BACB EXAM STUDY GUIDE NOTES

Task List 4 (BACB™)

Orlando Behavior Health Services

Dr Michael Weinberg, Ph.D., LABA, BCBA-D

BACB EXAM STUDY GUIDE

Task List 4 (BACB™)

Amego, Inc.

Dr Michael Weinberg, Ph.D., LABA, BCBA-D

Section I: Basic Behavior-Analytic Skills

A.Measurement

A-01 Measure Frequency – Give an overview of the book, indicating what the focus of your book report will be. You can replace the picture on the right with a picture of the cover of the book.

· raw count of behavior

· -number of times a specific behavior occurs in some period of time. Should be used as a measure of behavior only when time and opportunity are constant

· -may not provide enough info

Event Recording:

-wide variety of procedures for detecting and recording the number of times a bx occurs

-can use wrist counters, hand tally digital counters, wrist and shoestring counters, etc

Considerations:

-easy

-bx must have discrete beginning and end

-hard with high frequency

-not accurate for bx that occur for extended time

A-02 Measure Rate:

· Frequency of behavior (count) during a certain unit of time. Most sensitive measure of behavior: most likely to show small changes, appropriate for measuring all free operants. Calculated by dividing total number of correct or erroneous responses by time. Measures are not comparable if difference in length of sessions is extreme, student should control maximum rate of response, measure accurately reflects proficiency if complexity of task remains constant

· Duration: measures the length of time that a behavior occurs. Should use when behavior doesn’t occur frequently but lasts a while

· Latency: measurement of the length of elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and the occurrence of a behavior

· Interresponse times: the amount of time in between each response

· Rate is a type of frequency measure because it is the number of behaviors occurring per unit of time,

· preferred measure for free operants because of the sensitivity of data to behavior change and the precision with which the measurement technique can be defined

· combining observation time with count = number of responses/per unit of time

· can combine different observation times

· always reference counting time (length of session)

· calculate correct and incorrect rates of response when assessing skill development

· take into account the varied complexity of responses- needs to remain constant

· use rate of responding to measure free operants

· do not use to measure bx that occur within discrete trials

· do not use to measure continuous bx that occur for extended periods of time

A-03 Duration: The extent of time a behavior occurs during an observation period, can indicate how long a client engages in a particular class of behavior, can be used with endurance activities, does not have numerical dimension. Use when time is important

-good for high rate bx that occurs for extended period of time

Total Duration – cumulative amount of time can do within specified observation time or without

Duration/occurrence – measure duration of each instance

-event recording measures repeatability and duration recording measures temporal extent

A-04 Latency:

length of time elapsed between the onset of a stimulus and the occurrence of behavior, appropriate when the major concern is the length of time that occurs between an opportunity to emit a behavior and the beginning of performance of that task

A-05 Inter-response time (IRT)

-the amount of time that elapses between 2 consecutive instances of a response

-measure of temporal locus because it specifies when a specific instance of bx occurs with respect

to another event

-functionally related to rate of response

-measure IRT when time btw response class is important

A-06 percent of occurrence:

Ratio that expresses the amount of behavior or correct responses per opportunity, such as

-number of trials

-opportunities to respond

-number of intervals using time sampling

-use with discriminative operants that have limited opportunity to occur.

-will over or under estimate if too few opportunities to respond

-limited use because percentage has no dimensional qualities

-also imposes lower and upper limits

Expresses the proportional quantity of behavior in terms of the number of times the event occurred, on a scale of 0 to 100 opportunities that the event could have occurred, or total occurrences.

A-07 trials to criterion:

Measures the number of times response opportunities are presented before an individual achieves a pre-established level of competence or proficiency

-often repeated after the fact as an important aspect of the “cost” of treatment

-used to compare efficiency of 2 or more treatments

-can also be collected and analyzed as a dv throughout a study

-can be useful for assessing a learner’s increasing competence in acquiring a related class of concepts

A-08 Assess and interpret inter-observer agreement: IOA- the extent to which 2 observers agree

· To increase reliability of data collection, conduct IOA observations. There are essentially two main formulae with some variations.

1) for continuous measures such as frequency, duration, latency, etc. the formula is:

IOA= lower number (frequency, duration, latency, etc.) X 100

higher number (frequency, duration, latency, etc.)

2) For Trials-to-Criterion or Time Sampling, the basic formula is:

IOA = (Agreements/Agreements + Disagreements) X100

· Special Case formulas:

a) For interval x interval:

Use ALL recording intervals in the denominator and include agreements of BOTH scored and unscored intervals.

For example, if you use partial interval recording using 10 intervals, you would calculate IOA by adding the intervals in which both observers agreed on the occurrence (scored interval) and non-occurrence (unscored interval) of the behavior and divide by the total number of intervals (i.e. 10), and multiply by 100 to obtain a percentage.

b) Scored Interval IOA calculation:

For this calculation, add the number of instances the observers agreed on occurrence (scored interval) of the behavior and divide by the total number of intervals of agreement of occurrence (scored interval) of the behavior plus intervals in which AT LEAST ONE observer recorded an occurrence (scored intervals), or disagreements, and multiply this result by 100. All instances of agreement of nonoccurrence (unscored intervals) are not used in the denominator.

c) Unscored Interval IOA calculation:

For this calculation, add the number of instances the observers agreed on nonoccurrence (unscored interval) of the behavior and divide by the total number of intervals of agreement of nonoccurrence (unscored interval) of the behavior plus intervals in which AT LEAST ONE observer recorded nonoccurrence (unscored intervals), disagreements, and multiply this result by 100. All instances of agreement of occurrence (scored intervals) are not used in the denominator.

A-09 Various methods of evaluating the accuracy and reliability of measurement procedures

▪Interobserver agreement:

oPercentage of agreement between observers is most common used

oWhen the dv is a measure that represents how often, what strength, or how long behavior occurs the agreement can be calculated by dividing small score by larger score

o Sometimes you can have high agreement but not recording the same should use block by block to calculate agreement

oWhen using frequency should collect data so that smaller comparisons can be made

oFor interval measures can calculate the agreements/disagreements for each interval

oOccurrence-nonoccurrence reliability: determine if they agree on occurrences and nonoccurrences of their scoring ( look at agreements on occurring and nonoccurring)

oOccurrence reliability: only scoring of the occurrence of the behavior that was observed (include only those intervals where both observers said the behavior occurred) should be used with behavior that occurs at low frequency

oNonoccurrence: only score the nonoccurrence of behavior should be used with high frequency behaviors

oAccuracy: the extent to which a measure reflects the true value

oReliability: repeated measurement of the same event yields the same result

-measurement must be valid and accurate

-if measurement is not valid, accuracy is moot

-inaccurate measurement renders invalid the data obtained by otherwise valid measurement

-high reliability does not mean high accuracy, poor reliability reveals problems with accuracy

oIOA- the extent to which 2 observers agree

oValidity- the extent to which a measure measures what it purports to measure. Yield data that are directly relevant to the phenomenon measured and to the reasons for measuring it. Requires 3 elements:

- measuring directly a socially sign bx

-measuring a dimension of the target bx relevant to the question or concern about the bx

-ensuring that the data are representative of the bx’s occurrence under conditions and during times that are most relevant to the question or concern about the bx

oAccurate data will be reliable but reliable data is not always accurate

Threats to measurement Validity:

Indirect Measurement- what is actually measured is in some way diff from the target bx

Measuring wrong dimensions: validity is compromised when measurement produces values for a dimension of the bx ill suited for or irrelevant to, the reason for measuring the bx

Measurement of artifacts: validity is reduced when the data do not give meaningful representation of bx. Data give unwarranted or misleading pic of the bx because of the way measurement was conducted caused by: discontinuous measurement, poorly scheduled obs periods, and insensitive/limited measurement scales

Threats to measurement Accuracy and reliability

-human error

-poorly designed measuring systems

-inadequate observer trainer – select observers carefully, train to objective std of competency, provide ongoing training to minimize observer drift

-unintended influences on observers – expectations or reactivity

Assessing accuracy and reliability

Accuracy:

-important to determine whether data are good enough to serve as basis for making decisions

-enables discovery and correction of specific instances of measurement error

-can reveal consistent patterns of measurement error

-to assure consumers that data are accurate

-need to obtain true values indpt of the sources to be used

-compare observed data to true value

-should report number and percentage of measures that were checked for accuracy, degree of accuracy found, extent of measurement error detected, and whether they were corrected.

Reliability:

-compare same observer with same data set repeatedly (see above on IOA)

Mean count/interval: break obs period into intervals calculate agreement within each interval

Exact count/interval: most stringent % of total intervals in which 2 obs recorded same count

Trial by trial: agreement of occ/nonocc of a bx can overestimate actual agreement

Total Duration: shorter duration divided by longer

Mean duration/occurrence: break obs period into intervals calculate agreement within each interval

Interval by interval: number of agreements divided by total likely to overestimate agreement

Occurrence: see above

Nonoccurence: see above

Considerations with IOA:

-assess at least 20% of sessions

-should report IOA at the same levels at which they report and discuss the results of the study

-should use stringent methods

-90% IOA for established measure, 80% for new measure

-can report using narrative, table, graph, etc

A-10 Design, plot, and interpret equal-interval graphs

Line Graphs:

-the horizontal axis is marked off in equal intervals, each representing from left to right the chronological succession of equal time periods across which behavior was measured

oVertical axis 5/8 length of horizontal

oIf range of values is small, start at zero and use scale break

oUse scale breaks on vertical axis to represent variability that is of social significance

oVertical axis represents DV

-any point on the plane represents a specific relationship btw the 2 dimensions described by intersecting lines. Each point shows the level of some quantifiable dimension of the target bx in relation to a specific point in time and/or env condition

-horizontal axis should be marked in equal intervals

-scale break should represent discontinuity in time on horizontal axis

-vertical axis should consider social sign of levels of bx: increase in distances = decrease variability, decrease in distance=decrease in variability

Parts

1. Horizontal Axis- x axis/antrumm, most often represents the passage of time and presence/absence/or value of IV

2. Vertical Axis- y axis/antrumm, represents a range of antru of the DV some quantifiable dimension of bx. Equal interval: equal distances on the axis represent equal amounts of bx

3. Condition change lines: vertical line drawn upward from horizontal axis to show points in time at which changes in IV occurred

4. Condition Labels: printed along top of graph identify exp conditions

5. Data point: represent 2 facts: quantifiable measure of target bx, the time and/or exp conditions under which that particular measurement was conducted

6. Data path: connecting successive data points represents trend and level

7. Figure Caption: concise statements

Bar Graphs:* - simple and versatile format for graphically summarizing bx data

-used for displaying and comparing discrete sets of data that are not related to one another by a common underlying dimension by which the horizontal axis can be scaled

-provides visual summary of performance of a part or group during diff conditions

-sacrifice presentation of variability and trends in bx in exchange for efficiency

*Note: a Bar Graph is NOT the same as a Histogram

A-11 Design, plot and interpret data using cumulative record or graph to display data

-Skinner’s primary means of recording

-cumulative recorder enables subject to draw own graph

-raw data that permits direct inspection of rates and changes in rate

-Horizontal = no response or maintained level

-steeper line = increase responding

-number of responses recorded during each obs period is added to the total number of responses recorded during all previous obs periods

-y-axis = value of any data point represents the total number of responses recorded since beginning

-almost always used with frequency can use with duration and latency

-shows overall and local response rates

-rate = number of responses emitted/unit of time

Overall response rate- any rate of response over a given time period

Local response rate- rate of response during periods of time smaller than that for which overall rate has been given

-most directly descriptive displays of bx data but hard to ascertain number of responses/session, hard to compare high rates, and gradual changes in slope from rate to another can be hard to detect

4 situations to use:

1. Total number of responses over time important or when progress toward a specific goal can be measured in cumulative units

2. When graph is used as source of feedback

3. When target bx can occur or not occur only once/session

4. Can reveal the intricate relations btw bx and env variables

Use data displays that highlight patterns of behavior

Scatterplots

-relative distribution of indv measures in a data set with respect to the variables depicted by the x and y axes

-show how much changes in the value of the variable depicted by one axis correlate with changes in the value of the variable represented by the other axis

-can use to discover temporal distribution of target bx

A-12 Design and implement continuous measurement procedures

· Frequency data

· Event recording

· Temporal dimensions:

- temporal locus (e.gs. IRT, Latency)

- temporal extent (duration)

-combination of these such as rate, mean IRT, mean latency

· Severity or Magnitude (force or intensity)

A-13 Design and implement discontinuous measurement procedures

Interval recording methods:

· Measures presence or absence of behavior at any time during partial interval or during whole interval, or momentary time sampling

· Measuring at any time for partial interval recording will produce an overestimation of occurrence of behavior

· Should be used when goal is behavior reduction, requires undivided attention of observer.

· Measuring during whole interval: can indicate whether a class of behaviors is continuous, produce a slight underestimate of behavior, should be used when trying to produce behavior increase, requires undivided attention of observer

· Momentary time sampling does not tend to over- or under-estimate actual occurrence of behavior up to 2 – 3 minute observation intervals.

· Use partial interval recording for low frequency, discrete behaviors

· Use whole interval for duration measures such as time engaging in interactive play, “tantrumming,” etc. or for behavior that is very rapid or “episodic” rather than discrete, countable instances.

A-14 Design and Implement Choice Measures

· This refers to preference methods such as reinforcer preference. There are a many methods and means to accomplish this which are in a chapter in Cooper et. al, 2007, Applied Behavior Analysis.

B. Experimental Design

B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior analysis to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature

7 dimensions of ABA

•Applied: Applied interventions deal with problems of demonstrated social importance.

•Behavioral: Applied interventions deal with measurable behavior (or reports if they can be validated).

•Analytic: Applied interventions require an objective demonstration that the procedures caused the effect.

•Technological: Applied interventions are described well enough that they can be implemented by anyone with training and resources.

•Conceptual Systems: Applied interventions arise from a specific and identifiable theoretical base rather than being a set of packages or tricks.

•Effective: Applied interventions produce strong, socially important effects.

•Generality: Applied interventions are designed from the outset to operate in new environments and continue after the formal treatments have ended.

B-02 Review and interpret articles from the behavior-analytic literature

Evaluate articles in terms of the 7 dimensions of behavior analysis

B-03, B-04 Systematically manipulate independent variables to analyze their effects on treatment

∙Withdrawal designs: alternation between baseline and a particular intervention. (Also referred to as the “reversal design” in Cooper et. al., 2007, Applied Behavior Analysis)

∙Reversal Designs: contingency applied to opposite behaviors

· A-B-A-B design is the most straightforward and powerful single subject design for demonstrating a functional relationship

· A-B-C-B design (compare one intervention to another or opposite behavior)

· Appropriateness: ADV: provide clear demonstration of the existence of fxnal relation between IV and DV, allows quantification of amount of bx change. DISADV: ineffective in evaluating the effects of an IV that cannot be withdrawn once introduced, once improved some behaviors will not reverse, ethical considerations for withdrawing an effective treatment, sometimes brief reversal phases or baseline probes are effective at demonstrating exp control

Variations

-repeated reversals: a-b-a-b-a-b

A-B-A-B: preferred over A-B-A because treatment is in effect but not as good at demonstrating functional relation bc there is no baseline. Preferred when there is limited time or when a treatment is already in place

Multiple treatment reversal: compare effects of 2 or more experimental conditions to baseline and/or to one another. Each IV has to be introduced twice. Vulnerable to confounding bc of sequence effects. Can manipulate each condition so that it precedes and follows every other condition, can fix this. A-B-A-B-C-B-C-A-C-A-C

NCR Reversal Technique: providing NCR during baseline to determine if behavior change was contingent on rft. or not

-DRO reversal: reinforce any behavior other than the target bx during control

DRI/DRA reversal- reinforce any behavior that is incompatible or alternative to target bx during reversal

B-05 Alternating Treatments: (multi-element, simultaneous treatment, multiple or concurrent schedules).

OComparing 2 or more treatments.

OCharacterized by the rapid alternation between 2 or more treatments and measuring effect on single behavior.

OAdvantages: minimizes sequence effects, does not require w/drawl of treatment, can compare effectiveness quickly, can be used with unstable data patterns, can be used to assess generalization of beh change, can proceed without an initial baseline, controls for maturation, attrition, data instability, and early termination

oAppropriateness: may seem artificial, susceptible to multiple treatment interference can counter this by following the alternating treatment phase with a phase in which only one treatment is used, usually limited to max of three IV, best at revealing differential effects of Ivs that are significantly diff from one another, Not beneficial if the IV only produces change when applied over a continuous amount of time

oNeed minimum of 2 comparisons of adjacent conditions: a-b-a, b-c-b, b-bc-b

-provides an experimentally sound and efficient method for comparing the effects of 2 or more treatments

-levels are manipulated independent of level of responding

-often use discriminative stimulus with each treatment

-presence and degree of experimental control is determined by visual inspection of different between data paths

Variations:

-Without no-treatment control- single phase experiment in which the effects of 2 or more treatment conditions are compared

With no-treatment control- a no treatment condition is included as one of the treatments to be compared

With initial baseline- baseline measures are collected until a stable level of responding or countertherapuetic trend is obtained.

With baseline and best treatment initial baseline, second phase comparing alternating treatment, 3rd phase in which only the most effective treatment is administered

B-06 Changing Criterion Design: can be used to evaluate the effects of reinforcement or punishment contingencies on the gradual or stepwise improvement of a behavior already in the subjects repertoire

oAfter baseline, treatment phase begins and reinforcement or punishment is contingent upon subject’s performing at a specified level.

ODesign entails a series of treatment phases, each requiring an improved level of performance over the previous phase.

OExperimental control is demonstrated when the subject’s performance closely conforms to the gradually changing criteria

oThree features combine to demonstrate control: length of phases, magnitude of criterion changes, number of criterion changes

oBelievability is enhanced if a previous criterion is reinstated and subject’s behavior reverse’s to level previously observed

oAdvantages: does not require a reversal or withdrawl, provides a functional analysis within the context of a gradually improving behavior, thus complementing the practice of many teachers

o Limitations: target behavior must already be in repertoire, limited to a narrow range of variables, incorporating the necessary features of the design can actually impeded optimal learning rates

oLarge change provides more evidence for experimental control

-can be used to evaluate the effects of a treatment that is applied in a graduated or stepwise fashion

-each phase of the design provides a baseline for next phase

B-07 Multiple Baseline Design: simultaneous measurement is begun on two or more target behaviors (people settings). After stable baseline responding has been achieved, the IV is applied to one of the behaviors while the others remain the same. After maximum change has been noted in the first behavior, the IV is then applied in sequential fashion to the other behaviors

oExperimental control is demonstrated by each behavior’s changing when, and only when, the IV is applied

oThree forms: across behaviors, across settings, across subjects

oSelect bx that is independent yet functionally antrum

oAdvantages: withdrawl of seemingly effective treatment is not required in order to show exp control, sequential implementation of IV parallels practice in schools, concurrent measurement of multiple behaviors allows direct monitoring of generalization, relatively easy to conceptualize and use

oLimitations: if two or more behaviors in the design covary, the MB may not demonstrate a functional relationship even though one exists, inherently weaker than reversal design, more an evaluation of IV general effectiveness than an analysis of the behaviors involved, requires considerable time and resources

-need to be careful to plan and carry out the design in a manner that will afford the greatest degree of confidence in any relations suggested by the data

-select concurrent and plausibly related multiple baseline = 2 bx must be measured concurrently, all of the relevant variables that influence 1 bx must have an opportunity to influence the other bx

-do not apply the IV to the next bx too soon

-vary significantly the lengths of multiple baseline

-intervene on most stable baseline first

-Variations

B-08 Multiple Probe – extend operation and logic of the multiple baseline tactic to bx or situations in which concurrent measurement of all bx comprising the design is unnecessary, potentially reactive, impractical or too costly

-intermittent measures, proves, provide basis for determining whether bx change has occurred prior to intervention

-3 steps: initial probe is taken to determine the subject’s level of perf on each bx in the sequence, a series of baseline measures is obtained on each step prior to training on that step, after criterion is reached on any step, probe of each step is conducted

Delayed Multiple Baseline: initial baseline and intervention are begun and subsequent baseline are added in a staggered or delayed fashion

B-09 Use combinations of design elements

· E.g. Nested designs:

multiple baseline with: probes, reversal design, or alternating treatments design

B-10 Component Analysis analyze each component of a treatment package to determine what aspects of the package are effective

Components of experiment: at least 1 participant, 1 bx, 1 setting; system for measuring the bx and ongoing visual analysis of data; treatment intervention; manipulations of IV so that its effects on DV can be detected.

Experimental Question: brief but specific statement of what the researcher wants to learn from conducting the experiment. Good design answers question convincingly, needs to be constructed in rxn to the question and then tested

Subject: experimental logic for analyzing bx changes often employs the subject as her own control

DV: the target bc, experiment is designed to determine if the bx is dependent on the IV

Setting: must control 2 aspects of setting: IV and extraneous variables

Measurement System and Ongoing analysis: observation and recording procedures need to be conducted in standardized fashion

IV: aspect of the env that the experimenter manipulates to find out whether it affects the subject’s bx

Experimental Design: particular arrangement of conditions in a study so that meaningful comparisons of the effects of the presence, absence, or different values of the IV can be made.

B-11 Parametric Analysis: analyze differential effects of a range of values of the IV (i.e, levels of a variable along a dimension. Eg.s:

· Identify optimal amount, magnitude or frequency of reinforcement

· Identify optimal environmental conditions such as light, air flow, temperature, noise in a work setting

· Identify effective prompt levels for instructional purposes such as errorless teaching, use of prompt fading

· sometimes used because a functional relation may have more generality if it is based on several values of the IV.

C. Behavior-Change Considerations

C-01 State and plan for unwanted effects of reinforcement

∙Elicited emotional effects

∙Aggression/ritualistic behavior – may increase between presentations of stimulus

∙Approach to reinforcer agent – could result in missed learning opportunities and could be socially inappropriate

∙Operant effects generalization and discrimination (and matching law)

∙Response induction – all response class initially is not reinforced and the entire response class is eligible for reinf on the same schedule = all beh of a single response class increase

∙Transient effects

∙Imitation – will not be imitated correctly

∙Decrease target beh by strengthening be incompatible with

-Must consider temporal delay between the response and onset of consequence stimulus conditions in effect, and strength of current motivation (MO effects).

Negative Reinforcement:

Ethical Considerations

-need for an MO-deprivation state

-need for noxious events

-presence of aversive stimuli can generate behaviors that compete w/the acquisition of desired behavior

-might have some of the same effects as punishment

C-02 State and plan for the possible unwanted effects of punishment

∙Negatively reinforces the punisher

∙Can elicit emotional or aggressive behaviors from the individual who was punished

∙Can promote avoidance and escape can also serve as a negative modeling procedure

∙Effects are unpredictable

∙Modeling

∙Perpetuation of punishment…continue to use even though ineffective

∙Conditioned punishers

∙No alternative behavior

∙Need for punishing agent

∙withdrawal effects

- Behavioral Contrast: increase rates of behavior that is not punished and decrease rates of behavior that is punished.

C-03 State and plan for the possible unwanted effects of extinction

. ∙Initial increase in frequency and magnitude (extinction burst) – undesirable behaviors usually

get worse

∙Produces a gradual reduction in frequency and magnitude especially with negatively reinforced behaviors

∙Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of the beh even though it has not been reinforced, short lived and limited if the extinction procedure stays in place

· Behavioral Contrast effects: reinstatement of a reinforcement contingency that has been temporarily removed

D.Fundamental Elements of Behavior Change

D-01 Use positive and Negative reinforcement

A. Identify and use reinforcers

∙Asking – ask what individual prefers

∙Observing – watch what an individual does on a regular basis. Contrived: set up env or no contrived: in everyday env

∙Reinforcer sampling – present with a sample of potential reinforcer in order to gain experience with it

∙Forced choice – make choices available and have to pick one

∙Trying and seeing – have to try and see if behavior increases

∙Reinforcer sampling: Present items several at a time; re-present with picked item missing, rank order the items

∙Premack principle – follow low probability behavior with high probability behavior

-Preference assessments: used to determine the stimuli that the person prefers, relative preference values of those stimuli, the conditions under which those preference values change when task demands, deprivations states, or schedules of reinforcement are modified.

-Guidelines:

-monitor prior to assess to determine if Eos are in effect

-balance cost-benefit ratio of brief vs. long assess

-use method that has ranking against one that doesn’t but occurs more frequently

-limited time – conduct brief assess with fewer items

-combine data from multiple assessment methods

Reinforcer Assessment:

-a variety of direct, data-based methods used to present 1 or more stimuli contingent on a target response and then measuring the future effect of rate of responding

Concurrent schedule: pit 2 reinforcers against each other and see what has increased responding

Multiple schedule: 2 or more component schedules of reinf for a single response w/only one component schedule in effect at any given time. Present contingent for one part and on fixed interval for another

Progressive Ratio:

-preference assess with low response requirement may not accurately predict potency of reinf under increased response requirements

-allows person to determine effectiveness of reinforcement as response requirements increase

-progressively increase response requirements until rate decreases

Negative Reinforcement

-occurrence of a response produces removal of a stimulus which leads to an increase in future responding

Escape Contingency: response terminates an ongoing stimulus

Avoidance Contingency: response prevents/postpones the presentation of a stimulus

Characteristics:

-any response that successfully terminates the stimulation will be strengthened

-hard to explain what serves as neg. rft.

-unconditioned – no learning history or conditioned learning history

-should consider source of termination

-need to identify MO and reinforcement

-Effective under these conditions: stimulus change immediate, magnitude of rft. is large, occurrence of target response consistent rft., rft. is unavailable for competing responses

Applications:

Acquisition and maintenance of appropriate bx:

-chronic food refusal

-error correction strategies

Acquisition and maint of problem bx

-use replacement behavior: FCT

Ethical Considerations (see ethical considerations for use of punishment and extinction)

-need for an MO-deprivation state

-need for noxious events

-presence of aversive stimuli can generate behaviors that compete w/the acquisition of desired behavior

-might have some of the same effects as punishment

D-02 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement

∙Parameters: Amount, quality, variety, duration, magnitude, MO

∙Schedules:

oContinuous schedules of reinforcement should be used during initial stages of learning and for later strengthening of behavior

oIntermittent Reinforcement is desirable because: can be used to maintain beh, it is resistant to extinction, generates high response rates, assists the move to more naturally occurring reinforcement, helps to control satiation, is cost effective

oFixed ratio: constant number of responses must be made before reinforcement is delivered. FR1 is used when training initially. Characteristics: After reinforcement, a postreinforcement pause is produced, after the pause the ratio requirement is completed with a high rate of response and very little hesitation between responses. Generate high rates of responding

oVariable Ratio: average number of responses must be made before reinforcement is delivered. Characteristics: completed with a very high rate of response and little hesitation between response

oFixed Interval: the first correct response after a designated and constant amount of time produces the reinforcer. Characteristics: generate slow to moderate rates of responding with a pause in responding following reinforcement

oVariable Interval: the first correct response after an average amount of time produces the reinforcer. Characteristics: generates slow to moderate response that is constant and stable

oDifferential reinforcement of high rates (DRH): The reinforcement of responses higher than a predetermined criterion

oDifferential reinforceoment of low rates (DRL): When responses are reinforced only when they are lower than the criterion

oLimited hold: requires that the first response following the appropriate time interval occurs within a specified time limit

Limited Hold:

Added to interval schedule, reinf remains available for a finite time following the elapse of FI or VI

-miss opportunity to receive rx if response does not occur within limit

Thinning Reinforcement

-gradually increase response ratio or duration of time antrumm

-use instructions to explain schedule of Rx

-Ratio strain: results from abrupt increases in ratio requirements when moving from denser to thinner schedules of rx

Variations, & Differential Reinforcement

DRH: reinforce high rates

DRL: reinforce low rates

Spaced responding: rx is only available for responses that are separated by a given amount of time

DRD: differential rx of diminishing rates provides rx at the end of a predetermined time interval when the number of responses is less than a criterion that is gradually decreasing

Progressive schedule: systematically thins each successive rx opportunity indpt of participants bx

Compound Schedules: can occur: successively or simultaneously, with or without discriminative stimulus, as a reinf contingnent for each element, indp of a contingency formed by the combination of all elements

Concurrent

-2 or more cont of rx operate indptly and simultaneously for 2 or more bx

-used as reinf assess: part makes choices, approximates natural env, produces hypotheses about reinf, choose btw stimuli rather than indicate a preference

Multiple schedules:

-2 or more basic schedules of reinf in an alternating usually random sequence

-discriminative stimulus is correlated with each basic schedule

Chained:

-similar to a multiple schedule have 2 or more basic schedule req that occur successively and have a discriminative stimulus correlated with each indpt schedule

-always occurs in same order may be same bx or diff bx, conditioned reinf for responding in 1st element is 2nd element, etc

Nondiscriminated:

Mixed: same as multiple except no SD

Tandem: same as chained except no SD

Schedules combining number of responses and time:

Alternative: reinf whenever req of ratio or interval is met

Conjunctive: reinf when ratio and interval is met

Using schedules of reinforcement

1. Instructions, environmental aids, and self-management- resistant to temporal control

2. Past histories can affect current reinforcement

3. More immediate history = more influence

4. Sequential responses are uncommon applications of schedules of reinforcement

5. Uncontrolled Mos will compound affects

Automaticity of Reinforcement – person does not have to understand or verbalize the relation btw his actions and a reinforcing consequence or even be aware that a consequence has occurred

-no logical or adaptive connection between behavior and reinforcing consequence is necessary for rft. To occur

Automatic Reinforcement: behavior produces own reinforcement independent of mediation of others

Classifying Reinforcement

-unconditioned – no learning history with stimulus

-conditioned- neutral stimulus that acquired reinf through stimulus stimulus pairing

-edible, sensory, tangible, activity, social

Control Procedures:

-used to manipulate the contingent presentation of a potential rft. and observe any effects on the future frequency of behavior

-Control: experimental demonstration that the presentation of a stimulus contingent on the occurrence of a target response functions as positive rft.

-shown by comparing absence and presence contingency

-can be done using reversal, NCR, DRO, DRA

Use reinforcement effectively

-set an easily achieved initial criterion

-use high quality reinf of sufficient magnitude

-use varied rx to maintain potent MO

-use direct rx contingencies when possible

-combine response prompts and reinforcement

-reinf each occurrence of the bx initially

-use contingent reinforcer and social praise

-reinforce immediately – i.e. contiguity

-gradually increase the response to reinforcement delay

-gradually shift from contrived to naturally occurring rfcrs.

Adjunctive Behavior

Schedule-induced behavior when the frequency of these “adjunctive” behaviors increases as a side effect of other behavior maintained by a schedule of reinforcement, or are on a time based schedule.

D-03 Use prompts and prompt fading

Response Prompts:

∙Verbal directions- use finally appropriate verbal instructions as supplementary response prompts vocal (oral telling) and nonvocal (signs, pics)

∙Modeling – demonstrate desired bx only use with students who have developed imitative skills

∙Physical guidance- partial or full guidance through the response

Stimulus Prompts: operates directly on ante task stimuli

∙Movement cues (gestural prompts)

∙Position cues

∙Redundancy cues (one ore more stimulus/response dimensions are paired with correct choice)

∙Within – alters the SD: size, shape, position, etc

∙Extra – does not alter SD

Transfer of control

-supplementary ante stimuli only during acquisition phase of instruction

-fade prompts

-temporal fading (time delay)

Fading response prompts:

Most to least prompts – use highest level and gradually decrease from trial to trial and session to session

∙Graduated guidance: provide physical prompts only when needed and then faded immediately whenever the student responds correctly

∙Shadowing: teacher following the student’s movements very closely without touching

∙Spatial fading: gradually change the location of the physical prompt

∙Initially complete physical guidance through entire performance, and progressive fading of the prompt follows (prompting hierarchy)

Least to Most Prompts

oInitial opportunity to respond independently

oNo response or error provide low level of assistance

oIncrease assistance following subsequent errors

Time delay

oHave prompt that reliably evokes target behavior

oProgressive begin at 0 and over course of several trials or sessions increase to predetermined maximum

oConstant- begin at 0 and jump to predetermined max after a few trials

oProtocol: initial delay of 0 seconds- SD-immediate prompt – correct response – reinf, subsequent trials – SD-delay-prompt-correct-reinf

oReinf regardless of before or after prompt

oIf error occurs correct immediately

Transfer of stimulus control:

Stimulus shaping

B. Changing the topography of the physical stimulus

Stimulus fading

oHighlighting one or more physical dimensions of stimulus

oGradually fade to natural stimulus alter size color position

D-04 Use modeling and imitation training

Model: antecedent stimulus, can be an individual or a demonstrated behavior, can be actual demonstrations or symbols, can be planned or unplanned, can serve as Sds for existing imitative behaviors or totally new behaviors

Unplanned- ante stimuli with capacity to evoke imitation

Planned- prearranged ante stimuli that help learners acquire new skills or refine topography shows learner exactly what to do.

Imitation

-any physical movement may fxn as a model for imitation, a model is an ante stimulus that evokes the imitative bx.

-an imitative bx must immediately follow the presentation of the model

-the model and the bx must have formal similarity

-the model must be the controlling variable

Imitative behavior: is behavior that immediately follows a model’s behavior and has its topography controlled by that model’s behavior

Characteristics of the model: similarity between model and imitator can influence likelihood of imitative behavior, model with prestige can increase the likelihood of imitative beh, stress or emphasis on the model stimuli can increase likelihood of imitation, effectiveness of a model can be further enhanced by instructions

Selecting behaviors to be modeled: behaviors should be at an appropriate level of difficulty

Includes someone performing the correct beh, learner observing performer, learner given opportunity to imitate

Formal Similarity- when model and bx physically resemble each other and are in the same sense mode

Immediacy- when bx occurs in absence of model, that is not imitation

Controlled Relation – most important property that defines imitation, must respond to new instances of bx

Imitation training

Teach learners to do what the person providing the model does regardless of the bx modeled

-assess and teach prerequisites – attending is a necessary prerequisite

-selecting models – gross and fine motor = start with body parts and objects

-pretesting – if meets criterion, don’t train. If doesn’t, train

-sequencing selected models – arrange from easiest to most difficult

-Conduct training: preassessment = short pretest, Training = one model, post assessment = 5 mastered and 5 trained determine when to move on, probe = 5 nontrained models to assess novel responding

Guidelines

-keep training sessions brief and active

-reinf both prompted and imitative response

-pair verbal praise with tangible rft.

-if progress breaks down, back up and move ahead slowly

-keep a record

-fade out prompts

-ending imitation training: can imitate novel responses

D-05 Use shaping

∙Defined as: differential reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired behavior

∙Shaping behaviors across different response topographies means that select members of a responses class are differentially reinforced and members of other response classes are not reinforced

∙Shaping behaviors within a response topography means that differential reinforcement is applied to dimension of the behavior while the form of the behavior remains constant

∙Efficiency of behavioral shaping can be increased by using a discriminative stimulus, physical prompt, or imitative prompt

Guidelines:

- select terminal behavior: choose bx that leads to most independence 1st and define precisely

- determine the criterion for success: freq, magn, duration can compare to estb norms

- conduct an analysis of the response class: attempt to identify approximations

- identify the first behavior to reinforce: bx should already occur should be a member of targeted response class

- eliminate interfering stimuli:

- proceed in gradual steps: anticipate changes in rate of progress and be prepared to go from antrum to antrum as bx dictates

- limit the number of steps in each level: do not offer too many trials at a given antrum – may cause antrum to become firmly estb

-continue to reinforce the terminal behavior and link the behavior to other behaviors

∙Use FR1 schedule of reinf

∙Starting beh in shaping: first topography you will reinforce, may be dissimilar to target beh

∙Shaping within a response class: one topography of response class is reinforced while other topographies are not

∙Efficiency can be enhanced by: instructions, gestures, and other antecedent stimuli

∙Used when topography of behavior is not in repertoire or a dimension such as rate is inadequate

∙Advance to next step when beh is estb at current step but before so strong that prompting new beh is hindered

Differential Rx: rx is provided for responses that share a predetermined dimension/quality, rx is withheld for responses that do not demonstrate that quality

Response differentiation: when rx results in new response class

Successive Approx: reinf bx that is in learner’s repertoire and shares topographical feature w/target bx shift criteria to closer antrum

Shaping diff antrum; can shape in terms of topography, frequency, latency, duration, amplitude/magnitude

Positive Aspects:

-teaches new bx

-uses a pos approach

-punish not typically involved

-can be combined with other bx change procedures

Limitations

-time-consuming

-progress toward terminal bx is not always linear

-consistently monitor learner to detect subtle indications that data collection and assessment of target bx has been performed

-can be misapplied

-harmful bx can be shaped

Shaping vs. stimulus fading

-shaping: ante stays the same, response changes

-stimulus fading: ante stimulus changes gradually, response stays same

D-06 Use Chaining

∙Defined as: a specific sequence of responses each associated with a particular stimulus condition.

∙Performance of each individual response in the presence of the associated stimulus condition serves as an individual component of the chain

∙The stimulus condition and the conditioned reinforcer operate so that each response produces a discriminative stimulus for the next response and that Sd simultaneously serves as conditioned reinforcement for the response preceding it

∙Three reasons to use a chain: can be used to improving independent living skills, can provide the means by which other behaviors are combined into more complex sequences, and can be used in an overall behavior change program

Bx chain with limited hold:

-sequence of bx that must be performed correctly and within a specified time

-characterized by accurate and proficient perf

Rational bx Chain

Chaining: various methods for linking specific sequences of stimuli and responses to form new performances

-to increase indpt living skills

-bx can be combined to form a series of responses that occasion the delivery of pos rx

-can be combined with other bx change prompting instructions and reinforcing procedures to build more complex and adaptive repertoires

Interrupting and breaking beh chains:

-interrupt execution of existing chain to advance a diff response

-know how to break an inapp beh chain

Beh chain interruption strategy

-relies on participant’s skill to perform the critical elements of the chain indptly, but chain is interrupted at a predetermined step so that another bx can be emitted

-assess ability to do chain and level of discomfort when interrupted

-don’t use chain that results in SIB

-start chain and interfere at predetermined step

Breaking Inappropriate chain:

-determine initial Sd and substitute Sd for on alt bx

-or extend chain and build in time delays

-reexamine sds and responses: may need to use new sd

-determine whether sd cues diff responses: rearrange sd and associated response

-analyze natural setting to identify relevant and irrelevant sds

-determine whether sd in natural setting diff from training setting: do final training in natural setting

-identify presence of novel stimuli in env

Factors affecting Performance:

-completeness of task anlaysis

-length or complexity of chain

-schedule of reinf: need to use appropriate schedule, number of responses in chain may need to be considered when defining the schedule of rx

-stimulus variation- present all possible variations of the stimulus

-response variation- might need to retrain responses

D-07 Conduct task analyses

oFirst need to: assess and validate the components of the behavioral sequence, assess the mastery level of the individual with respect to these behaviors, teach the individual to perform the behaviors in order and in close temporal succession

oInvolves breaking a complex skill or series of behaviors into smaller, teachable units.

OPurpose of constructing and validating a task analysis is to determine the sequence of critical behaviors an individual must perform to complete a given task efficiently

oCan develop task analysis by observing or doing pilot studies with competent individuals, consulting with experts or persons skilled with performing the task, actually perform the behaviors, trial and error procedure, consider the temporal order of the skills to be mastered,

oForward chaining: sequence of behaviors identified in the task analysis is taught in temporal order

oTotal task presentation: variation of forward chaining in which the individual receives training on each step during every session

oBackward chaining: all of the behaviors are first completed by the trainer except for the final behavior

-ADV: learner comes into contact with terminal rx for chain on every instruction session, stimulus that is present = increase in discriminative properties

-DISADV: may limit total number of responses made

-w/leap aheads: not every step is trained, some steps are probed = decrease in training time

oConsider materials and prerequisite skills

Validating Components (see above)

-Sds and corresponding responses must be identified

-ind must discriminate which conditions to perform response

Assess Mastery Level

-to determine which components of the task analysis a person can perform ind

Single-opportunity: test ability to perform each step in correct sequence = more conservative

Multiple opportunity: evaluates the person’s level of mastery across all the bx in the task analysis, teacher cannot help, takes longer but provides more info

D-08 Use discrete-trials and free-operant arrangements

oAvoid satiation

oDeal with problem behavior

D-09 Use the verbal operants as a basis for language assessment (see below)

Six different types of elementary verbal operants (Skinner, 1957. Verbal Behavior):

Mand

Tact

Echoic

Intraverbal

Textual

Transcription

· In Skinner’s this definition, verbal behavior may include any act by a person that is “communicative” in nature.

· For Skinner, a “speaker” and “listener” are the essential requirements for communication to occur

· Note that use of our vocal apparatus is not the sole defining criterion for engaging in verbal behavior

· Thus, use of signs, gestures, pictures, and other actions of the person constitutes verbal behavior, given that it has some effect on the action of another person as listener.

· Verbal Behavior according to Skinner is any operant requiring a speaker and a listener

· Operants such as scratching one’s self when itchy, or picking up a coin found on the ground, and so on, are not “verbal behavior” if they do not have an effect on a listener or are not mediated by a listener (i.e. no communicative intent)

D-10 Use echoic training

· The echoic is similar to the intraverbal in that it occurs in response to other verbal behavior, but the resulting verbal behavior matches the form of the verbal stimulus. The listener is “echoing” what she or he hears.

· The ability to repeat words is an important aspect of language training, and is essential for learning to identify objects and actions, and for development of other verbal operants (Cooper et. al., 2007).

· For example, imitation of sounds, words, or entire phrases would be considered echoics.

· For an early language learner the ability to repeat words when asked to do so plays a major role in the development of other verbal operants.

· The ability to repeat words when asked to do so plays a major role in the development of other verbal operants.

· Placing an echoic trial within a mand frame.

· Increasing any vocal behavior may facilitate echoics

· Directly reinforce all vocal behaviors.

D-11 Use mand training

· The mand (from command, demand and countermand) is a verbal operant "in which the response is reinforced by a characteristic consequence and is therefore under the functional control of relevant conditions of deprivation or aversive stimulation" (Skinner, 1957)

· The mand does not occur in response to a specific stimulus. Rather, the mand is under the control of motivational operations (MO), which increase the power or effectiveness of the reinforcer and is under the stimulus control of the presence of the audience which is necessary for all verbal behavior.

· Teach early learners to mand reinforcers with strong MO control such as toys, edibles, devices such as a tablet or smart phone

· This is a very important component of language training programs for children with developmental/intellectual disabilities or autism spectrum disorder.

Examples of Mands:

· Extreme thirst would serve as an MO for requesting a drink.

· Fear of spiders would serve as an MO for asking to leave the room or area the person is in

· Examples of mands include requesting food and toys, requesting information, saying "no" or "yes" to an offered item, asking for a break, and asking for assistance

D-12 Use tact training

TACTS

· The tact is evoked by "a particular object or event or property of an object or event.” (Skinner, 1957)

· Skinner was referring to some contact with the stimulating environment as the evoking stimulus. This operant is commonly referred to as a comment or a label.

Examples

· A child sees a cup on the table and says “cup.”

· A child sees a car outside and says “car.”

D-13 Use Intraverbal training

INTRAVERBALS

· Skinner coined the term intraverbal to refer to verbal behavior that is produced in response to other verbal behavior but is not similar in form to the preceding verbalization

· Early in development, intraverbals occur in response to verbalizations produced by someone else

· As a child's verbal repertoire matures, intraverbals may also occur in response to the child's own prior verbalizations

Examples of Intraverbals

· A classic example of intraverbal is Freud’s “free association” test used in psychoanalysis in which the therapists says words such as “mother,” “father,” “love,” “hate,” and so on, and asks the patient to reply with the first thought they have.

· Answering questions such as "Where do you live?" "What's one plus one?" or filling in the blank as when children respond, "farm" after hearing "Old McDonald had a ..."

D-14 Use listener training

· Begin with teaching the primary verbal operants such as mands, tacts, echoics, mimetics, &matching skills

· Proceed next with intraverbal training (see D-13, above).

· Shape direct listener responding of the listener, in response to verbal operants of the speaker

Example of a language acquisition program that employs Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior

oTeaching 2-step instructions – combine instructions already learned and insert a delay

oIn initial receptive language trials reinforce each correct response

oPrompts for vocalization should be indirect and brief, avoid requests: hello and holding up reinf, physical activities and singing are good to use

oAssessment of receptive skills is done to determine if correct responding is under control of instruction, present instructions in random order

o1st 2 phases of vocal imitation training: increase vocal and temporal control does not need to be taught in order

oWhen teaching labeling, as you fade the volume of your voice, rather than not saying those prompts the students matches your voice volume – address by sudden termination of prompts and reducing the length bc it removes the stimulus controlling the vocal

oTeaching to speak quietly – say quietly with relaxed demeanor

oAfter intermixing loud and quiet SDs request in normal tone for loud or quiet

oAddressing echolalia – whisper question and say prompt loudly or teach student to say “I don’t know”

oSay “what is it” at normal volume and fade level of prompt when teaching labeling

oWhen teaching labeling, begin by presenting SD in low voice volume then immediately prompting correct response

oEvents that positively reinforce goal achievement are varied and con include tangibles or simply the opportunity to see one’s progress on a graph. Determine your reward before or at the time you determine your goals

oDecreasing problem behavior – Identify private events that are precursors to the problem behavior

oReceptive – stimulus is verbal, response is nonverbal

oExpressive – stimulus is nonverbal, response is verbal

oConversational- stimulus is verbal, response is verbal

o1st step in conducting a receptive training trial is to keep the direction short and simple and prompt if necessary

oReceptive skills that involve object manipulation are more easily learned because they include visual cues and motor movements are easier for the teacher to prompt

oIn the beginning phases of imitating sounds teach sounds that can be prompted, the student tends to make, and which are heard in the environment

oIn phase 3 of imitating sounds if a student fails to make an imitation use physical prompts

oIn phase 3 of imitating sounds it is good to face the teacher so that the child can see the teacher’s face and because it is easier for the teacher to prompt

oIn phase 2 brining vocalizations under temporal control, differentially reinforce vocalizations that are in response to your vocalizations and put all other vocalizations on extinction

oIn phase 3 imitating sounds you can prompt imitation by labeling objects

Form and function of VB

-Form = topography

-Function= cause of response

Defining VB

-behavior that is reinforced by mediation of another person’s behavior

-defined by function rather than form

Speaker and listener

-social interactions btw speaker and listeners, whereby speakers gain access to rft and controls environment through listeners

-listener must learn how to reinforce speaker’s VB

Unit of analysis

-verbal operant: type or class of behavior that is distinct from a particular response instance

-verbal repertoire: set of verbal operants

Elementary verbal operants:

-mand, tact, echoic, transcription, textual

Textual

-reading: without any implications that reader understands

-point to point correspondence but not formal similarity

-produce gcr and controlled by ante stimuli

Transcription

-writing and spelling words that are spoken

-p-p correspondence, but not formal similarity

Role of listener

-not that important- most of what is classified as listener bx (thinking, understanding) is more correctly identified as speaker bx, often speaker and listener reside within same skin

-fxns as a sd for vb=audience=sd in the presence of which vb is rx and in the presence of which is strong

-mediator of rx

Identifying verbal operants

-ask questions regarding the relevant controlling variables

-controlled by mo? Controlled by sd? Is sd nonverbal? Is sd verbal? Is there p-p correspondence? Is there formal similarity?

Analyzing complex vb

Automatic reinforcement:

-some bx is maintained, strengthened, weakened by its response products which have rx or px effects

-has sign role in acquis and maint of vb

-2 stages:

1. Neutral verbal stimulus is paired with existing form of rx = cond rx

2. Vocal response produces an auditory response that may sound somewhat like rx words = fxn as rx

Private events

-bx that occurs within skin- thinking

-hard to analyze

-4 ways that young persons are taught to tact private events

1. Public behavior: observable stimulus accompanies a private stimulus

2. Collateral responses: use collateral responses that reliably occur with private stimuli

3. Common properties: may learn to tact, temporal, geometrical, or descriptive properties of objects and then generalize to private stimuli

4. Response reduction: tact features of own bodies such as movements and positions = these can acquire control over verbal responses

Multiple control

Convergent: occurrence of single verbal response is a fxn of more than one variable

Divergent: single ante variable affects strength of multiple

Thematic and formal: Thematic = mands, tacts, intra, and involve diff response topographies controlled by a common variable. Formal = echoics and textuals and are controlled by a common variable with

Point-to-point correspondence

Multiple audiences; diff audiences may evoke diff response forms

Elaborating multiple control:

-convergent mc occurs in most instances of vb

-audience is always a source

-convergent occurs more with mo and nonverbal stimuli

Autoclitic

-speakers own vb fxns as an sd or mo for additional speaker vb

-vb about speaker’s own vb

Primary and secondary VO

Primary: vb about speaker’s own vb MO and SD are present and affect primary verbal operant

Secondary: speaker observers the primary controlling variables of own vb and disposition to emit primary vb

Autoclitic tact

-informs listener of some nonverbal aspect of the primary verbal operant and is therefore controlled by nonverbal stimuli

Autoclitic mand

-mand listener to react in some specific way to the primary verbal operant

Developing autoclitic relation

-asked to explain controlling variables

-diff reinforcement

-autoclitic affects the listener by indicating either a property of the speaker’s bx or circumstance responsible for that property

Applications of VB

Language assessment: most lang assess does not account for mands. Should analyze each VO and get a test from a speech pathologist

Lang intervention: should estb each operant

D-15 Identify punishers

· Positive punishment: stimulus added after behavior that reduces future occurrence or frequency of the behavior.

· Negative punishment: stimulus removed after behavior that reduces future occurrence or frequency of the behavior.

D-16 Use Positive and Negative Punishment (last resort only!)

A. identify and use punishers

-when a response is followed immediately by a stimulus change that decreases future frequency of similar responses

Distinguish from neg rx: recognize opposite effects the 2 contingencies have on future freq, realizing that 2 diff bx must be involved bc the same consequence cannot serve as pos punish and neg rx for the same bx

Discriminative stimulus for px: stimulus condition in the presence of which a response has a decrease probability of occurring than it does in its absence as a result of response-contingent punishment in the presence of the stimulus

Recovery: bx that is no longer punished will most likely return to previous levels and may exceed it

Punisher: a stimulus change that immediately follows the occurrence of a bx and decreases future frequency of that type of bx. Unconditioned = no history, Conditioned = based on contingency history, generalized conditioned = paired with many punishers

Effectiveness of punisher

Immediacy: as soon as bx occurs

Intensity/magnitude: increase magnitude, increase suppression; increase intensity, decrease recovery; gradually increasing intensity doesn’t work

Schedule maximized by continuous schedule

Reinf target bx: need to reduce rx

Reinf alternative bx: punishment is more effective when alt bx is reinf

D-17 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of punishment

∙Punishment should be used consistently for every instance of the problem behavior

Positive Punishment Interventions:

Reprimands:

-eye contact and firm grasp on shoulders and in close proximity = increased effect

-when used more freq than positive attention may serve as a reinf

-should use sparingly in combo with frequent praise and antr

Response Blocking

-physically intervening as soon as person begins to emit the problem bx to prevent or block completion of response

Contingent exercise

-perform a response that is not topographically related to the problem bx

Overcorrection

-required to engage in effortful bx that is directly or logically related to the problem

Restitutional: return env to original state and then some

Pos practice: perform correct form of bx or bx incompatible with problem bx repeatedly

Guidelines for Overcorrection

1. Immediately in a calm voice tell person misbehaved and need to correct it. Do not criticize or scold

2. Provide explicit verbal instructions describing overcorrection

3. Implement sequence as soon as possible

4. Monitor learner throughout, provide minimal prompts

5. Provide minimal feedback for correct responses

6. Provide praise, antr, etc each time learner spontaneously performs appropriate bx

Contingent electrical stim

-presentation of a brief electrical stimulus immediately following an occurrence of problem bx

Guidelines for effective use

-select eff and app punishers punish assessment: measure avoidance of stimuli use punishers of sufficient quality and magnitude use varied punishers

-deliver punisher at beginning of sequence

-punish each instance of bx initially

-gradually shift to intermittent- bx needs to be sign low level first and combine with extinction

-use mediation with a response to punish delay

-supplement punish with a complementary intervention: dra, ext, antecedent strategies

-be prepared for negative side effects

-record graph and evaluate data daily

Ethical considerations of punishment:

-right to safe and humane treatment

-least restrictive alternative

-right to effective treatment

-punish policy and procedural safeguards – need to adopt

Time Out

-withdrawl of opportunity to earn pos Rx or the loss of access to pos rx for a specified time, contingent access to pos rx for a specified time, contingent on occurrence of bx need:

-discrepancy btw time-in and time-out env, response contingent loss of access to reinf, resultant decrease in future frequency of the bx

-greater the diff btw reinf value in the time in and absence of that value during time out = increase effectiveness

Nonexclusion T/O

-participant is not completely removed physically from time in setting

-Planned Ignoring – social rx are removed for a brief period contingent on the occurrence of an inapp bx

-Withdrawl of specific positive reinforcer

-contingent observation- repositioned within an existing setting to observe ongoing activities but access to reinforcement is lost

-time out ribbon- have ribbon = eligible to earn reinforcement

Exclusion T/O

Removed from env for a specific period, contingent on occurrence of target bx

Time out room: any confined space outside the participant’s normal educational or treatment env that is devoid of pos rx and in which the person can be safely placed for a time period. 3 adv:

-opportunity to acquire rx during t/o is eliminated

-room assumes conditioned aversive properties

-decrease risk of hurting students

Partition Time out: person remains within time-in setting, but is restricted by a partition

-Disadv: may still receive reinf from other students and negative view by parents

Hallway T/O leave and sit in hallway

-disadv: obtain reinf from multitude of sources = increase likelihood of escape

Desirable aspects of TO

-ease of application

-acceptability – appropriate, fair, and effective

-rapid suppression of bx

-combined applications

Using effectively

-reinf and enriching the time-in env

-define bx leading to T/O

-defining procedures for duration of T/O

-Define exit criteria- should have improved bx condition should not discontinue t/o if inappropriate bx is occurring

-deciding on nonexclusion or exclusions T/O

-explain T/O rules

-obtain permission

-apply consistently

-evaluate effect

-consider other options

-legal and ethical issues

Response Cost

-form of punishment in which the loss of a specified amount of Rx occurs, contingent on an inappropriate bx and results in decrease problem bx

Desirable aspects

-moderate to rapid decrease in bx in 2 to 3 sessions

-convenience

-should not be used as the sole approach to modifying bx bc it does not teach new bx

Methods

Fines: fine a specific amount of pos rx

Bonus RC: have NCR available specifically for RC

Combine with pos Rx: earn tokens for appropriate bx and lose tokens for inappropriate bx

Combine with group contingency: whole group loses specific amount of RX

Using effectively:

-state target bx and fine

-increase fine, increase severity of bx

-fine should be large enough to suppress future occurrence of bx but not so large as to bankrupt the person

-determining immediacy: should be immediate

-RC or bonus RC? – least aversive = should do bonus RC first. Bonus is less likely to lead to outbursts, non compliance, and combative bx may be suppressed more quickly with regular RC

-ensuring Rx reserve: manage ratio of points earned to points lost

-recognize potential for unplanned outcomes – RC may reinf bx or refusal to give rx

-avoid overuse of RC

-keeping records

Considerations:

-may increase aggressiveness

-avoidance: setting may become aversive

-calls antr to undesirable bx (may be rx)

-unpredictability – side effects

D-18 Use Extinction

Identify possible reinforcers maintaining behavior and use extinction

∙Procedure in which reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior is discontinued.

∙A behavior maintained by positive reinforcement is put on extinction when the reinforcing stimulus is no longer forthcoming as a consequence of the behavior (includes attention, access to tangibles)

∙A behavior maintained by negative reinforcement is put on extinction when the stimulus is no longer terminated or removed after the behavior (includes demands)

∙Behavior maintained by sensory consequences is put on extinction when the sensory consequence is masked or removed (wearing a glove)

Variables affecting resistance:

-intermittent rx more resistant

-EO strength

-# magnitude and quality – longer = more resistant

-# of previous extinction trials – more trials = less resistant

-response effort – increase response effort, decrease resistant

Using effectively

-withholding all rx maintaining problem bx

-withhold reinf consistently

-combine ext with other procedures

-using instructions: describe procedure to student

-plan for aggression – still ignore

-increase number of extinction trials- accelerates extinction process

-guard against unintentional ext.

-maintaining ext. decreased behaviors

When not to use

-imitation – if other people will imitate

-extreme behavior

D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement with punishment and extinction

· Ethical standard: always use reinforcement procedures when using punishment or extinction

· Teach replacement behavior (functional equivalence, skill acquisition)

D-20 response Independent (time based) schedules of reinforcement

NCR

-When to use – not with dangerous behavior where the reinforcement is pain, hallucinogen etc

-may be implemented using presentation of a potential reinforcer on a FT or VT schedule (response-independent of occurrence of target behavior)

-eliminates the contingent relation btw the target behavior and the stimulus presentation while allowing any effects of the stimulus alone to be detected

-for research purposes- should entail minimum of five phases: abcbc (a = Baseline, b=NCR, c=CR)

-can produce persistent responding, perhaps due to reinforcement early in the NCR condition, or bc of similar MOs and antecedent stimulus conditions resulting in persistent responding which can be a limitation

-decrease in behavior because reinforcement is available freely and frequently (behavior becomes unnecessary and irrelevant to obtain same amount or frequency of reinforcement).

-Pos Rft – social, primary rft., access to items, activities, actions, etc.

-Automatic rft.- leisure items

-neg rft- give break on a schedule regardless of behavior

Using effectively

-amount and quality of stimuli with known reinf properties influence effectiveness of ncr

-most treatments include ext

-reinf preferences can change during intervention

-Functional beh assess: dependent on correct identification of maintaining rft.

Emphasizing NCR: present > amount of stimuli with known reinforcing properties greater than rate of reinforcement without ncr

Time based: determine by setting at or below baseline

Probability based: determined by conditional probabilities of rft. given behavior and no behavior

Thinning schedule: only do after initial schedule leads to decrease in bx

Setting terminal criteria usually arbitrary

Considerations:

ADV: easy to apply, creates a learning env packaged with ext may decrease ext induced bursts, could maintain app bx

DISADV: free access may decrease adaptive bx, chance pairing with problem bx may rx, NCR escape may disrupt instructional process

D-21 Use differential reinforcement:

used to refine topography, frequency, or duration of existing behaviors. One member of the response class is reinforced and other members are not.

∙Differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)- emit a high rate of responses in specified time, then reinforcement is produced

Differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL) – emit a low rate of responses in specified time, then reinforcement is produced

-use with bx that occurs too frequently but don’t want to eliminate

Full-session

-Rx is delivered at end of instructional or treatment session if the target bx occurred at a number = to or < than criterion

Interval

-provide rx at end of each interval

Spaced responding

-delivers a rx following a response that is separated by at least a minimum amount of time from previous responses

Guidelines:

-Limitations: not good for reducing bx quickly, not good for dangerous bx, must focus on inapp bx

Choose most appropriate DRL: use interval or full session when it is ok for bx to reach 0

-use bl data to guide IRT limits on selection of initial response

-gradually thin schedule

-provide figure to the learner – helps monitor rate of response for learner

Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) – occurs whenever a specific behavior is not emitted during an interval. Designed to decrease behavior

oGuidelines: determine DRO interval

oProcedure for increasing interval

oProvide reinf contingent upon 0 occurrences of the target behavior during the interval

oCombine with other procedures

oInterval should be lengthened in small increments by a constant time, proportion or based on performance of learner

Interval DRO

Fixed: apply omission req at end of successive time intervals – estb interval, reinf if no bx at end, start interval over if problem bx

Variable: deliver rx contingent on the absence of bx during intervals of varying and unpredictable durations

Momentary DRO- apply omission req at the end of interval only

Guidelines

-interval is probably better than momentary

-limitations: may rx other undesirable bx

-set intervals that assure freq reinf

-do not inadverntly rx other undesirable bx

-gradually increase dro interval

-extend to other settings and times of day

-combine with other procedures

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) – reinforcement is presented when a specified alternative behavior is emitted. Alternative behavior should be in learners repertoire

oSubtypes: DRI and DRC

oDRC is a subtype of DRA refers to communicative behaviors that serve same function as problem behavior

Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) – reinforcement is presented when a specified behavior that is incompatible with the target behavior is emitted.

-weaken problem bx while strengthening acceptable bx

-may promote educ, social, and personal skill dev

-practicioner controls development of app bx and measures both problem bx and desired replacement bx

Guidelines

-select incompatible/alt bx = already exists in repertoire, requires less effort, being emitted at rate prior to DRI/DRA intervention that will provide sufficient opportunities for rx, is likely to be rx in natural env

-select reinforcers that are powerful and can be delivered consistently

-reinforce immediately and consistently

-withhold rft for problem bx

-combine with other procedures

E. Specific Behavior-Change Procedures

E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as:

∙Contextual or Ecological Variables:

oDoes not include consequent strategies

oAntecedent manipulation such as setting increase env or altering routines to promote desired behavior change: reduce noise level, increase response effort for problem behavior, enrich environment, change schedules

oSetting event exerts general control over antecedent behavior interactions

oReinforcing event follows a response and increases likelihood of occurring

∙Motivating Operations:

oany change in the environment that alters the effectiveness of some object or event as reinforcement and simultaneously alters the momentary frequency of the behavior that has been followed by that reinforcement.

OIncrease MO for desired behavior

oDecrease MO for problem behavior

∙Discriminative Stimuli:

oMake SDs for desired behavior present

oEliminate SDs for undesirable behavior

oStimulus in the presence of which behavior has been reinforced = SD

E-02 Use discrimination Training procedures

- Reinforce a specified response in the presence of one stimulus (Sd)

- do not reinforce the response in the presence of other stimuli (S-Delta)

- For example: you are teaching a child to point to an apple when you say “apple” when you place apple, banana and orange. Reinforce pointing to apple when you say “apple” and do not reinforce pointing to banana or orange

(See p. 694 in Cooper et. al, Applied Behavior Analysis, 2007, Pearson)

E-03 Use instructions and rules:

-most effective when: behavior is under instructional control, provided at an optimal rate (that which the indv can understand)

E-04 Use contingency contracting

oMay work because may be affected by people in environment who can prompt and reinforce behavior related to the contract, or rule-governed bx, or contract serves as response prompt for effective delivery of rx, may fxn as response prompt for avoiding “guilt”

oBehavior must be observable and a clear criteria for completion specified

oRefers to: negotiated goals and procedures of a beh program or to a document that specifies a contingent relationship between the completion of a specified behavior and access to or delivery of a specified reward

oAdvantages

oMore likely to follow

oContractee is more likely to negotiate a less aversive consequence

oHas negotiation proviso

o Makes contingency explicit

oStructures relationship

oIncreases likelihood of reinforcement delivered

oDisadvantages

oCannot be used with individuals without cognitive skills

oImbalance of authority may compromise contractee’s sense of ownership

oResearch does not exist to support over imposed contingency

oEssential components

oTask description present and in observable terms

oWhen task will be accomplished

oTask completion criteria (when and how well)

oReward description

oHow much reward

oReward delivered after task completion

oReward amount appropriate

oA document that specifies the relationship between a task and a contingent reward

oConsists of two major parts: task (who, what, when, and how well) and reward (who, what, when, and how much)

oChildren can be taught to use as part of self-management

oTask must already be in repertoire and under stimulus control

oMany successful contracts tend to terminate automatically as naturally occurring reinforcers begin to maintain the task

oGradually turning the management of the contract over to the child is another method of terminating the contract

Developing

-all parties involved should come up with contract

-have a meeting, identify tasks, identify rewards, choose task and write contract

Guidelines

-consider nature of desired bx change verbal and conceptual skills of participant, individual’s relationship with person’s making the contract, and available resources

-bx should be in person’s antrummin

-person should be able to come under control of visual or oral statements of the contract

-should not use with people who refuse

Evaluating contracts:

-objective eval using bl and treatment data

-may need to adjust contract if not enough change

E-05 Use independent, interdependent, and dependent group contingencies:

oTarget student who is threatened by his peers for disruptive outbursts – earns reward for group for no outbursts, nothing said if there is an outburst

Dependent group oriented contingency-

oreward for entire group is contingent upon behavior of one or few indv

oused to promote desired behavior

oused when you want to change behavior of single individual who responds well to peer pressure

· If a single individual is sabotaging team remove that opportunity by adding an individual contingency or removing from G.O.C.

Independent –

oSame contingency applies to all members but reinforcement is contingent on each individual

Interdependent-

oReinforcement for group is contingent upon group as a whole

oLottery: group member’s probability of winning the single reinf is function of number of beh contingent tickets

oHero procedure: particular individual can become hero by earning a reward for the entire group

oGOC can save time, is at least as effective and is perhaps more economical

oGOC is useful when it is impractical to initiate an individual contingency

oCan be used when practitioner needs to resolve a serious disruptive beh quickly

oMay able to capitalize peer influence or peer monitoring

oCan be combined with individual contingency

oMay exert harmful peer pressure

oMay increase likelihood of scapegoating

oIndividual beh may be masked

oPractitioner should assess the limits of student per