperating on our human sensitivities to evokeemotional responses Is this not one of thedefinitions of a work of art We can be morespecific Over the past century art has beengenerally considered to fall into one of twocategories There is the representationalapproach in which artists depict peoplelandscapes and other recognizable objectsThough ldquorealisticrdquo the depictions are alsoillusory in that the paint on the canvas isobviously not the same thing as the person itrepresents Spectators willingly suspend theirdisbelief allowing their imaginations to runwith the scene We do something similarwhen we accept the actor Robert Downey Jras a superhero in a summer blockbuster for acouple of hours By contrast non-

representational artists explore the materialproperties of a medium to see what kind ofaesthetics are possible They look at how lineshape color and movement can be renderedand how these renderings affect the viewerThis is the approach famously associatedwith abstract expressionist icons like JacksonPollock and Mark Rothko but the approachis equally applicable to instrumental musicMany artists are at ease with these twotraditions often borrowing from each todepict figures with individualistic style

The principles of representational art areat play within the field of social roboticsalthough no one talks about them explicitlyWhen we encounter a robot built to mimicpeople we suspend our disbelief and pretendthat the machine is alive as we would withany toy But researchers are too ready topoint to this emotional engagement asthough it is induced by the robotrsquos engineeredbehavior and not in fact by our ownimagination Engineers are creating illusionsbut claiming reality a stance as absurd as afilmmaker asserting that we root for RobertDowney Jr because he actually is asuperhero In this context the UncannyValley is not a valley at all but a sloping cliffWe sense the gap between the robotrsquosappearance and the underlying reality and itmakes us as uncomfortable as any fib Weaccept mechanical-looking robots becausetheir appearance makes sense because robotsare machine We may also ldquoacceptrdquoillusionistic robots but we do so with a grainof salt

Machines that are like us are easy toimagine but extremely difficult to make Thetask involves reproducing the mechanismsthat make us human including ourmorphology our senses our memory ourlanguage and our emotions Cracking thestock market is probably an easier taskProgress is happening but authentic human-like behavior is still a good distace awayThere is much work to be done in order tobuild the necessary capacities

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 39

M y own designs are probably bestintroduced by way of a story AsI said before Irsquom okay with

being on my own but Irsquom not a lonely guy Iknow because at one point I was I feltuncomfortable so I isolated myself It was adownward spiral the more I avoided peoplethe more awkward I felt in social situationsand the more I wanted to get away It gotextremely intense at times I couldnrsquot makeeye contact I feigned contentment whenreally I felt constantly and intenselydepressed

During this period I began working on myfirst robot in an effort called the BlanketProject When I originally proposed it Iimagined making social-enabling devices apair of robotic blankets each filled with a gridof many motors and sensors They would benetworked to convey touch across distancephysically connecting two remote peopleOne person would move and the other wouldfeel it The idea still has potential but itrsquos notthe one I ended up pursuing Instead afterstarting the project I quickly becamefascinated with basic lifelike motions Thefirst time the blanket animated was in a fitfuldance of random movements As I workedon it I felt like I was training a wild animalvery laboriously I soon lost interest inconnecting to other people My life wasdefined by my relationship with this device Ibegan to think of it as a repository of mythoughts and feelings and believed thatanyone who experienced the device wouldexperience me

Things got weird at times At one stage Iwas trying to get the blanket to crawl aroundso I needed a large surface I purchased asecond-hand bed and pushed it up against myown The floor of my bedroom vanished thenew floor was a mattress starting at knee-height at the doorway and stretching out to allthe walls During the day the robot wouldwiggle to and fro across the surface At nightthere was no need to relocate it so I wouldrest my head next to the machine sleepingside by side It was a strange period but if I

ever I was a true artist it was thenIt turned out that the Blanket was too

challenging a goal for me at the time and thebest I could do was to make it move byremote-control But the project helped clarifymy interests and ideas For one I learned thatpeople will project life onto just aboutanything that moves or has behaviour Thatmeans there is no special need to dress thingsup Secondly the more joints a robot has themore organic its movements appear This is asimple matter of resolution like the numberof pixels it takes to make a face on a screenlook genuine Thirdly feelings can be inducedin humans through tactile interaction insteadof through representation Vigorous motionsexcite participants while gentle movementsare generally relaxing Touch also works aswell for the machines as it does for people soJason Thielke ldquoCompartmentsrdquo 23 x 30 2009

40 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

it is good means of communication Finally Irealized that when designers are freed fromthe constraints of mimesis they can explorean array of different robotic shapes andmovements to learn what kind of effects theyhave on us This I believe is the low-levelaesthetic work that needs to be done in orderto understand how people and machines canrelate

I followed up on the Blanket with anumber of other projects The Tribot was athree legged robot also remote-controlledThe most interesting thing about it was itsaudience it was specially made for dogs Iwanted to test my concepts out on creaturesthat didnrsquot have a past history with robotsFive dogs were brought one at a time into aroom containing me and the Tribot I turnedthe machine on and watched as theinteractions unfolded In most cases the dogsfollowed a recognizable pattern At first theywere suspicious and kept their distance fromthe machine Then they approachedhesitantly and started sniffing it Then theytypically got more aggressive barkingnipping and eventually chewing on themachine Then they became boredmdashI thinkbecause the machine was not responsiveenough to them

The Tribot was sufficiently effective that Idecided to jump into my current biggerproject a fully autonomous companion robotfor people After Deep Blue or ADB forshort is a robot designed for direct physicalinteractions with people Vaguely snake-like inform it is composed of a series of identicalmodules each containing a motor and varioustouch sensors It is about the size of a smallpersons thigh and fits nicely in ones armsADB writhes wriggles twists and squeezes

in response to how it is held and touched Itadapts to you and reciprocates the energyyou put into it though your body Whentouched it comes to life When stroked itseeks more contact And soon when it isharmed it will defend itself or try to getaway

ADB is a work in progress three years inthe making with probably two more to go Ithasnrsquot been easy nor smooth which is one ofthe disadvantages of not being an engineer Ihave shown it publicly only a few times andonly for a few days each time Yet I amalready familiar with most peoplersquos reactionsto it which closely parallel how the dogsresponded to the Tribot with suspicionprobing full engagement and eventualabandonement With this project I am moreinterested in the few people who stick aroundand come back again and again the ones whosimply like the way ADB feels the way itanimates They sit down and caress it for longperiods sometimes forgetting itrsquos there Itbecomes like second nature to them

Thatrsquos the kind of relationship I hope toaugment one in which a person accepts arobot as its own unique entity and yet iswilling to engage it emotionally Some peoplejust feel at ease with machines perhaps moreso than with other people A really usefulkind of social robot is therefore one which isable to service emotional needs preciselybecause it is different from us providingsensation without expectation being morelike hands than eyes Hands make contactafter all whereas eyes seek and judge Handsclose the gap whereas eyes always remain at adistance We experience too many eyesalready Itrsquos rare that we just let go

Nicholas Stedman is a Toronto-based artist who makes electronic devices with unusualapplications These have ranged from tactile robots to a machine for feeling ice from a distanceto a chalice that automates transubstantiation of wine The devices are enacted in galleriesfestivals or other public forums where people can try them out or watch as others exploreNicholasrsquos projects have been shown in Canada and abroad some highlights of which includeArs Electronica SIGGRAPH and a Japanese game show Nicholas also teaches Digital Mediaat Canadas York University and keeps a blog at httpnickstedmanwordpresscom

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 37

soothed by it with no demands orexpectations not unlike a pet Yet while thisprospect is intriguing it is not what drivesme Pets already exist after all The reason Ido the work is for the challenge of makingsomething that seems alive This is a stronghuman impulse that has been expressedthroughout the ages from the tales of ancientmythology to the life-simulating computergame The Sims and in physical efforts thatdate back at least to the mechanical automataof the thirteenth century Today a quickYouTube search will reveal robots that arecapable of acting with impressive agency andwith new funding from DARPA (the USagency that famously gave birth to theInternet) Irsquod only expect to see a surge insuch developments But at what stage will webe able to say that these machines are in somesense alive To my mind the answer is foundin the words of the late US Supreme CourtJustice Potter Stewart ldquoI know it when I seeitrdquo And so I choose to work on socialrobotics because it offers a chance to engagewith and to get a feel for a robot in such away that we can assess that proposition ofartificial life for ourselvesO ne tendency in social robotics is

really vexing however Themachines are almost always

designed as imitations of people or otheranimals and endowed with features like lipsears and tails Likewise the machines areprogrammed to convey fear happinessboredom and other emotions in response tostimulus and history These features are usedto guide participants through theirinteractions Cynthia Breazeal the MITprofessor and founder of this movementargues that bio-mimicry affords a ldquonaturaland intuitive understanding of [a robotrsquos]emotional behavior and how to influence itrdquoThis seems reasonable enough If you wantto command a robot natural language wouldbe an easy way to do so and a robots facewould offer a focal point for your attention

This principle has encouraged a wholestream of social robotics that focuses on

outward appearance Hiroshi Ishiguro atOsaka University uses silicone skin to coverelectromechanical parts resulting insurprisingly attractive humanoids Yet whenthey interact with people the robots seemtrapped in their own hermetic universesbarely aware of our presence The result iseerie not unlike going to a wax figuremuseum If you know the feeling then youhave experienced the ldquoUncanny Valleyrdquo wecan feel comfortable with and even haveaffection for robots that look mechanicaland unlike people but we feel revulsion whenrobots become too lifelike It has long beentheorized that if robots could be made just alittle more realistic then we would arrive atthe other side of the valley and accept themas social agents I doubt this

Human-like features mask a fundamentaldisconnect A robot in fact doesnrsquot have aface nor does it experience happiness at leastnot the way we do Our features have evolvedover millions of years in parallel with ourfleshy bodies and the planet as a whole Ourappearances are derived both from nuancedrelationships between organs and fromfunctions that extend beyond simplecommunication So when silicone lips areglued onto an electromechanical systemthere is a huge gap between the equipmentthe robot has at its disposal and theldquofeaturesrdquo it purports to have The UncannyValley then is our apprehension of thecontradiction It is a real problem one thatdesigners need to come to terms withBreazealrsquos own PhD advisor Rodney Brooksonce warned that building humanoid robotsthough generally desirable carries a dangerof engaging in cargo-cult science where onlythe broad outline form is mimicked but noneof the internal essentials are there at allrdquo

Were comfortable with robots thatlook mechanical but feel revulsionwhen they become too lifelike

38 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Indeed it seems that some researchershave fallen into the trappings of pseudo-science Studies Irsquove looked at fail to appraisehow robots affect human subjects There isan assumption that since the robots look likepeople that we accept them in the same waywhich is debatable Here is the entire list ofcriteria offered in an evaluation of Paro oneof the more renowned social robots and afuzzy white seal to boot 1) Cute 2) Want topet it 3) Want to talk to it 4) Has vitality 5)Easy to get friendly with 6) Has realexpressions 7) Natural 8) Feels good to thetouch 9) Fun to play with 10) Comfortableto play with 11) Relaxing 12) Like 13)Needed in this world 14) Want it for myself15) Would give as present Every single oneof these categories contextualizes Paro as afriendly companion and begs respondents torecount their enjoyment It is the epitome ofexperimenter bias What is learned here aboutParorsquos effectiveness as a robot They might aswell be asking about a stuffed animal Maybeit all works but it seems rather silly and if thecurrent lack of social robots tucking us in atnight is any sign then it appears thatsomething in the discipline is off trackW hatrsquos needed is good dose of

aesthetic critique After allthese robots are artifacts that

are intended to function primarily byoperating on our human sensitivities to evokeemotional responses Is this not one of thedefinitions of a work of art We can be morespecific Over the past century art has beengenerally considered to fall into one of twocategories There is the representationalapproach in which artists depict peoplelandscapes and other recognizable objectsThough ldquorealisticrdquo the depictions are alsoillusory in that the paint on the canvas isobviously not the same thing as the person itrepresents Spectators willingly suspend theirdisbelief allowing their imaginations to runwith the scene We do something similarwhen we accept the actor Robert Downey Jras a superhero in a summer blockbuster for acouple of hours By contrast non-

representational artists explore the materialproperties of a medium to see what kind ofaesthetics are possible They look at how lineshape color and movement can be renderedand how these renderings affect the viewerThis is the approach famously associatedwith abstract expressionist icons like JacksonPollock and Mark Rothko but the approachis equally applicable to instrumental musicMany artists are at ease with these twotraditions often borrowing from each todepict figures with individualistic style

The principles of representational art areat play within the field of social roboticsalthough no one talks about them explicitlyWhen we encounter a robot built to mimicpeople we suspend our disbelief and pretendthat the machine is alive as we would withany toy But researchers are too ready topoint to this emotional engagement asthough it is induced by the robotrsquos engineeredbehavior and not in fact by our ownimagination Engineers are creating illusionsbut claiming reality a stance as absurd as afilmmaker asserting that we root for RobertDowney Jr because he actually is asuperhero In this context the UncannyValley is not a valley at all but a sloping cliffWe sense the gap between the robotrsquosappearance and the underlying reality and itmakes us as uncomfortable as any fib Weaccept mechanical-looking robots becausetheir appearance makes sense because robotsare machine We may also ldquoacceptrdquoillusionistic robots but we do so with a grainof salt

Machines that are like us are easy toimagine but extremely difficult to make Thetask involves reproducing the mechanismsthat make us human including ourmorphology our senses our memory ourlanguage and our emotions Cracking thestock market is probably an easier taskProgress is happening but authentic human-like behavior is still a good distace awayThere is much work to be done in order tobuild the necessary capacities

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 39

M y own designs are probably bestintroduced by way of a story AsI said before Irsquom okay with

being on my own but Irsquom not a lonely guy Iknow because at one point I was I feltuncomfortable so I isolated myself It was adownward spiral the more I avoided peoplethe more awkward I felt in social situationsand the more I wanted to get away It gotextremely intense at times I couldnrsquot makeeye contact I feigned contentment whenreally I felt constantly and intenselydepressed

During this period I began working on myfirst robot in an effort called the BlanketProject When I originally proposed it Iimagined making social-enabling devices apair of robotic blankets each filled with a gridof many motors and sensors They would benetworked to convey touch across distancephysically connecting two remote peopleOne person would move and the other wouldfeel it The idea still has potential but itrsquos notthe one I ended up pursuing Instead afterstarting the project I quickly becamefascinated with basic lifelike motions Thefirst time the blanket animated was in a fitfuldance of random movements As I workedon it I felt like I was training a wild animalvery laboriously I soon lost interest inconnecting to other people My life wasdefined by my relationship with this device Ibegan to think of it as a repository of mythoughts and feelings and believed thatanyone who experienced the device wouldexperience me

Things got weird at times At one stage Iwas trying to get the blanket to crawl aroundso I needed a large surface I purchased asecond-hand bed and pushed it up against myown The floor of my bedroom vanished thenew floor was a mattress starting at knee-height at the doorway and stretching out to allthe walls During the day the robot wouldwiggle to and fro across the surface At nightthere was no need to relocate it so I wouldrest my head next to the machine sleepingside by side It was a strange period but if I

ever I was a true artist it was thenIt turned out that the Blanket was too

challenging a goal for me at the time and thebest I could do was to make it move byremote-control But the project helped clarifymy interests and ideas For one I learned thatpeople will project life onto just aboutanything that moves or has behaviour Thatmeans there is no special need to dress thingsup Secondly the more joints a robot has themore organic its movements appear This is asimple matter of resolution like the numberof pixels it takes to make a face on a screenlook genuine Thirdly feelings can be inducedin humans through tactile interaction insteadof through representation Vigorous motionsexcite participants while gentle movementsare generally relaxing Touch also works aswell for the machines as it does for people soJason Thielke ldquoCompartmentsrdquo 23 x 30 2009

40 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

it is good means of communication Finally Irealized that when designers are freed fromthe constraints of mimesis they can explorean array of different robotic shapes andmovements to learn what kind of effects theyhave on us This I believe is the low-levelaesthetic work that needs to be done in orderto understand how people and machines canrelate

I followed up on the Blanket with anumber of other projects The Tribot was athree legged robot also remote-controlledThe most interesting thing about it was itsaudience it was specially made for dogs Iwanted to test my concepts out on creaturesthat didnrsquot have a past history with robotsFive dogs were brought one at a time into aroom containing me and the Tribot I turnedthe machine on and watched as theinteractions unfolded In most cases the dogsfollowed a recognizable pattern At first theywere suspicious and kept their distance fromthe machine Then they approachedhesitantly and started sniffing it Then theytypically got more aggressive barkingnipping and eventually chewing on themachine Then they became boredmdashI thinkbecause the machine was not responsiveenough to them

The Tribot was sufficiently effective that Idecided to jump into my current biggerproject a fully autonomous companion robotfor people After Deep Blue or ADB forshort is a robot designed for direct physicalinteractions with people Vaguely snake-like inform it is composed of a series of identicalmodules each containing a motor and varioustouch sensors It is about the size of a smallpersons thigh and fits nicely in ones armsADB writhes wriggles twists and squeezes

in response to how it is held and touched Itadapts to you and reciprocates the energyyou put into it though your body Whentouched it comes to life When stroked itseeks more contact And soon when it isharmed it will defend itself or try to getaway

ADB is a work in progress three years inthe making with probably two more to go Ithasnrsquot been easy nor smooth which is one ofthe disadvantages of not being an engineer Ihave shown it publicly only a few times andonly for a few days each time Yet I amalready familiar with most peoplersquos reactionsto it which closely parallel how the dogsresponded to the Tribot with suspicionprobing full engagement and eventualabandonement With this project I am moreinterested in the few people who stick aroundand come back again and again the ones whosimply like the way ADB feels the way itanimates They sit down and caress it for longperiods sometimes forgetting itrsquos there Itbecomes like second nature to them

Thatrsquos the kind of relationship I hope toaugment one in which a person accepts arobot as its own unique entity and yet iswilling to engage it emotionally Some peoplejust feel at ease with machines perhaps moreso than with other people A really usefulkind of social robot is therefore one which isable to service emotional needs preciselybecause it is different from us providingsensation without expectation being morelike hands than eyes Hands make contactafter all whereas eyes seek and judge Handsclose the gap whereas eyes always remain at adistance We experience too many eyesalready Itrsquos rare that we just let go

Nicholas Stedman is a Toronto-based artist who makes electronic devices with unusualapplications These have ranged from tactile robots to a machine for feeling ice from a distanceto a chalice that automates transubstantiation of wine The devices are enacted in galleriesfestivals or other public forums where people can try them out or watch as others exploreNicholasrsquos projects have been shown in Canada and abroad some highlights of which includeArs Electronica SIGGRAPH and a Japanese game show Nicholas also teaches Digital Mediaat Canadas York University and keeps a blog at httpnickstedmanwordpresscom

38 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Indeed it seems that some researchershave fallen into the trappings of pseudo-science Studies Irsquove looked at fail to appraisehow robots affect human subjects There isan assumption that since the robots look likepeople that we accept them in the same waywhich is debatable Here is the entire list ofcriteria offered in an evaluation of Paro oneof the more renowned social robots and afuzzy white seal to boot 1) Cute 2) Want topet it 3) Want to talk to it 4) Has vitality 5)Easy to get friendly with 6) Has realexpressions 7) Natural 8) Feels good to thetouch 9) Fun to play with 10) Comfortableto play with 11) Relaxing 12) Like 13)Needed in this world 14) Want it for myself15) Would give as present Every single oneof these categories contextualizes Paro as afriendly companion and begs respondents torecount their enjoyment It is the epitome ofexperimenter bias What is learned here aboutParorsquos effectiveness as a robot They might aswell be asking about a stuffed animal Maybeit all works but it seems rather silly and if thecurrent lack of social robots tucking us in atnight is any sign then it appears thatsomething in the discipline is off trackW hatrsquos needed is good dose of

aesthetic critique After allthese robots are artifacts that

are intended to function primarily byoperating on our human sensitivities to evokeemotional responses Is this not one of thedefinitions of a work of art We can be morespecific Over the past century art has beengenerally considered to fall into one of twocategories There is the representationalapproach in which artists depict peoplelandscapes and other recognizable objectsThough ldquorealisticrdquo the depictions are alsoillusory in that the paint on the canvas isobviously not the same thing as the person itrepresents Spectators willingly suspend theirdisbelief allowing their imaginations to runwith the scene We do something similarwhen we accept the actor Robert Downey Jras a superhero in a summer blockbuster for acouple of hours By contrast non-

representational artists explore the materialproperties of a medium to see what kind ofaesthetics are possible They look at how lineshape color and movement can be renderedand how these renderings affect the viewerThis is the approach famously associatedwith abstract expressionist icons like JacksonPollock and Mark Rothko but the approachis equally applicable to instrumental musicMany artists are at ease with these twotraditions often borrowing from each todepict figures with individualistic style

The principles of representational art areat play within the field of social roboticsalthough no one talks about them explicitlyWhen we encounter a robot built to mimicpeople we suspend our disbelief and pretendthat the machine is alive as we would withany toy But researchers are too ready topoint to this emotional engagement asthough it is induced by the robotrsquos engineeredbehavior and not in fact by our ownimagination Engineers are creating illusionsbut claiming reality a stance as absurd as afilmmaker asserting that we root for RobertDowney Jr because he actually is asuperhero In this context the UncannyValley is not a valley at all but a sloping cliffWe sense the gap between the robotrsquosappearance and the underlying reality and itmakes us as uncomfortable as any fib Weaccept mechanical-looking robots becausetheir appearance makes sense because robotsare machine We may also ldquoacceptrdquoillusionistic robots but we do so with a grainof salt

Machines that are like us are easy toimagine but extremely difficult to make Thetask involves reproducing the mechanismsthat make us human including ourmorphology our senses our memory ourlanguage and our emotions Cracking thestock market is probably an easier taskProgress is happening but authentic human-like behavior is still a good distace awayThere is much work to be done in order tobuild the necessary capacities

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 39

M y own designs are probably bestintroduced by way of a story AsI said before Irsquom okay with

being on my own but Irsquom not a lonely guy Iknow because at one point I was I feltuncomfortable so I isolated myself It was adownward spiral the more I avoided peoplethe more awkward I felt in social situationsand the more I wanted to get away It gotextremely intense at times I couldnrsquot makeeye contact I feigned contentment whenreally I felt constantly and intenselydepressed

During this period I began working on myfirst robot in an effort called the BlanketProject When I originally proposed it Iimagined making social-enabling devices apair of robotic blankets each filled with a gridof many motors and sensors They would benetworked to convey touch across distancephysically connecting two remote peopleOne person would move and the other wouldfeel it The idea still has potential but itrsquos notthe one I ended up pursuing Instead afterstarting the project I quickly becamefascinated with basic lifelike motions Thefirst time the blanket animated was in a fitfuldance of random movements As I workedon it I felt like I was training a wild animalvery laboriously I soon lost interest inconnecting to other people My life wasdefined by my relationship with this device Ibegan to think of it as a repository of mythoughts and feelings and believed thatanyone who experienced the device wouldexperience me

Things got weird at times At one stage Iwas trying to get the blanket to crawl aroundso I needed a large surface I purchased asecond-hand bed and pushed it up against myown The floor of my bedroom vanished thenew floor was a mattress starting at knee-height at the doorway and stretching out to allthe walls During the day the robot wouldwiggle to and fro across the surface At nightthere was no need to relocate it so I wouldrest my head next to the machine sleepingside by side It was a strange period but if I

ever I was a true artist it was thenIt turned out that the Blanket was too

challenging a goal for me at the time and thebest I could do was to make it move byremote-control But the project helped clarifymy interests and ideas For one I learned thatpeople will project life onto just aboutanything that moves or has behaviour Thatmeans there is no special need to dress thingsup Secondly the more joints a robot has themore organic its movements appear This is asimple matter of resolution like the numberof pixels it takes to make a face on a screenlook genuine Thirdly feelings can be inducedin humans through tactile interaction insteadof through representation Vigorous motionsexcite participants while gentle movementsare generally relaxing Touch also works aswell for the machines as it does for people soJason Thielke ldquoCompartmentsrdquo 23 x 30 2009

40 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

it is good means of communication Finally Irealized that when designers are freed fromthe constraints of mimesis they can explorean array of different robotic shapes andmovements to learn what kind of effects theyhave on us This I believe is the low-levelaesthetic work that needs to be done in orderto understand how people and machines canrelate

I followed up on the Blanket with anumber of other projects The Tribot was athree legged robot also remote-controlledThe most interesting thing about it was itsaudience it was specially made for dogs Iwanted to test my concepts out on creaturesthat didnrsquot have a past history with robotsFive dogs were brought one at a time into aroom containing me and the Tribot I turnedthe machine on and watched as theinteractions unfolded In most cases the dogsfollowed a recognizable pattern At first theywere suspicious and kept their distance fromthe machine Then they approachedhesitantly and started sniffing it Then theytypically got more aggressive barkingnipping and eventually chewing on themachine Then they became boredmdashI thinkbecause the machine was not responsiveenough to them

The Tribot was sufficiently effective that Idecided to jump into my current biggerproject a fully autonomous companion robotfor people After Deep Blue or ADB forshort is a robot designed for direct physicalinteractions with people Vaguely snake-like inform it is composed of a series of identicalmodules each containing a motor and varioustouch sensors It is about the size of a smallpersons thigh and fits nicely in ones armsADB writhes wriggles twists and squeezes

in response to how it is held and touched Itadapts to you and reciprocates the energyyou put into it though your body Whentouched it comes to life When stroked itseeks more contact And soon when it isharmed it will defend itself or try to getaway

ADB is a work in progress three years inthe making with probably two more to go Ithasnrsquot been easy nor smooth which is one ofthe disadvantages of not being an engineer Ihave shown it publicly only a few times andonly for a few days each time Yet I amalready familiar with most peoplersquos reactionsto it which closely parallel how the dogsresponded to the Tribot with suspicionprobing full engagement and eventualabandonement With this project I am moreinterested in the few people who stick aroundand come back again and again the ones whosimply like the way ADB feels the way itanimates They sit down and caress it for longperiods sometimes forgetting itrsquos there Itbecomes like second nature to them

Thatrsquos the kind of relationship I hope toaugment one in which a person accepts arobot as its own unique entity and yet iswilling to engage it emotionally Some peoplejust feel at ease with machines perhaps moreso than with other people A really usefulkind of social robot is therefore one which isable to service emotional needs preciselybecause it is different from us providingsensation without expectation being morelike hands than eyes Hands make contactafter all whereas eyes seek and judge Handsclose the gap whereas eyes always remain at adistance We experience too many eyesalready Itrsquos rare that we just let go

Nicholas Stedman is a Toronto-based artist who makes electronic devices with unusualapplications These have ranged from tactile robots to a machine for feeling ice from a distanceto a chalice that automates transubstantiation of wine The devices are enacted in galleriesfestivals or other public forums where people can try them out or watch as others exploreNicholasrsquos projects have been shown in Canada and abroad some highlights of which includeArs Electronica SIGGRAPH and a Japanese game show Nicholas also teaches Digital Mediaat Canadas York University and keeps a blog at httpnickstedmanwordpresscom

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 39

M y own designs are probably bestintroduced by way of a story AsI said before Irsquom okay with

being on my own but Irsquom not a lonely guy Iknow because at one point I was I feltuncomfortable so I isolated myself It was adownward spiral the more I avoided peoplethe more awkward I felt in social situationsand the more I wanted to get away It gotextremely intense at times I couldnrsquot makeeye contact I feigned contentment whenreally I felt constantly and intenselydepressed

During this period I began working on myfirst robot in an effort called the BlanketProject When I originally proposed it Iimagined making social-enabling devices apair of robotic blankets each filled with a gridof many motors and sensors They would benetworked to convey touch across distancephysically connecting two remote peopleOne person would move and the other wouldfeel it The idea still has potential but itrsquos notthe one I ended up pursuing Instead afterstarting the project I quickly becamefascinated with basic lifelike motions Thefirst time the blanket animated was in a fitfuldance of random movements As I workedon it I felt like I was training a wild animalvery laboriously I soon lost interest inconnecting to other people My life wasdefined by my relationship with this device Ibegan to think of it as a repository of mythoughts and feelings and believed thatanyone who experienced the device wouldexperience me

Things got weird at times At one stage Iwas trying to get the blanket to crawl aroundso I needed a large surface I purchased asecond-hand bed and pushed it up against myown The floor of my bedroom vanished thenew floor was a mattress starting at knee-height at the doorway and stretching out to allthe walls During the day the robot wouldwiggle to and fro across the surface At nightthere was no need to relocate it so I wouldrest my head next to the machine sleepingside by side It was a strange period but if I

ever I was a true artist it was thenIt turned out that the Blanket was too

challenging a goal for me at the time and thebest I could do was to make it move byremote-control But the project helped clarifymy interests and ideas For one I learned thatpeople will project life onto just aboutanything that moves or has behaviour Thatmeans there is no special need to dress thingsup Secondly the more joints a robot has themore organic its movements appear This is asimple matter of resolution like the numberof pixels it takes to make a face on a screenlook genuine Thirdly feelings can be inducedin humans through tactile interaction insteadof through representation Vigorous motionsexcite participants while gentle movementsare generally relaxing Touch also works aswell for the machines as it does for people soJason Thielke ldquoCompartmentsrdquo 23 x 30 2009

40 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

it is good means of communication Finally Irealized that when designers are freed fromthe constraints of mimesis they can explorean array of different robotic shapes andmovements to learn what kind of effects theyhave on us This I believe is the low-levelaesthetic work that needs to be done in orderto understand how people and machines canrelate

I followed up on the Blanket with anumber of other projects The Tribot was athree legged robot also remote-controlledThe most interesting thing about it was itsaudience it was specially made for dogs Iwanted to test my concepts out on creaturesthat didnrsquot have a past history with robotsFive dogs were brought one at a time into aroom containing me and the Tribot I turnedthe machine on and watched as theinteractions unfolded In most cases the dogsfollowed a recognizable pattern At first theywere suspicious and kept their distance fromthe machine Then they approachedhesitantly and started sniffing it Then theytypically got more aggressive barkingnipping and eventually chewing on themachine Then they became boredmdashI thinkbecause the machine was not responsiveenough to them

The Tribot was sufficiently effective that Idecided to jump into my current biggerproject a fully autonomous companion robotfor people After Deep Blue or ADB forshort is a robot designed for direct physicalinteractions with people Vaguely snake-like inform it is composed of a series of identicalmodules each containing a motor and varioustouch sensors It is about the size of a smallpersons thigh and fits nicely in ones armsADB writhes wriggles twists and squeezes

in response to how it is held and touched Itadapts to you and reciprocates the energyyou put into it though your body Whentouched it comes to life When stroked itseeks more contact And soon when it isharmed it will defend itself or try to getaway

ADB is a work in progress three years inthe making with probably two more to go Ithasnrsquot been easy nor smooth which is one ofthe disadvantages of not being an engineer Ihave shown it publicly only a few times andonly for a few days each time Yet I amalready familiar with most peoplersquos reactionsto it which closely parallel how the dogsresponded to the Tribot with suspicionprobing full engagement and eventualabandonement With this project I am moreinterested in the few people who stick aroundand come back again and again the ones whosimply like the way ADB feels the way itanimates They sit down and caress it for longperiods sometimes forgetting itrsquos there Itbecomes like second nature to them

Thatrsquos the kind of relationship I hope toaugment one in which a person accepts arobot as its own unique entity and yet iswilling to engage it emotionally Some peoplejust feel at ease with machines perhaps moreso than with other people A really usefulkind of social robot is therefore one which isable to service emotional needs preciselybecause it is different from us providingsensation without expectation being morelike hands than eyes Hands make contactafter all whereas eyes seek and judge Handsclose the gap whereas eyes always remain at adistance We experience too many eyesalready Itrsquos rare that we just let go

Nicholas Stedman is a Toronto-based artist who makes electronic devices with unusualapplications These have ranged from tactile robots to a machine for feeling ice from a distanceto a chalice that automates transubstantiation of wine The devices are enacted in galleriesfestivals or other public forums where people can try them out or watch as others exploreNicholasrsquos projects have been shown in Canada and abroad some highlights of which includeArs Electronica SIGGRAPH and a Japanese game show Nicholas also teaches Digital Mediaat Canadas York University and keeps a blog at httpnickstedmanwordpresscom

40 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

it is good means of communication Finally Irealized that when designers are freed fromthe constraints of mimesis they can explorean array of different robotic shapes andmovements to learn what kind of effects theyhave on us This I believe is the low-levelaesthetic work that needs to be done in orderto understand how people and machines canrelate

I followed up on the Blanket with anumber of other projects The Tribot was athree legged robot also remote-controlledThe most interesting thing about it was itsaudience it was specially made for dogs Iwanted to test my concepts out on creaturesthat didnrsquot have a past history with robotsFive dogs were brought one at a time into aroom containing me and the Tribot I turnedthe machine on and watched as theinteractions unfolded In most cases the dogsfollowed a recognizable pattern At first theywere suspicious and kept their distance fromthe machine Then they approachedhesitantly and started sniffing it Then theytypically got more aggressive barkingnipping and eventually chewing on themachine Then they became boredmdashI thinkbecause the machine was not responsiveenough to them

The Tribot was sufficiently effective that Idecided to jump into my current biggerproject a fully autonomous companion robotfor people After Deep Blue or ADB forshort is a robot designed for direct physicalinteractions with people Vaguely snake-like inform it is composed of a series of identicalmodules each containing a motor and varioustouch sensors It is about the size of a smallpersons thigh and fits nicely in ones armsADB writhes wriggles twists and squeezes

in response to how it is held and touched Itadapts to you and reciprocates the energyyou put into it though your body Whentouched it comes to life When stroked itseeks more contact And soon when it isharmed it will defend itself or try to getaway

ADB is a work in progress three years inthe making with probably two more to go Ithasnrsquot been easy nor smooth which is one ofthe disadvantages of not being an engineer Ihave shown it publicly only a few times andonly for a few days each time Yet I amalready familiar with most peoplersquos reactionsto it which closely parallel how the dogsresponded to the Tribot with suspicionprobing full engagement and eventualabandonement With this project I am moreinterested in the few people who stick aroundand come back again and again the ones whosimply like the way ADB feels the way itanimates They sit down and caress it for longperiods sometimes forgetting itrsquos there Itbecomes like second nature to them

Thatrsquos the kind of relationship I hope toaugment one in which a person accepts arobot as its own unique entity and yet iswilling to engage it emotionally Some peoplejust feel at ease with machines perhaps moreso than with other people A really usefulkind of social robot is therefore one which isable to service emotional needs preciselybecause it is different from us providingsensation without expectation being morelike hands than eyes Hands make contactafter all whereas eyes seek and judge Handsclose the gap whereas eyes always remain at adistance We experience too many eyesalready Itrsquos rare that we just let go

Nicholas Stedman is a Toronto-based artist who makes electronic devices with unusualapplications These have ranged from tactile robots to a machine for feeling ice from a distanceto a chalice that automates transubstantiation of wine The devices are enacted in galleriesfestivals or other public forums where people can try them out or watch as others exploreNicholasrsquos projects have been shown in Canada and abroad some highlights of which includeArs Electronica SIGGRAPH and a Japanese game show Nicholas also teaches Digital Mediaat Canadas York University and keeps a blog at httpnickstedmanwordpresscom

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 41

SCOPE Yoursquove a remarkably ldquoarchitecturalrdquoapproach to drawing human and animalforms How did that developThielke Several years ago my friend and Iwere working as graphic designers Wedecided to encourage each other to paint andto show some of our work wherever wecould I was painting urban landscapes andfigures My landscapes began to develop andI soon started overlaying line work on top ofpaint Soon the line took over and I wasconcentrating on urban landscapes drawnwith only black line and without thicknessvariation These two parameters were thefoundation to my style along with a

randomness of line placement whenrendering After every ten landscapes or soI would take a break and try a figureLandscapes were selling and figurative workhad limited success so development wasslow But a real link between my builtenvironments and figures had developedI broke down the figures into geometricshapes and rebuilt them with line I wasntthinking too hard about it I was just thinkingthat it seemed urbanmdashbecause that was howI drew urban scenes Anyway collectorsstarted to notice the figures more and I wasenjoying the work Soon my focus changedand I was able to concentrate on the figure

One question with Jason Thielke

About the artistJason Thielke studied at the Northern Illinois University School of Art and has held soloexhibitions in Denver Portland and Seattle Visit his website httpwwwjasonthielkecom

Jason Thielke ldquoGracerdquo 23 x 17 2008

42 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

ldquoThe least arty photographerrdquoRarely is a photograph simply what it claims to bemdashand neither was photographer Berenice Abbott

BY TERRI WEISSMAN

An extract from The Realisms of Berenice Abbott (University of California Press January 2011)I f you knew anything aboutphotography yoursquod know I was theleast arty photographer [inAmerica]rdquo Berenice Abbott stated in

1991 during an interview for a film about herlife and career This moment from theinterview didnrsquot make the filmrsquos final cut andin fact Abbott herself never saw the movie inits final form having sadly passed awayshortly before its release The statementreveals much about Abbottrsquos personality

thoughmdashabout her attitude toward ldquoartrdquo andher approach to photography It alsoultimately gets to the heart of herunderstanding of photographic realismwhich simply put might be stated Abbottbelieved that photography should provide thegeneral public with realistic images of achanging world images designed to foster thekind of historical knowledge indispensable todemocratic citizenship

Simply put maybe but the story of

ldquo

Berenice Abbott ldquoJohn Watts Statue from TrinityCourtyard Broadway and Wall Streetrdquo 1938

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 43

44 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Abbottrsquos realism is not that clear-cut Her in-sistence on a ldquostraightrdquo approach to thephotographic image one that minimizes in-dividual expression has for instance come toovershadow most other aspects of herphotographic theory and led historians toposition her primarily as a proponent of whatis now considered a naive understanding ofphotographyrsquos ability to capture an objectiveworld The instinct or desire to characterizeAbbottrsquos approach as purely about objectivityclarity and straightforwardness isunderstandable though Indeed her own

rhetoric her repeated assertion ofthe photographrsquos ability torepresent the facts of life with akind of fidelity lacking in all othermedia sensibly leads one to thisconclusion as does her oft-citedquotation in which she recallsseeing Eugegravene Atgetrsquosphotographs for the first timeldquoTheir impact was immediate andtremendousrdquo she writes ldquotherewas a sudden flash ofrecognitionmdashthe shock of realismunadornedrdquo As mentioned in theintroduction Abbottrsquos emphasison Atgetrsquos realism set her interestin him apart from that of figuressuch as Man Ray and thesurrealists Where the surrealistswere attracted to Atgetrsquos work forits weird sense of emptiness andability to redouble the world as asign Abbott was drawn to whatshe perceived as its pure realistessence

Abbott continued to embracethis type of realist vision in herwell-known and influential how-tobook on photographic processesA Guide to Better Photographywhich at times reads like anexegesis on the advantages andultimate correctness of a realist orstraight approach to the mediumConsider chapter 10rsquos openingwords ldquoPhotography is a new

vision of life a profoundly realistic andobjective view of the external world What the human eye observes casually andincuriously the eye of the camera (the lens)notes with relentless fidelityrdquo In chapter 15she declares ldquoPhotography by its very re-alistic and factual nature permits the artist tolie less than many other mediums To be surethe photographic processes may bemanipulated in ways that seem to denyphotographyrsquos realistic character But thesediversions do not continue to hold attentionrdquo

Berenice Abbott ldquolsquoElrsquo Second and Third Avenue Linesrdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 45

And in chapter 24 which isdedicated to straightphotography she claims ldquoWecan see that straightphotography today exercises acorrective influence in twodirections against the kind of picture-making extolled bythe pictorialists and againstthe frivolousness of those whomanipulate the medium purelyfor selfish ends as in thesurrealist nightmares Contrasted with the horrors ofsentimentality [pictorialism] andof pseudo-sophistication[surrealism] straightphotography is a clean breathof good fresh air It callsfor the use of the mediumwithout perversion of its truecharacterrdquo

And when Abbott actuallydefined straight photographyshe emphasized the mediumrsquosinherent characteristics Straightphotography she wrote isldquoprecision in the rendering anddefinition of detail andmaterials surfaces and texturesinstantaneity of observationacute and faithful presentationof what has actually existed inthe external world at aparticular time and placerdquo Inother words the straightobjective or realist photograph is the imagerevealed without trickery deceit or distortionall in the name of a truthful and faithfulpresentation of factO ne way that Abbott justified her

privileging of straightphotography over other methods

was to turn to the mediumrsquos communicativepotential ldquoThe something done byphotography is communicationrdquo shedeclared ldquoIt was fashionable a dozen yearsago to sneer at communication as the

purpose of art and indeed even deny thatart had a purpose Non-intelligibility non-communication were raised to ultimate endsTo say anything in a book a picture a pieceof music was anathema The artist who didso was a prig and a prude and distinctlypasseacute That phase is pastrdquo In an evenstronger pronouncement of photographyrsquospotential to function as a kind of ultimateutopian ideal of communicationmdashunbounded free and clearmdashAbbott wroteldquoThe potentiality of the camera forcommunication of content is almost

Berenice Abbott ldquoBread Store 259 Bleecker Streetrdquo 1937

46 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

unlimited The photograph full of detail andobjective visual fact speaks to all peopleWhere language barriers impeded the flow ofthe spoken or written idea the photograph isnot handicapped the eye knows no nationrdquoThese kinds of quotations abound inAbbottrsquos writing and I could easily continuewith more but the idea is clear enough it isonly the straight photographic image throughthe realistic and objective revelation of itssubject matter (or content) that speaks tospectators both current and future

Now we can begin to postulate that whatmakes Abbott ldquothe least arty photographerrdquoin America is her belief that the photographicimage should be both straight and oriented tocommunicationmdashand this would be a goodbeginning But a third element also needs to

be added to the equation Based on Abbottrsquosoften grand statements in which she tied thephotographic printrsquos realist essence objectivequalities and communicative potential to themost pressing historical and social issues ofthe day a social and political commitment ofsome sort should also be considered a crucialcomponent of Abbottrsquos claim of being theleast arty photographer In a 1951 article atext that came to function as Abbottrsquospersonal manifesto about photographyrsquoshistory and future she stated

Today the challenge to photographersis great because we are living in amomentous period History is pushingus to the brink of a realistic age asnever before I believe there is no morecreative medium than photography to

Berenice Abbott ldquolsquoElrsquo Station Interior Sixth and Ninth Avenue Lines Downtown Siderdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 47

recreate the living world ofour timePhotography accepts thechallenge because it is athome and in its elementnamely realismmdashreallifemdashthe nowWhat we need is a return to the great tradition ofrealism Since ultimately thephotograph is a statement adocument of the now agreater responsibility is puton us [photographers]Today we are confrontedwith reality on the vastestscale mankind has known

So photography isobjective useful as a tool forcommunication and sociallyand historically oriented Giventhis framing of the mediumAbbottrsquos self-identification asldquothe least arty photographerrdquoin the United States is easy tounderstand And for thehistorian faced with these sortsof declarations the positioningof Abbott as a photographerpreoccupied withdemonstrating and assertingthe mediumrsquos potential forobjective representationmdashtheproponent that is of astraightforward understandingof photographyrsquos ability tocapture an objective worldmdashis also easy tounderstandA nd yet Despite the evidence I

believe it would be a mistake tointerpret Abbottrsquos statements as a

simple endorsement of objectivephotography and an outright rejection of allelse The complexity of Abbottrsquos attitudetoward the photographic image comes out inher pictures but her understanding ofphotographyrsquos capacity to function beyond anarrowly conceived idea of representation is

also evident in her writing If we are willingfor a moment to suspend our judgmentabout Abbottrsquos sometimes facile account ofwhat constitutes the real with regard tophotographic imagery and take a secondcloser look at her texts a more complexanalysis emerges For example in a speechdelivered at the Aspen Institute on which thepreceding extract is based Abbott explicitlyconnected photography to democracy andpopulism identified photography as theldquogreat democratic mediumrdquo and proclaimedldquoPhotography is made by the many and for

Berenice Abbott ldquoFather Duffy Times Squarerdquo 1937

48 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

the manyrdquo This is an interesting claim (andnot a simple one) for an artistic medium amedium that like the American Constitutionis by the people for the people It implies abelief that the users (and viewers) ofphotography would emerge as a newcommunity as a people who not bound bypast rules of making or spectatorship wouldestablish new conditions for making historicalsubject matter visible and in so doing wouldexpose new possibilities for action

Or similarly returning to the longerexcerpt I quoted from her 1951 text

ldquoPhotography at theCrossroadsrdquo Abbott wroteldquoHistory is pushing us to thebrink of a realistic age asnever before I believe thereis no more creative mediumthan photography to recreatethe living world of our timerdquoThis could be read as a frankstatement about the effect ofobjective representation onpeoplersquos actions visuallyconfronted by realisticimages of momentoushistorical events (warhungermdashsuffering ingeneral) people will bemotivated to act or worktoward change But the samestatement could beinterpreted with moresubtlety might it not alsoindicate an interest instudying the present (theldquonowrdquo) as a historicalproblem And reveal a desireto recast history as adilemma of representationHistory itself seen throughthe prism of realism as aproblem of realism

ldquoWhen Brady made histhousands of negatives ofthe Civil War he wasphotographing the realestthing that happened in his

timerdquo Abbott wrote in her Guide to BetterPhotography And one of the bookrsquos manyillustrations is Bradyrsquos 1861ndash1865 imageBridge built by troops on the Orange ampAlexandria RailRoad (sometimes known asTrestle Bridge) which depicts a United Statesmilitary railroad engine crossing a river on atrestle bridge built over the remains of anolder stone bridge The train either stoppedor moving very slowly is surrounded by anumber of soldiers a larger figure dominatesthe foreground spacemdashhe looks up at the

Berenice Abbott ldquoConstruction Old and Newrdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 49

bridge and the engine crossingit Because the figure wasunable to hold his pose duringthe camerarsquos long exposuretime the image of his body isblurred and so it is difficult totell exactly where he looking orto determine precisely his rolein the scene What is clearhowevermdashand what I imagineAbbott so appreciated aboutthis imagemdashis that multiplehistorical moments interact thetrestle bridgersquos new industrialform employed for the firsttime and with some frequencyduring the American Civil Waris shown next to (as areplacement for) an oldertradition of stone masonryThese two technologiesfunction as multiple historicalvoices speaking out from thephotographic print from twodistinct pasts They speak to theviewer who situated in thepresent day contributes yetanother voice to the sceneAbbott identified the Civil Waras ldquothe realest thing thathappened in [Bradyrsquos] timerdquoand with Trestle Bridge we cansee how that event created thehistorical circumstances thatencouraged various voices (pastpresent and future) to interactBradyrsquos ability to capture this interaction onthe surface of the photograph makes theinvisible visible everyday life as it isexperienced through time not just in onesingle momentS uch an interpretation of Abbottrsquos

words changes the terms of thedebate over her view of photography

and realism It moves the discussion awayfrom the idea of objective representation andtoward one that takes into accountcontingency and the not-picturedmdash

something which the camerarsquos lens does notsee and therefore cannot reproduce literallybut which is there Alongside her declarationsabout photographyrsquos realist essence andidealized communicative potential Abbottexplored this idea as well

The camerarsquos eye is [not] easilyimposed on It demands logical andreasonable reality in what it records Itcreates a marvelous record of fact oftruth an almost microscopic chronicleof things but according to its owncharacter a character mercilessly con-trolled by optics What the lens sees is

Berenice Abbott ldquoFlatiron Buildingrdquo 1938

50 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

a single image at the instant the shutteris clicked Unlike the human eye thelens does not merge or superimposeimages from what it saw a momentbefore or what it may see a momentafter It does not color the image itrecords with remembered images ofother times and places Nor does it in-clude in its sharp restrictedinstantaneous view what is seenvaguely and indistinctly from thecorner of the human eye The lensfreezes time and space in what may bean optical slavery or contrarily thecrystallization of meaning The limitsof the lensrsquo vision are esthetically oftena virtue However the limits createproblems

The problems caused by the lensrsquos abilityto freeze time and space is the problem ofthe solitary image conceived as a finality ToAbbott such an image a solitary image can-not reveal the real because too much hasbeen left out Attached to it there mustalways be another image or another voice (thetrestle bridge and the stone masonry)

To limit then Abbottrsquos position on thestraight realist or objective photograph to anidea purely about graphic inscription would

be to fail to recognize that her pictures donot simply assert a closed and finishedcontent that some unknown spectator thenand now must accept without question Herapproach was neither this narrowly conceivednor solely related to depicted subject matterSuch limited understanding of thephotographic mediummdashstraightunmanipulated evidence of what ldquowasthererdquomdashreveals a worldview that seeks theconquest of the world as a picture a viewthat has no real connection to Abbottrsquos work(or theoretical writing) Yet her approach hassometimes been conflated with thisperspective This type of analysis fails to seethat Abbottrsquos idea of realism ultimatelydepends not on a utopian conception of uni-versal communication (this despite Abbottrsquosown occasionally utopian rhetoric) but on theconstruction of a space of communicativeinteraction A spacemdashbetween thephotographic print the photographer andthe spectatormdashof engagement that is open-ended and that reveals the social contexts outof which photographs come into sight in thefirst place

Terri Weissman is Assistant Professor of Art History at theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign specializing in modernand contemporary art and the history of photography Her bookThe Realisms of Berenice Abbott Documentary Photography andPolitical Action (University of California Press 2011) examines thepolitics as well as the successes and failures of Abbottrsquos realistcommunicatively oriented model of documentary photography Shehas co-curated (with Jessica May and Sharon Corwin) a majortraveling exhibition titled American Modern Abbott Evans andBourke-White (catalog available from University of California Press)that further investigates questions of documentary photographyrsquosefficacy and political resonance Weissman has also published oncontemporary artists such as Gabriel Orozco and Maria MagdalenaCompos Pons as well as on the cultural impact of disasters such asSeptember 11thVisit her website at httpartillinoisedupeopletweissmaAmerican Modern opens at the Art Institute of Chicago onFebruary 5

Berenice Abbott ldquoDePeyster Statuerdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 43

44 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Abbottrsquos realism is not that clear-cut Her in-sistence on a ldquostraightrdquo approach to thephotographic image one that minimizes in-dividual expression has for instance come toovershadow most other aspects of herphotographic theory and led historians toposition her primarily as a proponent of whatis now considered a naive understanding ofphotographyrsquos ability to capture an objectiveworld The instinct or desire to characterizeAbbottrsquos approach as purely about objectivityclarity and straightforwardness isunderstandable though Indeed her own

rhetoric her repeated assertion ofthe photographrsquos ability torepresent the facts of life with akind of fidelity lacking in all othermedia sensibly leads one to thisconclusion as does her oft-citedquotation in which she recallsseeing Eugegravene Atgetrsquosphotographs for the first timeldquoTheir impact was immediate andtremendousrdquo she writes ldquotherewas a sudden flash ofrecognitionmdashthe shock of realismunadornedrdquo As mentioned in theintroduction Abbottrsquos emphasison Atgetrsquos realism set her interestin him apart from that of figuressuch as Man Ray and thesurrealists Where the surrealistswere attracted to Atgetrsquos work forits weird sense of emptiness andability to redouble the world as asign Abbott was drawn to whatshe perceived as its pure realistessence

Abbott continued to embracethis type of realist vision in herwell-known and influential how-tobook on photographic processesA Guide to Better Photographywhich at times reads like anexegesis on the advantages andultimate correctness of a realist orstraight approach to the mediumConsider chapter 10rsquos openingwords ldquoPhotography is a new

vision of life a profoundly realistic andobjective view of the external world What the human eye observes casually andincuriously the eye of the camera (the lens)notes with relentless fidelityrdquo In chapter 15she declares ldquoPhotography by its very re-alistic and factual nature permits the artist tolie less than many other mediums To be surethe photographic processes may bemanipulated in ways that seem to denyphotographyrsquos realistic character But thesediversions do not continue to hold attentionrdquo

Berenice Abbott ldquolsquoElrsquo Second and Third Avenue Linesrdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 45

And in chapter 24 which isdedicated to straightphotography she claims ldquoWecan see that straightphotography today exercises acorrective influence in twodirections against the kind of picture-making extolled bythe pictorialists and againstthe frivolousness of those whomanipulate the medium purelyfor selfish ends as in thesurrealist nightmares Contrasted with the horrors ofsentimentality [pictorialism] andof pseudo-sophistication[surrealism] straightphotography is a clean breathof good fresh air It callsfor the use of the mediumwithout perversion of its truecharacterrdquo

And when Abbott actuallydefined straight photographyshe emphasized the mediumrsquosinherent characteristics Straightphotography she wrote isldquoprecision in the rendering anddefinition of detail andmaterials surfaces and texturesinstantaneity of observationacute and faithful presentationof what has actually existed inthe external world at aparticular time and placerdquo Inother words the straightobjective or realist photograph is the imagerevealed without trickery deceit or distortionall in the name of a truthful and faithfulpresentation of factO ne way that Abbott justified her

privileging of straightphotography over other methods

was to turn to the mediumrsquos communicativepotential ldquoThe something done byphotography is communicationrdquo shedeclared ldquoIt was fashionable a dozen yearsago to sneer at communication as the

purpose of art and indeed even deny thatart had a purpose Non-intelligibility non-communication were raised to ultimate endsTo say anything in a book a picture a pieceof music was anathema The artist who didso was a prig and a prude and distinctlypasseacute That phase is pastrdquo In an evenstronger pronouncement of photographyrsquospotential to function as a kind of ultimateutopian ideal of communicationmdashunbounded free and clearmdashAbbott wroteldquoThe potentiality of the camera forcommunication of content is almost

Berenice Abbott ldquoBread Store 259 Bleecker Streetrdquo 1937

46 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

unlimited The photograph full of detail andobjective visual fact speaks to all peopleWhere language barriers impeded the flow ofthe spoken or written idea the photograph isnot handicapped the eye knows no nationrdquoThese kinds of quotations abound inAbbottrsquos writing and I could easily continuewith more but the idea is clear enough it isonly the straight photographic image throughthe realistic and objective revelation of itssubject matter (or content) that speaks tospectators both current and future

Now we can begin to postulate that whatmakes Abbott ldquothe least arty photographerrdquoin America is her belief that the photographicimage should be both straight and oriented tocommunicationmdashand this would be a goodbeginning But a third element also needs to

be added to the equation Based on Abbottrsquosoften grand statements in which she tied thephotographic printrsquos realist essence objectivequalities and communicative potential to themost pressing historical and social issues ofthe day a social and political commitment ofsome sort should also be considered a crucialcomponent of Abbottrsquos claim of being theleast arty photographer In a 1951 article atext that came to function as Abbottrsquospersonal manifesto about photographyrsquoshistory and future she stated

Today the challenge to photographersis great because we are living in amomentous period History is pushingus to the brink of a realistic age asnever before I believe there is no morecreative medium than photography to

Berenice Abbott ldquolsquoElrsquo Station Interior Sixth and Ninth Avenue Lines Downtown Siderdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 47

recreate the living world ofour timePhotography accepts thechallenge because it is athome and in its elementnamely realismmdashreallifemdashthe nowWhat we need is a return to the great tradition ofrealism Since ultimately thephotograph is a statement adocument of the now agreater responsibility is puton us [photographers]Today we are confrontedwith reality on the vastestscale mankind has known

So photography isobjective useful as a tool forcommunication and sociallyand historically oriented Giventhis framing of the mediumAbbottrsquos self-identification asldquothe least arty photographerrdquoin the United States is easy tounderstand And for thehistorian faced with these sortsof declarations the positioningof Abbott as a photographerpreoccupied withdemonstrating and assertingthe mediumrsquos potential forobjective representationmdashtheproponent that is of astraightforward understandingof photographyrsquos ability tocapture an objective worldmdashis also easy tounderstandA nd yet Despite the evidence I

believe it would be a mistake tointerpret Abbottrsquos statements as a

simple endorsement of objectivephotography and an outright rejection of allelse The complexity of Abbottrsquos attitudetoward the photographic image comes out inher pictures but her understanding ofphotographyrsquos capacity to function beyond anarrowly conceived idea of representation is

also evident in her writing If we are willingfor a moment to suspend our judgmentabout Abbottrsquos sometimes facile account ofwhat constitutes the real with regard tophotographic imagery and take a secondcloser look at her texts a more complexanalysis emerges For example in a speechdelivered at the Aspen Institute on which thepreceding extract is based Abbott explicitlyconnected photography to democracy andpopulism identified photography as theldquogreat democratic mediumrdquo and proclaimedldquoPhotography is made by the many and for

Berenice Abbott ldquoFather Duffy Times Squarerdquo 1937

48 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

the manyrdquo This is an interesting claim (andnot a simple one) for an artistic medium amedium that like the American Constitutionis by the people for the people It implies abelief that the users (and viewers) ofphotography would emerge as a newcommunity as a people who not bound bypast rules of making or spectatorship wouldestablish new conditions for making historicalsubject matter visible and in so doing wouldexpose new possibilities for action

Or similarly returning to the longerexcerpt I quoted from her 1951 text

ldquoPhotography at theCrossroadsrdquo Abbott wroteldquoHistory is pushing us to thebrink of a realistic age asnever before I believe thereis no more creative mediumthan photography to recreatethe living world of our timerdquoThis could be read as a frankstatement about the effect ofobjective representation onpeoplersquos actions visuallyconfronted by realisticimages of momentoushistorical events (warhungermdashsuffering ingeneral) people will bemotivated to act or worktoward change But the samestatement could beinterpreted with moresubtlety might it not alsoindicate an interest instudying the present (theldquonowrdquo) as a historicalproblem And reveal a desireto recast history as adilemma of representationHistory itself seen throughthe prism of realism as aproblem of realism

ldquoWhen Brady made histhousands of negatives ofthe Civil War he wasphotographing the realestthing that happened in his

timerdquo Abbott wrote in her Guide to BetterPhotography And one of the bookrsquos manyillustrations is Bradyrsquos 1861ndash1865 imageBridge built by troops on the Orange ampAlexandria RailRoad (sometimes known asTrestle Bridge) which depicts a United Statesmilitary railroad engine crossing a river on atrestle bridge built over the remains of anolder stone bridge The train either stoppedor moving very slowly is surrounded by anumber of soldiers a larger figure dominatesthe foreground spacemdashhe looks up at the

Berenice Abbott ldquoConstruction Old and Newrdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 49

bridge and the engine crossingit Because the figure wasunable to hold his pose duringthe camerarsquos long exposuretime the image of his body isblurred and so it is difficult totell exactly where he looking orto determine precisely his rolein the scene What is clearhowevermdashand what I imagineAbbott so appreciated aboutthis imagemdashis that multiplehistorical moments interact thetrestle bridgersquos new industrialform employed for the firsttime and with some frequencyduring the American Civil Waris shown next to (as areplacement for) an oldertradition of stone masonryThese two technologiesfunction as multiple historicalvoices speaking out from thephotographic print from twodistinct pasts They speak to theviewer who situated in thepresent day contributes yetanother voice to the sceneAbbott identified the Civil Waras ldquothe realest thing thathappened in [Bradyrsquos] timerdquoand with Trestle Bridge we cansee how that event created thehistorical circumstances thatencouraged various voices (pastpresent and future) to interactBradyrsquos ability to capture this interaction onthe surface of the photograph makes theinvisible visible everyday life as it isexperienced through time not just in onesingle momentS uch an interpretation of Abbottrsquos

words changes the terms of thedebate over her view of photography

and realism It moves the discussion awayfrom the idea of objective representation andtoward one that takes into accountcontingency and the not-picturedmdash

something which the camerarsquos lens does notsee and therefore cannot reproduce literallybut which is there Alongside her declarationsabout photographyrsquos realist essence andidealized communicative potential Abbottexplored this idea as well

The camerarsquos eye is [not] easilyimposed on It demands logical andreasonable reality in what it records Itcreates a marvelous record of fact oftruth an almost microscopic chronicleof things but according to its owncharacter a character mercilessly con-trolled by optics What the lens sees is

Berenice Abbott ldquoFlatiron Buildingrdquo 1938

50 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

a single image at the instant the shutteris clicked Unlike the human eye thelens does not merge or superimposeimages from what it saw a momentbefore or what it may see a momentafter It does not color the image itrecords with remembered images ofother times and places Nor does it in-clude in its sharp restrictedinstantaneous view what is seenvaguely and indistinctly from thecorner of the human eye The lensfreezes time and space in what may bean optical slavery or contrarily thecrystallization of meaning The limitsof the lensrsquo vision are esthetically oftena virtue However the limits createproblems

The problems caused by the lensrsquos abilityto freeze time and space is the problem ofthe solitary image conceived as a finality ToAbbott such an image a solitary image can-not reveal the real because too much hasbeen left out Attached to it there mustalways be another image or another voice (thetrestle bridge and the stone masonry)

To limit then Abbottrsquos position on thestraight realist or objective photograph to anidea purely about graphic inscription would

be to fail to recognize that her pictures donot simply assert a closed and finishedcontent that some unknown spectator thenand now must accept without question Herapproach was neither this narrowly conceivednor solely related to depicted subject matterSuch limited understanding of thephotographic mediummdashstraightunmanipulated evidence of what ldquowasthererdquomdashreveals a worldview that seeks theconquest of the world as a picture a viewthat has no real connection to Abbottrsquos work(or theoretical writing) Yet her approach hassometimes been conflated with thisperspective This type of analysis fails to seethat Abbottrsquos idea of realism ultimatelydepends not on a utopian conception of uni-versal communication (this despite Abbottrsquosown occasionally utopian rhetoric) but on theconstruction of a space of communicativeinteraction A spacemdashbetween thephotographic print the photographer andthe spectatormdashof engagement that is open-ended and that reveals the social contexts outof which photographs come into sight in thefirst place

Terri Weissman is Assistant Professor of Art History at theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign specializing in modernand contemporary art and the history of photography Her bookThe Realisms of Berenice Abbott Documentary Photography andPolitical Action (University of California Press 2011) examines thepolitics as well as the successes and failures of Abbottrsquos realistcommunicatively oriented model of documentary photography Shehas co-curated (with Jessica May and Sharon Corwin) a majortraveling exhibition titled American Modern Abbott Evans andBourke-White (catalog available from University of California Press)that further investigates questions of documentary photographyrsquosefficacy and political resonance Weissman has also published oncontemporary artists such as Gabriel Orozco and Maria MagdalenaCompos Pons as well as on the cultural impact of disasters such asSeptember 11thVisit her website at httpartillinoisedupeopletweissmaAmerican Modern opens at the Art Institute of Chicago onFebruary 5

Berenice Abbott ldquoDePeyster Statuerdquo 1936

44 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

Abbottrsquos realism is not that clear-cut Her in-sistence on a ldquostraightrdquo approach to thephotographic image one that minimizes in-dividual expression has for instance come toovershadow most other aspects of herphotographic theory and led historians toposition her primarily as a proponent of whatis now considered a naive understanding ofphotographyrsquos ability to capture an objectiveworld The instinct or desire to characterizeAbbottrsquos approach as purely about objectivityclarity and straightforwardness isunderstandable though Indeed her own

rhetoric her repeated assertion ofthe photographrsquos ability torepresent the facts of life with akind of fidelity lacking in all othermedia sensibly leads one to thisconclusion as does her oft-citedquotation in which she recallsseeing Eugegravene Atgetrsquosphotographs for the first timeldquoTheir impact was immediate andtremendousrdquo she writes ldquotherewas a sudden flash ofrecognitionmdashthe shock of realismunadornedrdquo As mentioned in theintroduction Abbottrsquos emphasison Atgetrsquos realism set her interestin him apart from that of figuressuch as Man Ray and thesurrealists Where the surrealistswere attracted to Atgetrsquos work forits weird sense of emptiness andability to redouble the world as asign Abbott was drawn to whatshe perceived as its pure realistessence

Abbott continued to embracethis type of realist vision in herwell-known and influential how-tobook on photographic processesA Guide to Better Photographywhich at times reads like anexegesis on the advantages andultimate correctness of a realist orstraight approach to the mediumConsider chapter 10rsquos openingwords ldquoPhotography is a new

vision of life a profoundly realistic andobjective view of the external world What the human eye observes casually andincuriously the eye of the camera (the lens)notes with relentless fidelityrdquo In chapter 15she declares ldquoPhotography by its very re-alistic and factual nature permits the artist tolie less than many other mediums To be surethe photographic processes may bemanipulated in ways that seem to denyphotographyrsquos realistic character But thesediversions do not continue to hold attentionrdquo

Berenice Abbott ldquolsquoElrsquo Second and Third Avenue Linesrdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 45

And in chapter 24 which isdedicated to straightphotography she claims ldquoWecan see that straightphotography today exercises acorrective influence in twodirections against the kind of picture-making extolled bythe pictorialists and againstthe frivolousness of those whomanipulate the medium purelyfor selfish ends as in thesurrealist nightmares Contrasted with the horrors ofsentimentality [pictorialism] andof pseudo-sophistication[surrealism] straightphotography is a clean breathof good fresh air It callsfor the use of the mediumwithout perversion of its truecharacterrdquo

And when Abbott actuallydefined straight photographyshe emphasized the mediumrsquosinherent characteristics Straightphotography she wrote isldquoprecision in the rendering anddefinition of detail andmaterials surfaces and texturesinstantaneity of observationacute and faithful presentationof what has actually existed inthe external world at aparticular time and placerdquo Inother words the straightobjective or realist photograph is the imagerevealed without trickery deceit or distortionall in the name of a truthful and faithfulpresentation of factO ne way that Abbott justified her

privileging of straightphotography over other methods

was to turn to the mediumrsquos communicativepotential ldquoThe something done byphotography is communicationrdquo shedeclared ldquoIt was fashionable a dozen yearsago to sneer at communication as the

purpose of art and indeed even deny thatart had a purpose Non-intelligibility non-communication were raised to ultimate endsTo say anything in a book a picture a pieceof music was anathema The artist who didso was a prig and a prude and distinctlypasseacute That phase is pastrdquo In an evenstronger pronouncement of photographyrsquospotential to function as a kind of ultimateutopian ideal of communicationmdashunbounded free and clearmdashAbbott wroteldquoThe potentiality of the camera forcommunication of content is almost

Berenice Abbott ldquoBread Store 259 Bleecker Streetrdquo 1937

46 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

unlimited The photograph full of detail andobjective visual fact speaks to all peopleWhere language barriers impeded the flow ofthe spoken or written idea the photograph isnot handicapped the eye knows no nationrdquoThese kinds of quotations abound inAbbottrsquos writing and I could easily continuewith more but the idea is clear enough it isonly the straight photographic image throughthe realistic and objective revelation of itssubject matter (or content) that speaks tospectators both current and future

Now we can begin to postulate that whatmakes Abbott ldquothe least arty photographerrdquoin America is her belief that the photographicimage should be both straight and oriented tocommunicationmdashand this would be a goodbeginning But a third element also needs to

be added to the equation Based on Abbottrsquosoften grand statements in which she tied thephotographic printrsquos realist essence objectivequalities and communicative potential to themost pressing historical and social issues ofthe day a social and political commitment ofsome sort should also be considered a crucialcomponent of Abbottrsquos claim of being theleast arty photographer In a 1951 article atext that came to function as Abbottrsquospersonal manifesto about photographyrsquoshistory and future she stated

Today the challenge to photographersis great because we are living in amomentous period History is pushingus to the brink of a realistic age asnever before I believe there is no morecreative medium than photography to

Berenice Abbott ldquolsquoElrsquo Station Interior Sixth and Ninth Avenue Lines Downtown Siderdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 47

recreate the living world ofour timePhotography accepts thechallenge because it is athome and in its elementnamely realismmdashreallifemdashthe nowWhat we need is a return to the great tradition ofrealism Since ultimately thephotograph is a statement adocument of the now agreater responsibility is puton us [photographers]Today we are confrontedwith reality on the vastestscale mankind has known

So photography isobjective useful as a tool forcommunication and sociallyand historically oriented Giventhis framing of the mediumAbbottrsquos self-identification asldquothe least arty photographerrdquoin the United States is easy tounderstand And for thehistorian faced with these sortsof declarations the positioningof Abbott as a photographerpreoccupied withdemonstrating and assertingthe mediumrsquos potential forobjective representationmdashtheproponent that is of astraightforward understandingof photographyrsquos ability tocapture an objective worldmdashis also easy tounderstandA nd yet Despite the evidence I

believe it would be a mistake tointerpret Abbottrsquos statements as a

simple endorsement of objectivephotography and an outright rejection of allelse The complexity of Abbottrsquos attitudetoward the photographic image comes out inher pictures but her understanding ofphotographyrsquos capacity to function beyond anarrowly conceived idea of representation is

also evident in her writing If we are willingfor a moment to suspend our judgmentabout Abbottrsquos sometimes facile account ofwhat constitutes the real with regard tophotographic imagery and take a secondcloser look at her texts a more complexanalysis emerges For example in a speechdelivered at the Aspen Institute on which thepreceding extract is based Abbott explicitlyconnected photography to democracy andpopulism identified photography as theldquogreat democratic mediumrdquo and proclaimedldquoPhotography is made by the many and for

Berenice Abbott ldquoFather Duffy Times Squarerdquo 1937

48 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

the manyrdquo This is an interesting claim (andnot a simple one) for an artistic medium amedium that like the American Constitutionis by the people for the people It implies abelief that the users (and viewers) ofphotography would emerge as a newcommunity as a people who not bound bypast rules of making or spectatorship wouldestablish new conditions for making historicalsubject matter visible and in so doing wouldexpose new possibilities for action

Or similarly returning to the longerexcerpt I quoted from her 1951 text

ldquoPhotography at theCrossroadsrdquo Abbott wroteldquoHistory is pushing us to thebrink of a realistic age asnever before I believe thereis no more creative mediumthan photography to recreatethe living world of our timerdquoThis could be read as a frankstatement about the effect ofobjective representation onpeoplersquos actions visuallyconfronted by realisticimages of momentoushistorical events (warhungermdashsuffering ingeneral) people will bemotivated to act or worktoward change But the samestatement could beinterpreted with moresubtlety might it not alsoindicate an interest instudying the present (theldquonowrdquo) as a historicalproblem And reveal a desireto recast history as adilemma of representationHistory itself seen throughthe prism of realism as aproblem of realism

ldquoWhen Brady made histhousands of negatives ofthe Civil War he wasphotographing the realestthing that happened in his

timerdquo Abbott wrote in her Guide to BetterPhotography And one of the bookrsquos manyillustrations is Bradyrsquos 1861ndash1865 imageBridge built by troops on the Orange ampAlexandria RailRoad (sometimes known asTrestle Bridge) which depicts a United Statesmilitary railroad engine crossing a river on atrestle bridge built over the remains of anolder stone bridge The train either stoppedor moving very slowly is surrounded by anumber of soldiers a larger figure dominatesthe foreground spacemdashhe looks up at the

Berenice Abbott ldquoConstruction Old and Newrdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 49

bridge and the engine crossingit Because the figure wasunable to hold his pose duringthe camerarsquos long exposuretime the image of his body isblurred and so it is difficult totell exactly where he looking orto determine precisely his rolein the scene What is clearhowevermdashand what I imagineAbbott so appreciated aboutthis imagemdashis that multiplehistorical moments interact thetrestle bridgersquos new industrialform employed for the firsttime and with some frequencyduring the American Civil Waris shown next to (as areplacement for) an oldertradition of stone masonryThese two technologiesfunction as multiple historicalvoices speaking out from thephotographic print from twodistinct pasts They speak to theviewer who situated in thepresent day contributes yetanother voice to the sceneAbbott identified the Civil Waras ldquothe realest thing thathappened in [Bradyrsquos] timerdquoand with Trestle Bridge we cansee how that event created thehistorical circumstances thatencouraged various voices (pastpresent and future) to interactBradyrsquos ability to capture this interaction onthe surface of the photograph makes theinvisible visible everyday life as it isexperienced through time not just in onesingle momentS uch an interpretation of Abbottrsquos

words changes the terms of thedebate over her view of photography

and realism It moves the discussion awayfrom the idea of objective representation andtoward one that takes into accountcontingency and the not-picturedmdash

something which the camerarsquos lens does notsee and therefore cannot reproduce literallybut which is there Alongside her declarationsabout photographyrsquos realist essence andidealized communicative potential Abbottexplored this idea as well

The camerarsquos eye is [not] easilyimposed on It demands logical andreasonable reality in what it records Itcreates a marvelous record of fact oftruth an almost microscopic chronicleof things but according to its owncharacter a character mercilessly con-trolled by optics What the lens sees is

Berenice Abbott ldquoFlatiron Buildingrdquo 1938

50 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

a single image at the instant the shutteris clicked Unlike the human eye thelens does not merge or superimposeimages from what it saw a momentbefore or what it may see a momentafter It does not color the image itrecords with remembered images ofother times and places Nor does it in-clude in its sharp restrictedinstantaneous view what is seenvaguely and indistinctly from thecorner of the human eye The lensfreezes time and space in what may bean optical slavery or contrarily thecrystallization of meaning The limitsof the lensrsquo vision are esthetically oftena virtue However the limits createproblems

The problems caused by the lensrsquos abilityto freeze time and space is the problem ofthe solitary image conceived as a finality ToAbbott such an image a solitary image can-not reveal the real because too much hasbeen left out Attached to it there mustalways be another image or another voice (thetrestle bridge and the stone masonry)

To limit then Abbottrsquos position on thestraight realist or objective photograph to anidea purely about graphic inscription would

be to fail to recognize that her pictures donot simply assert a closed and finishedcontent that some unknown spectator thenand now must accept without question Herapproach was neither this narrowly conceivednor solely related to depicted subject matterSuch limited understanding of thephotographic mediummdashstraightunmanipulated evidence of what ldquowasthererdquomdashreveals a worldview that seeks theconquest of the world as a picture a viewthat has no real connection to Abbottrsquos work(or theoretical writing) Yet her approach hassometimes been conflated with thisperspective This type of analysis fails to seethat Abbottrsquos idea of realism ultimatelydepends not on a utopian conception of uni-versal communication (this despite Abbottrsquosown occasionally utopian rhetoric) but on theconstruction of a space of communicativeinteraction A spacemdashbetween thephotographic print the photographer andthe spectatormdashof engagement that is open-ended and that reveals the social contexts outof which photographs come into sight in thefirst place

Terri Weissman is Assistant Professor of Art History at theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign specializing in modernand contemporary art and the history of photography Her bookThe Realisms of Berenice Abbott Documentary Photography andPolitical Action (University of California Press 2011) examines thepolitics as well as the successes and failures of Abbottrsquos realistcommunicatively oriented model of documentary photography Shehas co-curated (with Jessica May and Sharon Corwin) a majortraveling exhibition titled American Modern Abbott Evans andBourke-White (catalog available from University of California Press)that further investigates questions of documentary photographyrsquosefficacy and political resonance Weissman has also published oncontemporary artists such as Gabriel Orozco and Maria MagdalenaCompos Pons as well as on the cultural impact of disasters such asSeptember 11thVisit her website at httpartillinoisedupeopletweissmaAmerican Modern opens at the Art Institute of Chicago onFebruary 5

Berenice Abbott ldquoDePeyster Statuerdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 45

And in chapter 24 which isdedicated to straightphotography she claims ldquoWecan see that straightphotography today exercises acorrective influence in twodirections against the kind of picture-making extolled bythe pictorialists and againstthe frivolousness of those whomanipulate the medium purelyfor selfish ends as in thesurrealist nightmares Contrasted with the horrors ofsentimentality [pictorialism] andof pseudo-sophistication[surrealism] straightphotography is a clean breathof good fresh air It callsfor the use of the mediumwithout perversion of its truecharacterrdquo

And when Abbott actuallydefined straight photographyshe emphasized the mediumrsquosinherent characteristics Straightphotography she wrote isldquoprecision in the rendering anddefinition of detail andmaterials surfaces and texturesinstantaneity of observationacute and faithful presentationof what has actually existed inthe external world at aparticular time and placerdquo Inother words the straightobjective or realist photograph is the imagerevealed without trickery deceit or distortionall in the name of a truthful and faithfulpresentation of factO ne way that Abbott justified her

privileging of straightphotography over other methods

was to turn to the mediumrsquos communicativepotential ldquoThe something done byphotography is communicationrdquo shedeclared ldquoIt was fashionable a dozen yearsago to sneer at communication as the

purpose of art and indeed even deny thatart had a purpose Non-intelligibility non-communication were raised to ultimate endsTo say anything in a book a picture a pieceof music was anathema The artist who didso was a prig and a prude and distinctlypasseacute That phase is pastrdquo In an evenstronger pronouncement of photographyrsquospotential to function as a kind of ultimateutopian ideal of communicationmdashunbounded free and clearmdashAbbott wroteldquoThe potentiality of the camera forcommunication of content is almost

Berenice Abbott ldquoBread Store 259 Bleecker Streetrdquo 1937

46 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

unlimited The photograph full of detail andobjective visual fact speaks to all peopleWhere language barriers impeded the flow ofthe spoken or written idea the photograph isnot handicapped the eye knows no nationrdquoThese kinds of quotations abound inAbbottrsquos writing and I could easily continuewith more but the idea is clear enough it isonly the straight photographic image throughthe realistic and objective revelation of itssubject matter (or content) that speaks tospectators both current and future

Now we can begin to postulate that whatmakes Abbott ldquothe least arty photographerrdquoin America is her belief that the photographicimage should be both straight and oriented tocommunicationmdashand this would be a goodbeginning But a third element also needs to

be added to the equation Based on Abbottrsquosoften grand statements in which she tied thephotographic printrsquos realist essence objectivequalities and communicative potential to themost pressing historical and social issues ofthe day a social and political commitment ofsome sort should also be considered a crucialcomponent of Abbottrsquos claim of being theleast arty photographer In a 1951 article atext that came to function as Abbottrsquospersonal manifesto about photographyrsquoshistory and future she stated

Today the challenge to photographersis great because we are living in amomentous period History is pushingus to the brink of a realistic age asnever before I believe there is no morecreative medium than photography to

Berenice Abbott ldquolsquoElrsquo Station Interior Sixth and Ninth Avenue Lines Downtown Siderdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 47

recreate the living world ofour timePhotography accepts thechallenge because it is athome and in its elementnamely realismmdashreallifemdashthe nowWhat we need is a return to the great tradition ofrealism Since ultimately thephotograph is a statement adocument of the now agreater responsibility is puton us [photographers]Today we are confrontedwith reality on the vastestscale mankind has known

So photography isobjective useful as a tool forcommunication and sociallyand historically oriented Giventhis framing of the mediumAbbottrsquos self-identification asldquothe least arty photographerrdquoin the United States is easy tounderstand And for thehistorian faced with these sortsof declarations the positioningof Abbott as a photographerpreoccupied withdemonstrating and assertingthe mediumrsquos potential forobjective representationmdashtheproponent that is of astraightforward understandingof photographyrsquos ability tocapture an objective worldmdashis also easy tounderstandA nd yet Despite the evidence I

believe it would be a mistake tointerpret Abbottrsquos statements as a

simple endorsement of objectivephotography and an outright rejection of allelse The complexity of Abbottrsquos attitudetoward the photographic image comes out inher pictures but her understanding ofphotographyrsquos capacity to function beyond anarrowly conceived idea of representation is

also evident in her writing If we are willingfor a moment to suspend our judgmentabout Abbottrsquos sometimes facile account ofwhat constitutes the real with regard tophotographic imagery and take a secondcloser look at her texts a more complexanalysis emerges For example in a speechdelivered at the Aspen Institute on which thepreceding extract is based Abbott explicitlyconnected photography to democracy andpopulism identified photography as theldquogreat democratic mediumrdquo and proclaimedldquoPhotography is made by the many and for

Berenice Abbott ldquoFather Duffy Times Squarerdquo 1937

48 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

the manyrdquo This is an interesting claim (andnot a simple one) for an artistic medium amedium that like the American Constitutionis by the people for the people It implies abelief that the users (and viewers) ofphotography would emerge as a newcommunity as a people who not bound bypast rules of making or spectatorship wouldestablish new conditions for making historicalsubject matter visible and in so doing wouldexpose new possibilities for action

Or similarly returning to the longerexcerpt I quoted from her 1951 text

ldquoPhotography at theCrossroadsrdquo Abbott wroteldquoHistory is pushing us to thebrink of a realistic age asnever before I believe thereis no more creative mediumthan photography to recreatethe living world of our timerdquoThis could be read as a frankstatement about the effect ofobjective representation onpeoplersquos actions visuallyconfronted by realisticimages of momentoushistorical events (warhungermdashsuffering ingeneral) people will bemotivated to act or worktoward change But the samestatement could beinterpreted with moresubtlety might it not alsoindicate an interest instudying the present (theldquonowrdquo) as a historicalproblem And reveal a desireto recast history as adilemma of representationHistory itself seen throughthe prism of realism as aproblem of realism

ldquoWhen Brady made histhousands of negatives ofthe Civil War he wasphotographing the realestthing that happened in his

timerdquo Abbott wrote in her Guide to BetterPhotography And one of the bookrsquos manyillustrations is Bradyrsquos 1861ndash1865 imageBridge built by troops on the Orange ampAlexandria RailRoad (sometimes known asTrestle Bridge) which depicts a United Statesmilitary railroad engine crossing a river on atrestle bridge built over the remains of anolder stone bridge The train either stoppedor moving very slowly is surrounded by anumber of soldiers a larger figure dominatesthe foreground spacemdashhe looks up at the

Berenice Abbott ldquoConstruction Old and Newrdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 49

bridge and the engine crossingit Because the figure wasunable to hold his pose duringthe camerarsquos long exposuretime the image of his body isblurred and so it is difficult totell exactly where he looking orto determine precisely his rolein the scene What is clearhowevermdashand what I imagineAbbott so appreciated aboutthis imagemdashis that multiplehistorical moments interact thetrestle bridgersquos new industrialform employed for the firsttime and with some frequencyduring the American Civil Waris shown next to (as areplacement for) an oldertradition of stone masonryThese two technologiesfunction as multiple historicalvoices speaking out from thephotographic print from twodistinct pasts They speak to theviewer who situated in thepresent day contributes yetanother voice to the sceneAbbott identified the Civil Waras ldquothe realest thing thathappened in [Bradyrsquos] timerdquoand with Trestle Bridge we cansee how that event created thehistorical circumstances thatencouraged various voices (pastpresent and future) to interactBradyrsquos ability to capture this interaction onthe surface of the photograph makes theinvisible visible everyday life as it isexperienced through time not just in onesingle momentS uch an interpretation of Abbottrsquos

words changes the terms of thedebate over her view of photography

and realism It moves the discussion awayfrom the idea of objective representation andtoward one that takes into accountcontingency and the not-picturedmdash

something which the camerarsquos lens does notsee and therefore cannot reproduce literallybut which is there Alongside her declarationsabout photographyrsquos realist essence andidealized communicative potential Abbottexplored this idea as well

The camerarsquos eye is [not] easilyimposed on It demands logical andreasonable reality in what it records Itcreates a marvelous record of fact oftruth an almost microscopic chronicleof things but according to its owncharacter a character mercilessly con-trolled by optics What the lens sees is

Berenice Abbott ldquoFlatiron Buildingrdquo 1938

50 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

a single image at the instant the shutteris clicked Unlike the human eye thelens does not merge or superimposeimages from what it saw a momentbefore or what it may see a momentafter It does not color the image itrecords with remembered images ofother times and places Nor does it in-clude in its sharp restrictedinstantaneous view what is seenvaguely and indistinctly from thecorner of the human eye The lensfreezes time and space in what may bean optical slavery or contrarily thecrystallization of meaning The limitsof the lensrsquo vision are esthetically oftena virtue However the limits createproblems

The problems caused by the lensrsquos abilityto freeze time and space is the problem ofthe solitary image conceived as a finality ToAbbott such an image a solitary image can-not reveal the real because too much hasbeen left out Attached to it there mustalways be another image or another voice (thetrestle bridge and the stone masonry)

To limit then Abbottrsquos position on thestraight realist or objective photograph to anidea purely about graphic inscription would

be to fail to recognize that her pictures donot simply assert a closed and finishedcontent that some unknown spectator thenand now must accept without question Herapproach was neither this narrowly conceivednor solely related to depicted subject matterSuch limited understanding of thephotographic mediummdashstraightunmanipulated evidence of what ldquowasthererdquomdashreveals a worldview that seeks theconquest of the world as a picture a viewthat has no real connection to Abbottrsquos work(or theoretical writing) Yet her approach hassometimes been conflated with thisperspective This type of analysis fails to seethat Abbottrsquos idea of realism ultimatelydepends not on a utopian conception of uni-versal communication (this despite Abbottrsquosown occasionally utopian rhetoric) but on theconstruction of a space of communicativeinteraction A spacemdashbetween thephotographic print the photographer andthe spectatormdashof engagement that is open-ended and that reveals the social contexts outof which photographs come into sight in thefirst place

Terri Weissman is Assistant Professor of Art History at theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign specializing in modernand contemporary art and the history of photography Her bookThe Realisms of Berenice Abbott Documentary Photography andPolitical Action (University of California Press 2011) examines thepolitics as well as the successes and failures of Abbottrsquos realistcommunicatively oriented model of documentary photography Shehas co-curated (with Jessica May and Sharon Corwin) a majortraveling exhibition titled American Modern Abbott Evans andBourke-White (catalog available from University of California Press)that further investigates questions of documentary photographyrsquosefficacy and political resonance Weissman has also published oncontemporary artists such as Gabriel Orozco and Maria MagdalenaCompos Pons as well as on the cultural impact of disasters such asSeptember 11thVisit her website at httpartillinoisedupeopletweissmaAmerican Modern opens at the Art Institute of Chicago onFebruary 5

Berenice Abbott ldquoDePeyster Statuerdquo 1936

46 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

unlimited The photograph full of detail andobjective visual fact speaks to all peopleWhere language barriers impeded the flow ofthe spoken or written idea the photograph isnot handicapped the eye knows no nationrdquoThese kinds of quotations abound inAbbottrsquos writing and I could easily continuewith more but the idea is clear enough it isonly the straight photographic image throughthe realistic and objective revelation of itssubject matter (or content) that speaks tospectators both current and future

Now we can begin to postulate that whatmakes Abbott ldquothe least arty photographerrdquoin America is her belief that the photographicimage should be both straight and oriented tocommunicationmdashand this would be a goodbeginning But a third element also needs to

be added to the equation Based on Abbottrsquosoften grand statements in which she tied thephotographic printrsquos realist essence objectivequalities and communicative potential to themost pressing historical and social issues ofthe day a social and political commitment ofsome sort should also be considered a crucialcomponent of Abbottrsquos claim of being theleast arty photographer In a 1951 article atext that came to function as Abbottrsquospersonal manifesto about photographyrsquoshistory and future she stated

Today the challenge to photographersis great because we are living in amomentous period History is pushingus to the brink of a realistic age asnever before I believe there is no morecreative medium than photography to

Berenice Abbott ldquolsquoElrsquo Station Interior Sixth and Ninth Avenue Lines Downtown Siderdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 47

recreate the living world ofour timePhotography accepts thechallenge because it is athome and in its elementnamely realismmdashreallifemdashthe nowWhat we need is a return to the great tradition ofrealism Since ultimately thephotograph is a statement adocument of the now agreater responsibility is puton us [photographers]Today we are confrontedwith reality on the vastestscale mankind has known

So photography isobjective useful as a tool forcommunication and sociallyand historically oriented Giventhis framing of the mediumAbbottrsquos self-identification asldquothe least arty photographerrdquoin the United States is easy tounderstand And for thehistorian faced with these sortsof declarations the positioningof Abbott as a photographerpreoccupied withdemonstrating and assertingthe mediumrsquos potential forobjective representationmdashtheproponent that is of astraightforward understandingof photographyrsquos ability tocapture an objective worldmdashis also easy tounderstandA nd yet Despite the evidence I

believe it would be a mistake tointerpret Abbottrsquos statements as a

simple endorsement of objectivephotography and an outright rejection of allelse The complexity of Abbottrsquos attitudetoward the photographic image comes out inher pictures but her understanding ofphotographyrsquos capacity to function beyond anarrowly conceived idea of representation is

also evident in her writing If we are willingfor a moment to suspend our judgmentabout Abbottrsquos sometimes facile account ofwhat constitutes the real with regard tophotographic imagery and take a secondcloser look at her texts a more complexanalysis emerges For example in a speechdelivered at the Aspen Institute on which thepreceding extract is based Abbott explicitlyconnected photography to democracy andpopulism identified photography as theldquogreat democratic mediumrdquo and proclaimedldquoPhotography is made by the many and for

Berenice Abbott ldquoFather Duffy Times Squarerdquo 1937

48 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

the manyrdquo This is an interesting claim (andnot a simple one) for an artistic medium amedium that like the American Constitutionis by the people for the people It implies abelief that the users (and viewers) ofphotography would emerge as a newcommunity as a people who not bound bypast rules of making or spectatorship wouldestablish new conditions for making historicalsubject matter visible and in so doing wouldexpose new possibilities for action

Or similarly returning to the longerexcerpt I quoted from her 1951 text

ldquoPhotography at theCrossroadsrdquo Abbott wroteldquoHistory is pushing us to thebrink of a realistic age asnever before I believe thereis no more creative mediumthan photography to recreatethe living world of our timerdquoThis could be read as a frankstatement about the effect ofobjective representation onpeoplersquos actions visuallyconfronted by realisticimages of momentoushistorical events (warhungermdashsuffering ingeneral) people will bemotivated to act or worktoward change But the samestatement could beinterpreted with moresubtlety might it not alsoindicate an interest instudying the present (theldquonowrdquo) as a historicalproblem And reveal a desireto recast history as adilemma of representationHistory itself seen throughthe prism of realism as aproblem of realism

ldquoWhen Brady made histhousands of negatives ofthe Civil War he wasphotographing the realestthing that happened in his

timerdquo Abbott wrote in her Guide to BetterPhotography And one of the bookrsquos manyillustrations is Bradyrsquos 1861ndash1865 imageBridge built by troops on the Orange ampAlexandria RailRoad (sometimes known asTrestle Bridge) which depicts a United Statesmilitary railroad engine crossing a river on atrestle bridge built over the remains of anolder stone bridge The train either stoppedor moving very slowly is surrounded by anumber of soldiers a larger figure dominatesthe foreground spacemdashhe looks up at the

Berenice Abbott ldquoConstruction Old and Newrdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 49

bridge and the engine crossingit Because the figure wasunable to hold his pose duringthe camerarsquos long exposuretime the image of his body isblurred and so it is difficult totell exactly where he looking orto determine precisely his rolein the scene What is clearhowevermdashand what I imagineAbbott so appreciated aboutthis imagemdashis that multiplehistorical moments interact thetrestle bridgersquos new industrialform employed for the firsttime and with some frequencyduring the American Civil Waris shown next to (as areplacement for) an oldertradition of stone masonryThese two technologiesfunction as multiple historicalvoices speaking out from thephotographic print from twodistinct pasts They speak to theviewer who situated in thepresent day contributes yetanother voice to the sceneAbbott identified the Civil Waras ldquothe realest thing thathappened in [Bradyrsquos] timerdquoand with Trestle Bridge we cansee how that event created thehistorical circumstances thatencouraged various voices (pastpresent and future) to interactBradyrsquos ability to capture this interaction onthe surface of the photograph makes theinvisible visible everyday life as it isexperienced through time not just in onesingle momentS uch an interpretation of Abbottrsquos

words changes the terms of thedebate over her view of photography

and realism It moves the discussion awayfrom the idea of objective representation andtoward one that takes into accountcontingency and the not-picturedmdash

something which the camerarsquos lens does notsee and therefore cannot reproduce literallybut which is there Alongside her declarationsabout photographyrsquos realist essence andidealized communicative potential Abbottexplored this idea as well

The camerarsquos eye is [not] easilyimposed on It demands logical andreasonable reality in what it records Itcreates a marvelous record of fact oftruth an almost microscopic chronicleof things but according to its owncharacter a character mercilessly con-trolled by optics What the lens sees is

Berenice Abbott ldquoFlatiron Buildingrdquo 1938

50 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

a single image at the instant the shutteris clicked Unlike the human eye thelens does not merge or superimposeimages from what it saw a momentbefore or what it may see a momentafter It does not color the image itrecords with remembered images ofother times and places Nor does it in-clude in its sharp restrictedinstantaneous view what is seenvaguely and indistinctly from thecorner of the human eye The lensfreezes time and space in what may bean optical slavery or contrarily thecrystallization of meaning The limitsof the lensrsquo vision are esthetically oftena virtue However the limits createproblems

The problems caused by the lensrsquos abilityto freeze time and space is the problem ofthe solitary image conceived as a finality ToAbbott such an image a solitary image can-not reveal the real because too much hasbeen left out Attached to it there mustalways be another image or another voice (thetrestle bridge and the stone masonry)

To limit then Abbottrsquos position on thestraight realist or objective photograph to anidea purely about graphic inscription would

be to fail to recognize that her pictures donot simply assert a closed and finishedcontent that some unknown spectator thenand now must accept without question Herapproach was neither this narrowly conceivednor solely related to depicted subject matterSuch limited understanding of thephotographic mediummdashstraightunmanipulated evidence of what ldquowasthererdquomdashreveals a worldview that seeks theconquest of the world as a picture a viewthat has no real connection to Abbottrsquos work(or theoretical writing) Yet her approach hassometimes been conflated with thisperspective This type of analysis fails to seethat Abbottrsquos idea of realism ultimatelydepends not on a utopian conception of uni-versal communication (this despite Abbottrsquosown occasionally utopian rhetoric) but on theconstruction of a space of communicativeinteraction A spacemdashbetween thephotographic print the photographer andthe spectatormdashof engagement that is open-ended and that reveals the social contexts outof which photographs come into sight in thefirst place

Terri Weissman is Assistant Professor of Art History at theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign specializing in modernand contemporary art and the history of photography Her bookThe Realisms of Berenice Abbott Documentary Photography andPolitical Action (University of California Press 2011) examines thepolitics as well as the successes and failures of Abbottrsquos realistcommunicatively oriented model of documentary photography Shehas co-curated (with Jessica May and Sharon Corwin) a majortraveling exhibition titled American Modern Abbott Evans andBourke-White (catalog available from University of California Press)that further investigates questions of documentary photographyrsquosefficacy and political resonance Weissman has also published oncontemporary artists such as Gabriel Orozco and Maria MagdalenaCompos Pons as well as on the cultural impact of disasters such asSeptember 11thVisit her website at httpartillinoisedupeopletweissmaAmerican Modern opens at the Art Institute of Chicago onFebruary 5

Berenice Abbott ldquoDePeyster Statuerdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 47

recreate the living world ofour timePhotography accepts thechallenge because it is athome and in its elementnamely realismmdashreallifemdashthe nowWhat we need is a return to the great tradition ofrealism Since ultimately thephotograph is a statement adocument of the now agreater responsibility is puton us [photographers]Today we are confrontedwith reality on the vastestscale mankind has known

So photography isobjective useful as a tool forcommunication and sociallyand historically oriented Giventhis framing of the mediumAbbottrsquos self-identification asldquothe least arty photographerrdquoin the United States is easy tounderstand And for thehistorian faced with these sortsof declarations the positioningof Abbott as a photographerpreoccupied withdemonstrating and assertingthe mediumrsquos potential forobjective representationmdashtheproponent that is of astraightforward understandingof photographyrsquos ability tocapture an objective worldmdashis also easy tounderstandA nd yet Despite the evidence I

believe it would be a mistake tointerpret Abbottrsquos statements as a

simple endorsement of objectivephotography and an outright rejection of allelse The complexity of Abbottrsquos attitudetoward the photographic image comes out inher pictures but her understanding ofphotographyrsquos capacity to function beyond anarrowly conceived idea of representation is

also evident in her writing If we are willingfor a moment to suspend our judgmentabout Abbottrsquos sometimes facile account ofwhat constitutes the real with regard tophotographic imagery and take a secondcloser look at her texts a more complexanalysis emerges For example in a speechdelivered at the Aspen Institute on which thepreceding extract is based Abbott explicitlyconnected photography to democracy andpopulism identified photography as theldquogreat democratic mediumrdquo and proclaimedldquoPhotography is made by the many and for

Berenice Abbott ldquoFather Duffy Times Squarerdquo 1937

48 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

the manyrdquo This is an interesting claim (andnot a simple one) for an artistic medium amedium that like the American Constitutionis by the people for the people It implies abelief that the users (and viewers) ofphotography would emerge as a newcommunity as a people who not bound bypast rules of making or spectatorship wouldestablish new conditions for making historicalsubject matter visible and in so doing wouldexpose new possibilities for action

Or similarly returning to the longerexcerpt I quoted from her 1951 text

ldquoPhotography at theCrossroadsrdquo Abbott wroteldquoHistory is pushing us to thebrink of a realistic age asnever before I believe thereis no more creative mediumthan photography to recreatethe living world of our timerdquoThis could be read as a frankstatement about the effect ofobjective representation onpeoplersquos actions visuallyconfronted by realisticimages of momentoushistorical events (warhungermdashsuffering ingeneral) people will bemotivated to act or worktoward change But the samestatement could beinterpreted with moresubtlety might it not alsoindicate an interest instudying the present (theldquonowrdquo) as a historicalproblem And reveal a desireto recast history as adilemma of representationHistory itself seen throughthe prism of realism as aproblem of realism

ldquoWhen Brady made histhousands of negatives ofthe Civil War he wasphotographing the realestthing that happened in his

timerdquo Abbott wrote in her Guide to BetterPhotography And one of the bookrsquos manyillustrations is Bradyrsquos 1861ndash1865 imageBridge built by troops on the Orange ampAlexandria RailRoad (sometimes known asTrestle Bridge) which depicts a United Statesmilitary railroad engine crossing a river on atrestle bridge built over the remains of anolder stone bridge The train either stoppedor moving very slowly is surrounded by anumber of soldiers a larger figure dominatesthe foreground spacemdashhe looks up at the

Berenice Abbott ldquoConstruction Old and Newrdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 49

bridge and the engine crossingit Because the figure wasunable to hold his pose duringthe camerarsquos long exposuretime the image of his body isblurred and so it is difficult totell exactly where he looking orto determine precisely his rolein the scene What is clearhowevermdashand what I imagineAbbott so appreciated aboutthis imagemdashis that multiplehistorical moments interact thetrestle bridgersquos new industrialform employed for the firsttime and with some frequencyduring the American Civil Waris shown next to (as areplacement for) an oldertradition of stone masonryThese two technologiesfunction as multiple historicalvoices speaking out from thephotographic print from twodistinct pasts They speak to theviewer who situated in thepresent day contributes yetanother voice to the sceneAbbott identified the Civil Waras ldquothe realest thing thathappened in [Bradyrsquos] timerdquoand with Trestle Bridge we cansee how that event created thehistorical circumstances thatencouraged various voices (pastpresent and future) to interactBradyrsquos ability to capture this interaction onthe surface of the photograph makes theinvisible visible everyday life as it isexperienced through time not just in onesingle momentS uch an interpretation of Abbottrsquos

words changes the terms of thedebate over her view of photography

and realism It moves the discussion awayfrom the idea of objective representation andtoward one that takes into accountcontingency and the not-picturedmdash

something which the camerarsquos lens does notsee and therefore cannot reproduce literallybut which is there Alongside her declarationsabout photographyrsquos realist essence andidealized communicative potential Abbottexplored this idea as well

The camerarsquos eye is [not] easilyimposed on It demands logical andreasonable reality in what it records Itcreates a marvelous record of fact oftruth an almost microscopic chronicleof things but according to its owncharacter a character mercilessly con-trolled by optics What the lens sees is

Berenice Abbott ldquoFlatiron Buildingrdquo 1938

50 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

a single image at the instant the shutteris clicked Unlike the human eye thelens does not merge or superimposeimages from what it saw a momentbefore or what it may see a momentafter It does not color the image itrecords with remembered images ofother times and places Nor does it in-clude in its sharp restrictedinstantaneous view what is seenvaguely and indistinctly from thecorner of the human eye The lensfreezes time and space in what may bean optical slavery or contrarily thecrystallization of meaning The limitsof the lensrsquo vision are esthetically oftena virtue However the limits createproblems

The problems caused by the lensrsquos abilityto freeze time and space is the problem ofthe solitary image conceived as a finality ToAbbott such an image a solitary image can-not reveal the real because too much hasbeen left out Attached to it there mustalways be another image or another voice (thetrestle bridge and the stone masonry)

To limit then Abbottrsquos position on thestraight realist or objective photograph to anidea purely about graphic inscription would

be to fail to recognize that her pictures donot simply assert a closed and finishedcontent that some unknown spectator thenand now must accept without question Herapproach was neither this narrowly conceivednor solely related to depicted subject matterSuch limited understanding of thephotographic mediummdashstraightunmanipulated evidence of what ldquowasthererdquomdashreveals a worldview that seeks theconquest of the world as a picture a viewthat has no real connection to Abbottrsquos work(or theoretical writing) Yet her approach hassometimes been conflated with thisperspective This type of analysis fails to seethat Abbottrsquos idea of realism ultimatelydepends not on a utopian conception of uni-versal communication (this despite Abbottrsquosown occasionally utopian rhetoric) but on theconstruction of a space of communicativeinteraction A spacemdashbetween thephotographic print the photographer andthe spectatormdashof engagement that is open-ended and that reveals the social contexts outof which photographs come into sight in thefirst place

Terri Weissman is Assistant Professor of Art History at theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign specializing in modernand contemporary art and the history of photography Her bookThe Realisms of Berenice Abbott Documentary Photography andPolitical Action (University of California Press 2011) examines thepolitics as well as the successes and failures of Abbottrsquos realistcommunicatively oriented model of documentary photography Shehas co-curated (with Jessica May and Sharon Corwin) a majortraveling exhibition titled American Modern Abbott Evans andBourke-White (catalog available from University of California Press)that further investigates questions of documentary photographyrsquosefficacy and political resonance Weissman has also published oncontemporary artists such as Gabriel Orozco and Maria MagdalenaCompos Pons as well as on the cultural impact of disasters such asSeptember 11thVisit her website at httpartillinoisedupeopletweissmaAmerican Modern opens at the Art Institute of Chicago onFebruary 5

Berenice Abbott ldquoDePeyster Statuerdquo 1936

48 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

the manyrdquo This is an interesting claim (andnot a simple one) for an artistic medium amedium that like the American Constitutionis by the people for the people It implies abelief that the users (and viewers) ofphotography would emerge as a newcommunity as a people who not bound bypast rules of making or spectatorship wouldestablish new conditions for making historicalsubject matter visible and in so doing wouldexpose new possibilities for action

Or similarly returning to the longerexcerpt I quoted from her 1951 text

ldquoPhotography at theCrossroadsrdquo Abbott wroteldquoHistory is pushing us to thebrink of a realistic age asnever before I believe thereis no more creative mediumthan photography to recreatethe living world of our timerdquoThis could be read as a frankstatement about the effect ofobjective representation onpeoplersquos actions visuallyconfronted by realisticimages of momentoushistorical events (warhungermdashsuffering ingeneral) people will bemotivated to act or worktoward change But the samestatement could beinterpreted with moresubtlety might it not alsoindicate an interest instudying the present (theldquonowrdquo) as a historicalproblem And reveal a desireto recast history as adilemma of representationHistory itself seen throughthe prism of realism as aproblem of realism

ldquoWhen Brady made histhousands of negatives ofthe Civil War he wasphotographing the realestthing that happened in his

timerdquo Abbott wrote in her Guide to BetterPhotography And one of the bookrsquos manyillustrations is Bradyrsquos 1861ndash1865 imageBridge built by troops on the Orange ampAlexandria RailRoad (sometimes known asTrestle Bridge) which depicts a United Statesmilitary railroad engine crossing a river on atrestle bridge built over the remains of anolder stone bridge The train either stoppedor moving very slowly is surrounded by anumber of soldiers a larger figure dominatesthe foreground spacemdashhe looks up at the

Berenice Abbott ldquoConstruction Old and Newrdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 49

bridge and the engine crossingit Because the figure wasunable to hold his pose duringthe camerarsquos long exposuretime the image of his body isblurred and so it is difficult totell exactly where he looking orto determine precisely his rolein the scene What is clearhowevermdashand what I imagineAbbott so appreciated aboutthis imagemdashis that multiplehistorical moments interact thetrestle bridgersquos new industrialform employed for the firsttime and with some frequencyduring the American Civil Waris shown next to (as areplacement for) an oldertradition of stone masonryThese two technologiesfunction as multiple historicalvoices speaking out from thephotographic print from twodistinct pasts They speak to theviewer who situated in thepresent day contributes yetanother voice to the sceneAbbott identified the Civil Waras ldquothe realest thing thathappened in [Bradyrsquos] timerdquoand with Trestle Bridge we cansee how that event created thehistorical circumstances thatencouraged various voices (pastpresent and future) to interactBradyrsquos ability to capture this interaction onthe surface of the photograph makes theinvisible visible everyday life as it isexperienced through time not just in onesingle momentS uch an interpretation of Abbottrsquos

words changes the terms of thedebate over her view of photography

and realism It moves the discussion awayfrom the idea of objective representation andtoward one that takes into accountcontingency and the not-picturedmdash

something which the camerarsquos lens does notsee and therefore cannot reproduce literallybut which is there Alongside her declarationsabout photographyrsquos realist essence andidealized communicative potential Abbottexplored this idea as well

The camerarsquos eye is [not] easilyimposed on It demands logical andreasonable reality in what it records Itcreates a marvelous record of fact oftruth an almost microscopic chronicleof things but according to its owncharacter a character mercilessly con-trolled by optics What the lens sees is

Berenice Abbott ldquoFlatiron Buildingrdquo 1938

50 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

a single image at the instant the shutteris clicked Unlike the human eye thelens does not merge or superimposeimages from what it saw a momentbefore or what it may see a momentafter It does not color the image itrecords with remembered images ofother times and places Nor does it in-clude in its sharp restrictedinstantaneous view what is seenvaguely and indistinctly from thecorner of the human eye The lensfreezes time and space in what may bean optical slavery or contrarily thecrystallization of meaning The limitsof the lensrsquo vision are esthetically oftena virtue However the limits createproblems

The problems caused by the lensrsquos abilityto freeze time and space is the problem ofthe solitary image conceived as a finality ToAbbott such an image a solitary image can-not reveal the real because too much hasbeen left out Attached to it there mustalways be another image or another voice (thetrestle bridge and the stone masonry)

To limit then Abbottrsquos position on thestraight realist or objective photograph to anidea purely about graphic inscription would

be to fail to recognize that her pictures donot simply assert a closed and finishedcontent that some unknown spectator thenand now must accept without question Herapproach was neither this narrowly conceivednor solely related to depicted subject matterSuch limited understanding of thephotographic mediummdashstraightunmanipulated evidence of what ldquowasthererdquomdashreveals a worldview that seeks theconquest of the world as a picture a viewthat has no real connection to Abbottrsquos work(or theoretical writing) Yet her approach hassometimes been conflated with thisperspective This type of analysis fails to seethat Abbottrsquos idea of realism ultimatelydepends not on a utopian conception of uni-versal communication (this despite Abbottrsquosown occasionally utopian rhetoric) but on theconstruction of a space of communicativeinteraction A spacemdashbetween thephotographic print the photographer andthe spectatormdashof engagement that is open-ended and that reveals the social contexts outof which photographs come into sight in thefirst place

Terri Weissman is Assistant Professor of Art History at theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign specializing in modernand contemporary art and the history of photography Her bookThe Realisms of Berenice Abbott Documentary Photography andPolitical Action (University of California Press 2011) examines thepolitics as well as the successes and failures of Abbottrsquos realistcommunicatively oriented model of documentary photography Shehas co-curated (with Jessica May and Sharon Corwin) a majortraveling exhibition titled American Modern Abbott Evans andBourke-White (catalog available from University of California Press)that further investigates questions of documentary photographyrsquosefficacy and political resonance Weissman has also published oncontemporary artists such as Gabriel Orozco and Maria MagdalenaCompos Pons as well as on the cultural impact of disasters such asSeptember 11thVisit her website at httpartillinoisedupeopletweissmaAmerican Modern opens at the Art Institute of Chicago onFebruary 5

Berenice Abbott ldquoDePeyster Statuerdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 49

bridge and the engine crossingit Because the figure wasunable to hold his pose duringthe camerarsquos long exposuretime the image of his body isblurred and so it is difficult totell exactly where he looking orto determine precisely his rolein the scene What is clearhowevermdashand what I imagineAbbott so appreciated aboutthis imagemdashis that multiplehistorical moments interact thetrestle bridgersquos new industrialform employed for the firsttime and with some frequencyduring the American Civil Waris shown next to (as areplacement for) an oldertradition of stone masonryThese two technologiesfunction as multiple historicalvoices speaking out from thephotographic print from twodistinct pasts They speak to theviewer who situated in thepresent day contributes yetanother voice to the sceneAbbott identified the Civil Waras ldquothe realest thing thathappened in [Bradyrsquos] timerdquoand with Trestle Bridge we cansee how that event created thehistorical circumstances thatencouraged various voices (pastpresent and future) to interactBradyrsquos ability to capture this interaction onthe surface of the photograph makes theinvisible visible everyday life as it isexperienced through time not just in onesingle momentS uch an interpretation of Abbottrsquos

words changes the terms of thedebate over her view of photography

and realism It moves the discussion awayfrom the idea of objective representation andtoward one that takes into accountcontingency and the not-picturedmdash

something which the camerarsquos lens does notsee and therefore cannot reproduce literallybut which is there Alongside her declarationsabout photographyrsquos realist essence andidealized communicative potential Abbottexplored this idea as well

The camerarsquos eye is [not] easilyimposed on It demands logical andreasonable reality in what it records Itcreates a marvelous record of fact oftruth an almost microscopic chronicleof things but according to its owncharacter a character mercilessly con-trolled by optics What the lens sees is

Berenice Abbott ldquoFlatiron Buildingrdquo 1938

50 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

a single image at the instant the shutteris clicked Unlike the human eye thelens does not merge or superimposeimages from what it saw a momentbefore or what it may see a momentafter It does not color the image itrecords with remembered images ofother times and places Nor does it in-clude in its sharp restrictedinstantaneous view what is seenvaguely and indistinctly from thecorner of the human eye The lensfreezes time and space in what may bean optical slavery or contrarily thecrystallization of meaning The limitsof the lensrsquo vision are esthetically oftena virtue However the limits createproblems

The problems caused by the lensrsquos abilityto freeze time and space is the problem ofthe solitary image conceived as a finality ToAbbott such an image a solitary image can-not reveal the real because too much hasbeen left out Attached to it there mustalways be another image or another voice (thetrestle bridge and the stone masonry)

To limit then Abbottrsquos position on thestraight realist or objective photograph to anidea purely about graphic inscription would

be to fail to recognize that her pictures donot simply assert a closed and finishedcontent that some unknown spectator thenand now must accept without question Herapproach was neither this narrowly conceivednor solely related to depicted subject matterSuch limited understanding of thephotographic mediummdashstraightunmanipulated evidence of what ldquowasthererdquomdashreveals a worldview that seeks theconquest of the world as a picture a viewthat has no real connection to Abbottrsquos work(or theoretical writing) Yet her approach hassometimes been conflated with thisperspective This type of analysis fails to seethat Abbottrsquos idea of realism ultimatelydepends not on a utopian conception of uni-versal communication (this despite Abbottrsquosown occasionally utopian rhetoric) but on theconstruction of a space of communicativeinteraction A spacemdashbetween thephotographic print the photographer andthe spectatormdashof engagement that is open-ended and that reveals the social contexts outof which photographs come into sight in thefirst place

Terri Weissman is Assistant Professor of Art History at theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign specializing in modernand contemporary art and the history of photography Her bookThe Realisms of Berenice Abbott Documentary Photography andPolitical Action (University of California Press 2011) examines thepolitics as well as the successes and failures of Abbottrsquos realistcommunicatively oriented model of documentary photography Shehas co-curated (with Jessica May and Sharon Corwin) a majortraveling exhibition titled American Modern Abbott Evans andBourke-White (catalog available from University of California Press)that further investigates questions of documentary photographyrsquosefficacy and political resonance Weissman has also published oncontemporary artists such as Gabriel Orozco and Maria MagdalenaCompos Pons as well as on the cultural impact of disasters such asSeptember 11thVisit her website at httpartillinoisedupeopletweissmaAmerican Modern opens at the Art Institute of Chicago onFebruary 5

Berenice Abbott ldquoDePeyster Statuerdquo 1936

50 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

a single image at the instant the shutteris clicked Unlike the human eye thelens does not merge or superimposeimages from what it saw a momentbefore or what it may see a momentafter It does not color the image itrecords with remembered images ofother times and places Nor does it in-clude in its sharp restrictedinstantaneous view what is seenvaguely and indistinctly from thecorner of the human eye The lensfreezes time and space in what may bean optical slavery or contrarily thecrystallization of meaning The limitsof the lensrsquo vision are esthetically oftena virtue However the limits createproblems

The problems caused by the lensrsquos abilityto freeze time and space is the problem ofthe solitary image conceived as a finality ToAbbott such an image a solitary image can-not reveal the real because too much hasbeen left out Attached to it there mustalways be another image or another voice (thetrestle bridge and the stone masonry)

To limit then Abbottrsquos position on thestraight realist or objective photograph to anidea purely about graphic inscription would

be to fail to recognize that her pictures donot simply assert a closed and finishedcontent that some unknown spectator thenand now must accept without question Herapproach was neither this narrowly conceivednor solely related to depicted subject matterSuch limited understanding of thephotographic mediummdashstraightunmanipulated evidence of what ldquowasthererdquomdashreveals a worldview that seeks theconquest of the world as a picture a viewthat has no real connection to Abbottrsquos work(or theoretical writing) Yet her approach hassometimes been conflated with thisperspective This type of analysis fails to seethat Abbottrsquos idea of realism ultimatelydepends not on a utopian conception of uni-versal communication (this despite Abbottrsquosown occasionally utopian rhetoric) but on theconstruction of a space of communicativeinteraction A spacemdashbetween thephotographic print the photographer andthe spectatormdashof engagement that is open-ended and that reveals the social contexts outof which photographs come into sight in thefirst place

Terri Weissman is Assistant Professor of Art History at theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign specializing in modernand contemporary art and the history of photography Her bookThe Realisms of Berenice Abbott Documentary Photography andPolitical Action (University of California Press 2011) examines thepolitics as well as the successes and failures of Abbottrsquos realistcommunicatively oriented model of documentary photography Shehas co-curated (with Jessica May and Sharon Corwin) a majortraveling exhibition titled American Modern Abbott Evans andBourke-White (catalog available from University of California Press)that further investigates questions of documentary photographyrsquosefficacy and political resonance Weissman has also published oncontemporary artists such as Gabriel Orozco and Maria MagdalenaCompos Pons as well as on the cultural impact of disasters such asSeptember 11thVisit her website at httpartillinoisedupeopletweissmaAmerican Modern opens at the Art Institute of Chicago onFebruary 5

Berenice Abbott ldquoDePeyster Statuerdquo 1936

S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011 51

52 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

AusterityFrom social virtue to economic punishment

BY JEET HEER

Greece 7th century BCE The lawgiver Zaleucus develops the Locrian code Women are forbiddenfrom wearing gold jewels or embroidered robes men from wearing gold rings or effeminate robesRoman Republic 3rd century BCE The idea of equal citizenship is enforced by ldquosumptuaryrdquo laws

forbidding excessive displays of dress or lavish banquets Censors chastise violatorsCirca 60 CE St Paul advises women ldquoto dress modestly with decency and propriety

not with braided hair or gold or pearls or expensive clothesrdquo (I Timothy 29)1497 Florence Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola organizes the Falograve delle vanitagrave (the Bonfireof the Vanities) burning useless items like mirrors paintings playing cards and musical instruments

Circa 1534 Paris Protestant theologian John Calvin criticizes luxury Followers prove their virtueby working hard and deferring gratification In the process they grow rich

1760s-1770s Thinkers like Benjamin Franklin recover the ideal of thrift as a ldquorepublican virtuerdquoForegoing tea and other British goods Americans hope to prove they are ready for self-governance1914-1918 In World War I rationing is encouraged as a patriotic duty ldquoNow is the time to lay your

double chin on the altar of libertyrdquo declares Herbert Hoover head of the US Food AdministrationGreat Depression 1929-1938 Governments initially respond with classical economic programs of

belt tightening cut backs and higher taxes to reduce deficits Results are disappointing1976 Daniel Bell argues that the long Protestant revolution is now confronted by an irresolvable

ldquocultural contradictionrdquo the wealth generated by capitalism is undermining the capitalist work ethic2008-2009 Reacting to the financial crisis Western governments avoid the paradox of thrift and usemassive fiscal and monetary stimulus programs to ward off global depression Results are heartening2009-2010 Sovereign debt leads to severe belt-tightening in Greece UK Ireland others ldquoThe age of

irresponsibility is giving way to the age of austerityrdquo declares David Cameron UK prime minister

ORIGINS amp ENDINGS

Jeet Heer is a cultural reporter who lives in Toronto and Regina His most recent workcan be found on the blog sans everything (httpsanseverythingwordpresscom)

52 S C O P E | Win t e r 2 011

AusterityFrom social virtue to economic punishment

BY JEET HEER

Greece 7th century BCE The lawgiver Zaleucus develops the Locrian code Women are forbiddenfrom wearing gold jewels or embroidered robes men from wearing gold rings or effeminate robesRoman Republic 3rd century BCE The idea of equal citizenship is enforced by ldquosumptuaryrdquo laws

forbidding excessive displays of dress or lavish banquets Censors chastise violatorsCirca 60 CE St Paul advises women ldquoto dress modestly with decency and propriety

not with braided hair or gold or pearls or expensive clothesrdquo (I Timothy 29)1497 Florence Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola organizes the Falograve delle vanitagrave (the Bonfireof the Vanities) burning useless items like mirrors paintings playing cards and musical instruments

Circa 1534 Paris Protestant theologian John Calvin criticizes luxury Followers prove their virtueby working hard and deferring gratification In the process they grow rich

1760s-1770s Thinkers like Benjamin Franklin recover the ideal of thrift as a ldquorepublican virtuerdquoForegoing tea and other British goods Americans hope to prove they are ready for self-governance1914-1918 In World War I rationing is encouraged as a patriotic duty ldquoNow is the time to lay your

double chin on the altar of libertyrdquo declares Herbert Hoover head of the US Food AdministrationGreat Depression 1929-1938 Governments initially respond with classical economic programs of

belt tightening cut backs and higher taxes to reduce deficits Results are disappointing1976 Daniel Bell argues that the long Protestant revolution is now confronted by an irresolvable

ldquocultural contradictionrdquo the wealth generated by capitalism is undermining the capitalist work ethic2008-2009 Reacting to the financial crisis Western governments avoid the paradox of thrift and usemassive fiscal and monetary stimulus programs to ward off global depression Results are heartening2009-2010 Sovereign debt leads to severe belt-tightening in Greece UK Ireland others ldquoThe age of

irresponsibility is giving way to the age of austerityrdquo declares David Cameron UK prime minister

ORIGINS amp ENDINGS

Jeet Heer is a cultural reporter who lives in Toronto and Regina His most recent workcan be found on the blog sans everything (httpsanseverythingwordpresscom)

Welcome to the endof the magazineWe hope you enjoyed

reading it and we hopeyoursquoll be back to readIssue 2 But to makethat issue even betterwersquoll need your thoughtson this one

Give SCOPE a piece of your mindeditorscope-magcom

ldquoWe all ended up with both pro-social and self-interestedtendencies which can play outin many ways in many settingsIm interested in how they playout in the setting of the globeas a whole We are again facedwith an adaptation challengethat of fitting our specieswithin an ecological nichewhich encompasses all lifeWe arenrsquot doing well at itrdquo

Page 5 inside