Scope Rules

Prepared by

Manuel E. Bermúdez, Ph.D.Associate ProfessorUniversity of Florida

Programming Language ConceptsLecture 11

Definition

• Scope: the region of program text in which a binding holds.

• Static binding is prevalent in most modern PLs.• New scope in each function.

• Activate bindings for parameters and locals.

• Deactivate bindings of globals obscured by locals.

• Deactivate bindings upon function return.

Example

let Sqr x = x * x

in

let f a b = Sqr a + b

in

Print(f 4 3 + (let Sqr x = x+x in f 4 3)) )

• In RPAL, this program prints 19 + 19 = 38.

• If RPAL used dynamic scoping, the result would be 19 + 11 = 30.

Terminology

• Referencing environment: the set of active bindings at a given point in a program's execution.

• Deep binding: the reference environment of a fcn/proc is determined when the function is created.

• Shallow binding: the reference environment of a fcn/proc is determined when the function is called.

Structure of Referencing Environments

• Normally, a stack suffices (C, C++, Java).

• If a procedure (not merely a pointer) can be passed as a parameter, the referencing environments are organized as a tree.

Example: Passing Procedures as Parameters in Pascal:

program test(output); procedure dummy; begin end;

procedure Q(procedure S; n:integer); procedure R; begin writeln(n) end;

begin { Q } if n=1 then Q(R,0) else S; end;

begin {main} Q(dummy,1) end.

The output of this program is ???

Types of Static Scope

• Flat: (BASIC, Cobol)• All name sin the same scope, all

visible everywhere.

• Local/global (Fortan, C, Prolog)• Only two referencing environments:

current and global.

Types of Static Scope (cont’d)

• Nested procedures (Algol, Pascal, Ada, Modula, RPAL).• Each procedure has its own scope,

visible to itself and all procedures nested within it.

Types of Static Scope (cont’d)

• Modular scope (Modula, Ada, C++, Java). Scopes defined by modules, which explicitly export names to:

• The global scope (public)• The scopes of subclasses (protected)• Nowhere (private)

Nested Scoping Example (in pseudo-Pascal): proc A; var a; proc B; var b: proc C; var c; begin c:=b-1; if b=1 then B else a:=a-c; end;{ C } begin b:=a-4; if b<2 then C; else a:=0; end;{ B } begin a:=5; B; end;{ A }

A can only see a. B can see a and b

but not c.C can see a, b, and

c.C can see many

versions of b and a, depending on the calling sequence.

Access to non-locals

• Needed to handle nested scoping.

• Two methods: • Static links• Displays.

• Will cover displays (and contrast them) later.

Static Link

• Pointer to the most recent instance of the next statically enclosing procedure (see diagram).

• Each instance of B points to the most recent version of A

• Each instance of C points to the most recent version of B

Static Link (cont’d)

• Compiler keeps track of nesting levels:• variable a is at level 1,• variable b is at level 2,• variable c is at level 3.

• To access a variable, subtract the variable's nesting depth from the current depth, and follow that many static links.

Examples

• For B to access a, depth[B]-depth[a] = 2-1= 1; follow 1 static link.

• For C to access b, depth[C]-depth[b] = 3-2= 1; follow 1 static link.

• For C to access a, depth[C]-depth[a] = 3-1= 2; follow 2 static links.

Block Scoping

• In the C language, execution blocks, delimited with {}, define scopes.

{ int t; t = a; a = b; { float t=3.14; printf("%f",t); } b = t;}

Block Scoping (cont’d)

• The variable's scope is limited to the {} block that contains its declaration.

• Handled like ordinary local variables: • Space allocated in subroutine

prologue (frame setup)• Deallocated in subroutine epilogue

(frame destruction).• Compiler's symbol table keeps track

of declarations.

Modular Scoping

• First languages to incorporate information hiding.

• Reduces "cognitive load" on programmers.

• CIA principle: if a code segment doesn't need to know about an object, it shouldn't.

• Tends to narrow (simplify) interfaces.• Aids in abstraction.

Modular Scoping (cont’d)

• Modules allow encapsulation of objects.

• Objects inside the module are visible to each other.

• Objects inside are only visible outside if explicitly exported.

• Objects outside not visible inside unless imported.

Modular Scoping (cont’d)

• Various terms for modules:

• Clu: clusters• Modula, Ada, Java: packages• C++: namespaces

Example (Pseudo Modula)module Zorch;

export A,b;

var b:integer;

var c:real:

proc A();

...

end

end Zorch;

module Zip;

import A;

export D;

var t:real;

proc D();

...

end;

end Zip;

module Zap;

import b,D;

export Q;

proc Q();

...

end;

proc R();

...

end;

end Zap;• Procedure A can see b and c.• Procedure D can see A and t, but not b or c.• Procedures Q and R can see b and D, but not

A, c, or t.

Module Types and Classes

• In Modula-2, Turing, and Ada83, a module can define only one instance of the object (module as manager).

• In Simula, Euclid, and ML, programmer can declare an arbitrary number of module objects (module as type).

Module Types and Classes (cont’d)

• Historically, this led to classes (Smalltalk, Eiffel, C++, Java), and object-orientation.

• Classes define types (abstraction).• Classes encapsulate object data and

methods (encapsulation).• Classes hide information (information

hiding).• Classes facilitate polymorphism and

inheritance (polymorphism).

Symbol Tables

• Compiler must keep track of declared names (type, variables, constants, etc.)

• Table stores mapping of names to attributes.• Must enforce scope rules. Typical operations:

• Enter a new name, with relevant information (type, components, etc.)

• Lookup a name. Must return correct instance, in accordance with scope rules.

Symbol Tables (cont’d)

• Open_scope. New scope must allow visibility of names in outer scopes, and redeclaration of names in new scope.

• Close_scope. Probably non-destructively, without reclaiming space (need debugging info). Restore mapping of previous scope.

Symbol Tables (cont’d)

• Must allow forward declarations (name used before it is declared)

• Hash coded table, each entry a linked list of hash synonyms.

Example

• LeBlanc-Cook symbol table (see text book)

• Intrinsics added first (integer, real).• Situation depicts environment in with

statement.• A2, F2 and T are synonyms.

Example (cont’d)

• Other mechanisms: Central Reference Tables.• Used to keep track of run-time

environments.• Equivalent to RPAL's environment

trees.

Binding of Reference Environments

• Needed when passing a function/proc as a parameter.

• Need subroutine closures: 4 items.

1. The fact that it is a function.2. Functionality (prototype, parameters, etc.)3. Pointer to body of fcn/proc.4. Referencing environment (environment link in

RPAL).

Binding of Reference Environments (cont’d)

• In C, functions are second-class.• Can only pass function pointer

(item 3) as a parameter.

• Fcns/procs are first class in Lisp, ML, Haskell, RPAL, but not in Modula, Ada, C, C++, or Java. Some would argue they are, but ...

Overloading

• Multiple meanings for the same name, context dependent.

• Most languages allow it in some limited fashion, e.g. arithmetic operators (a+b for ints and reals).

• In C++, one can overload both functions and operators. Can only overload fcns in Java (may change, more later).

Pitfalls in Language Design

• In Pascal, functions return values by assigning to the function name (no return statement). If the function name is redeclared, it becomes impossible to return a value.

• Example: function f: integer; var f:integer; begin f := 10; // won't return 10 end;

Pitfalls in Language Design (cont’d)

• Using an outer scope name, and then declaring it (maybe much later), is illegal in Pascal. Very expensive to check.

const m = 0; procedure f; const n = m; { illegal use of m, }

{ m not yet declared.} ... m = 0; { scope of m is all } { of f } end;

Pitfalls in Language Design (cont’d)

• The same applies to functions:

procedure f;

...

end;

procedure A; procedure B; begin f; {intent is to call } {outer f. } end; {error: f used before} {it's declared } ... procedure f; ... end;

end;

Pitfalls in Language Design (cont’d)• Some Pascal compilers (and most Pascal

successors) specify that the scope of a declaration is limited to the remainder of (not the entire) block.

• Confusingly, Pascal allows use of pointer types before they are declared:

type aptr = ^a; a = record data: ...; next: aptr; end;

Pitfalls in Language Design (cont’d)

• Modula-3 changed this: scope of name is still the entire block, but names need not be declared before they are used.

• C, C++, Java have a mixed strategy:

variables must be declared before they are used, but not type (class) names. Class names are visible over the entire containing module (package).

• Separate compilation (read in book).

Scope Rules

Prepared by

Manuel E. Bermúdez, Ph.D.Associate ProfessorUniversity of Florida

Programming Language ConceptsLecture 11