Selection and Organization of Content

• The Structure of Subject Matter Content

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Subject Matter

0matter presented for consideration in discussion, thought, or study

0the substance of a discussion, book, writing, etc., as distinguished from its form or style.

Subject Matter Content Elements

0 Cognitive0 Skills0 Affective

The Structure of Subject Matter Content

0 Cognitive0 Facts0 Concepts0 Principles0 Hypotheses0 Theories0 laws

0 Skill0 Thinking skills0 Manipulative skills

0 Affective0 Realm of values and attitudes

COGNITIVE

0 Facts0 Concepts0 Principles0 Hypotheses0 Theories0 laws

Facts

0Fact is an idea or action that can be verified.0Basic unit of cognitive subject matter content

Example:0 names and dates of important activities0 population of the Philippines

Cognitive (Ormrod, 2000)

Concepts

0Concept is a categorization of events, places, people, ideas.

Example:0 Furniture -> chairs, tables, tables, beds, and desks.0 Swim -> breast stroke, crawl, butterfly

Cognitive (Ormrod, 2000)

Principles

0 the relationship(s) between and among facts and concepts.

0arrived at when similar research studies yield similar results time after time

Example:0 Number of children in the family is related to the

average scores on nationally standardized achievement tests for those children.

Cognitive (Ormrod, 2000)

Hypotheses

0educated guesses about relationships (principles)

Example:0 For lower division undergraduate students, study habits

is a better predictor of success in a college course than is a measure of intelligence or reading comprehension.

Cognitive (Ormrod, 2000)

Theories0 refer to a set of facts, concepts and principles that

describe possible underlying unobservable mechanisms that regulate human learning, development, and behavior.

0explains why these principles are true.

Example:0 Piaget’s theory on cognitive development0 Vygotsky’s theory that featured the Zone of Proximal

Development (ZPD) and Scaffolding

Cognitive (Ormrod, 2000)

Theories0 refer to a set of facts, concepts and principles that

describe possible underlying unobservable mechanisms that regulate human learning, development, and behavior.

0explains why the principles are true.

Example:0 Piaget’s theory on cognitive development0 Vygotsky’s theory that featured the Zone of Proximal

Development (ZPD) and Scaffolding

Cognitive (Ormrod, 2000)

Laws0 firmly established, thoroughly tested principle or

theory

Example:0 Thorndike’s law of effect0 Law on the conservation of matter and energy0 Law of supply and demand0 Law of gravity

Cognitive (Ormrod, 2000)

SKILLS

0Manipulative skills0Thinking Skills

0 Divergent thinking0 Convergent thinking0 Problem solving0 Metaphoric thinking0 Critical thinking0 Creative thinking

Manipulative Skills

0 for courses / subjects that are dominantly skill –oriented0 Computer0 Home Economics and Technology0 Physical Education0 Music

0The learning of these manipulative skills begin with naïve manipulation and ends up in expert and precise manipulation.

Thinking Skills

0 the skills beyond recall and comprehension0 They are skills concerned with the

0 application of what was learned, 0 (in problem-solving or in real life) evaluation, 0 critical and creative thinking and 0 synthesis.

0 Thinking Skills0 Divergent thinking0 Convergent thinking0 Problem solving0 Metaphoric thinking0 Critical thinking0 Creative thinking

Divergent Thinking

0 Includes the following and its characteristics0 Fluent thinking

0 generation of lots of ideas0 thought flow is rapid0 thinking of the of the most possible ideas

0 Flexible thinking 0 variety of thoughts in the kinds of ideas generated0 different ideas from those usually presented

0 Original thinking 0 differs from what’s gone before0 thought production is away from the obvious and is different from the norm

0 Elaborative thinking 0 embellishes on previous ideas or plans (Torres, 1994)0 Uses prior knowledge to expand and add upon things and ideas

Convergent Thinking

0 It is narrowing down from many possible thoughts to end up on a single best thought or an answer to a problem.

Problem Solving

0Made easier when the problem is well-defined.

“The proper definition of a problem is already half the solution”

0Can be solved by using :0 algorithm – following specific, step by step instructions0 heuristic strategy – general problem solving strategy, for a

solution - experience based techniques

Effective Problem Solving Strategies (Ormrod, 2000)

0Provide worked-out examples of algorithms being applied

0Help students understand why particular algorithms are relevant and effective in certain situations

0When a student’s application of algorithm yields an incorrect answer, look closely at the specific steps the student has taken until the trouble spot is located.

For teaching heuristics:

0Give students practice in defining ill-defined problems

0Teach heuristics that students can use where no algorithms apply

Examples of real-life heuristic that people use as a way to solve a problem or to learn something:

0 Educated guess0 Common sense0 Availability heuristic0 Working backward0 Familiarity heuristic

For teaching both algorithm and heuristics:

0Teach problem-solving strategies within the context of specific subject areas (not as a topic separate from academic content)

0Provide scaffolding for difficult problems0Have students solve problems in small groups

Metaphoric Thinking

0Also called “Analogic thinking”0Uses analogic thinking

0 A figure of speech where a word is used in a manner different from its ordinary designation to suggest or imply a parallelism or similarity

Example:Teaching is lighting a candle. The learner’s mind is a “blank slate”.

Critical Thinking

0 Involves evaluating information or arguments in terms of their accuracy and worth. (Beyer, 1985)

0 It takes a variety of forms0Verbal reasoning0Argumentative analysis0Hypothesis testing0Decision making

Creative Thinking

0 Involves producing something that is both original and worthwhile

0 For Creative thinking we must develop:0 Awareness0 Curiosity0 Imagination0 Fluency0 Flexibility0 Originality0 Elaboration0 Perseverance

AFFECTIVE

Three-level approach to teaching

Values

Cognitive

Skill

Values and Attitudes

0Values can be taught0They are both taught and caught.0Values have :

0Cognitive dimension0Affective dimension0Behavioral dimension

Affective component is concerned with values and attitudes. When we teach values, we connect facts, skills and concepts to the life of students.

How can we teach values?

0 Deutero-learning : Your student learns by 0 being exposed to the situation,0 acquainting himself with a setting0 following models0 pursuing inspirations0 copying behavior

“YOUR CRITICAL ROLE AS MODELS IN AND OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM CANNOT BE OVEREMPHASIZED”

0 Positive reinforcing good behavior0 Teaching cognitive component of values in the classroom

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod, Ph.D.0 Professor of Psychological Sciences0 McKee Hall0 jormrod@comcast.net

Dr. Jeanne Ellis Ormrod received her A.B. in Psychology in 1970 from Brown University located in Providence, Rhode Island. In 1973 she received her M.S. in Educational Psychology at Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania. Dr. Ormrod then received her Ph.D. in 1975 also from Pennsylvania State University. She has done Postdoctoral work in school psychology (1975-76) at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and work in School Psychology (1977-1980) at the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.

Areas of Specialization:0 Learning and cognition0 Study strategies0 Pedagogy