self-esteem and young children - southern · pdf filehome: an innovative approach to early...

20 Volume 32, Number 1 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Winter 2004 Winter 2004 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 32, Number 1 21

excited to share their discoverieswith others.

Finally, observation and reflec-tion support teachers' understand-ing of their images of children. Chil-dren's actions and language enablethem to describe what they observe.Teachers who think about children'sintentionality and depth of under-standing are likely to experience athirst for further study of childdevelopment.

The educators at Reggio Emiliahave provoked teachers in the Unit-ed States and elsewhere in the worldto consider their cultural images ofchildren–and thus their teachingpractices. Teachers who are inspiredby this approach eagerly seek waysto deepen their understanding ofchildren as knowledgeable co-learn-ers with their teachers. The waysteachers view children's potentialand power strengthen their interac-tion with children, enable them toplan a more responsive curriculum,

and design learning environmentsthat encourage children to meaning-fully explore themselves and theworld around them.

ReferencesCadwell, L. (1997). Bringing Reggio Emilia

home: An innovative approach to earlychildhood education. New York: Teach-ers College Press.

Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G.(1998). The hundred languages of chil-dren: The Reggio Emilia approach–advanced reflections. Greenwich, CT:Ablex.

Forman, G. (1999). Instant video revisit-ing: The video camera as a tool of themind for young children. Early Child-hood Research and Practice, 1, (2).Retrieved from http;//ecrp.uiuc.edu/vln2/forman.html

Fu, V.R., Stremmel, A.J., & Hill, L.T.(2002). Teaching and learning: Collabo-rative exploration of the Reggio Emiliaapproach. Columbus, OH: MerrillPrentice-Hall.

Gandini, L., & Edwards, P.C. (Eds.)(2001). Bambini: The Italian approachto infant/toddler care. New York: Teach-ers College Press.

Gandini, L., & Goldhaber, J. (2001). Two

reflections about documentation. In L.Gandini & C.P. Edwards (Eds.). Bam-bini: The Italian approach to infant/tod-dler care (pp. 124-145). New York:Teachers College Press.

Hendrick, J. (1997). First steps towardteaching the Reggio way. Upper SaddleRiver, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Hughes, E. (2002, Spring). Planningmeaningful curriculum from observa-tion: A mini-story of children andteachers learning together. ChildhoodEducation, 78(3): 134-139.

Hughes, E. (2000). "If you have sun andyou rain you get a rainbow:" Creatingmeaningful curriculum from youngchildren's actions and words. Journal ofEarly Childhood Teacher Education,20(2): 89-100.

Lewis, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979).Social cognition and the acquisition ofself. New York: Plenum.

Malaguzzi, L. (1994). Your image of thechild: Where teaching begins. ChildCare Information Exchange, 96, 52-61.

Rinaldi, C. (2001). Reggio Emilia: Theimage of the child and the child's envi-ronment as fundamental principle. InL. Gandini & C.P. Edwards (Eds.).Bambini: The Italian approach toinfant/toddler care (pp. 49-54). NewYork: Teachers College Press.

Self-esteem includes many aspects of self-evaluationthat develop over time in the context of significantsocial relationships. The purpose of this article is todefine self-esteem, show the relation between self-esteem and children's social environment, and offerpractical suggestions to help foster the development ofhealthy self-esteem in young children.

What Is Self-Esteem?Although self-esteem does not

emerge fully until middle childhood(Harter, 1998), precursors of self-esteem begin in significant relation-ships that develop during infancy(Bowlby, 1988). These relationships form children'sinternal working models or scripts, which will definetheir expectations of self and others. Children's internalrepresentations of self are gradually supported or reject-ed by the socializing environment (Bowlby). In otherwords, developmental changes in self-representation andeventual self-esteem occur in the context of the child'scognitive construct and social environment (Harter).

Coopersmith (1967), a leader in the study of self-esteem, defined self-esteem as the evaluation an individ-ual makes regarding him- or herself. "It indicates theextent to which the individual believes himself to becapable, significant, successful, and worthy" (p. 5).Coopersmith observed that self-esteem evolves fromthree basic needs:

1) the need to belong, 2) the need to feel capable, and 3) the need to be worthwhile.

How Does Self-Esteem Develop?Self-esteem is a social construct (Cooley, 1909) that

develops largely from an individual's social interactionsand the relationships in which they are embedded (Hart-up, 1989; Yabiku, Axinn, & Thornton, 1999). Parents,teachers, coaches, peers, grandparents, and siblings, toname a few, make up children's social environment.Children's opinions about their competence, control,and worth develop out of close involvement with thesepeople (Hartup).

Adults, including parents and teach-ers, relay information to childrenthrough words, facial expressions, andactions. Direct and indirect informa-tion influences a child's evaluation ofthe self. The self is an "abstraction

that an individual develops about the attributes, capaci-ties, objects, and activities which [s]he possesses and pur-sues" (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 20). It has been well doc-umented that even young children possess the ability toorganize information relevant to themselves (Cooley,1909; Eder, 1990; Harter, 1998; Mead, 1934). Chil-dren's concepts of themselves, derived fundamentallyfrom interperson-al relationships,influence theirfuture behavior.

Influence ofcaregiving styles

One of the first interpersonal relationships to developis between children and their parents. Baumrind (1971,1989) has described two distinct dimensions of caregiving

Self-Esteem and Young Children: Guiding Principles

Muriel Azria-Evans

Muriel Azria-Evans, Ph.D., CFLE, is Assistant Professor,School of Family and Consumer Sciences, Child and FamilyStudies, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg.

How can families and teachers support children's healthyself-concepts? These concrete suggestions for families andeducators are drawn from the best research and theory.

Precursors ofself-esteem begin

in infancy.

Children's concepts ofthemselves influencetheir future behavior.

Thank You, ReviewersSECA expresses its appreciation to these people who reviewed the

articles that appear in this issue:

Denise Da Ros-VoselesEleanor DuffLoraine DunnE. Anne EddowesAaron Fink, M.D.Janet FosterStephen GravesPeggy O. JesseeSusan KontosMary Langenbrunner

Karen M. La ParoJoann NiffeneggerMargaret PuckettChristine A. ReaddickDean RicheyJean ShawAnne Stanberry


dler saying, "I see me going way, waydown there!" Placing the mirror aboveher head, a girl said, "I am here."Once again, a teacher's attention to atoddler's discovery helped maintainchildren's interest and excitement,and led to a sharing of ideas.

In another situation, childrenheld up mirrors and noticed reflect-ed images of children who werestanding behind them. "I can seeTracy. Tracy is over there!" one childshouted. Another child observed, "Ican see outside." Both children sawreflections of children who wereplaying behind them.

Pablo was sitting on the couchlooking at his reflection in two mir-rors. He had placed one in front ofhim and another on the floorbehind him. He exclaimed, "I seeme. All of me!"

When Jennifer revisited pho-tographs of these play experiences,she tried to better understand howchildren were learning about theirbodies in space. Some questions sheasked herself included:

• What does children's languagereveal about the concepts theyare constructing?

• How do interactions with mirrorspromote further exploration?

• What is the difference betweenseeing one's reflection in a mir-ror and watching a videorecording of oneself?

• What connections with priorexperiences lead children for-ward? How do learning oppor-tunities provide possibilities forunderstanding concepts in dif-ferent ways?

• How do teachers decide torespond? What informs theirdecisions?

Think Deeply About theDocumentation

Jennifer studied her observationsand documentation at several differ-ent points.

• As she conducted observations,she thought about what she wasviewing.

• When she revisited her observa-tions with other teachers, shehad opportunities to interpretand reflect on the children'sactions and to use these under-standings to make better-informed decisions about dailypractices.

• Finally, as time passed, Jenniferreflected on the meaning of herlearning experiences and thoseof the children.

Studying documentation gath-ered through obser-vation enablesteachers to betterunderstand youngchildren in manyways. First, teach-ers who follow chil-dren's actions betterunderstand howtheir conceptsdevelop. For exam-ple, as toddlersexplored their senseof self, they usedlanguage to expresstheir ideas about

self-image, size, spatial relationships,reflections, and perspective.

Second, tools such as camcordershelp teachers and children focustheir attention. Questions that ariseduring reflection include: How doesfocused attention on children moti-vate and extend a teacher's interestlevel, which, in turn, provokes fur-ther study about toddler learning?Why does revisiting experiences withtoddlers maintain their interest?How does the thoughtful study ofchildren's actions and words lead toconnected experiences for children?

The opportunity to think deeplyabout how to plan meaningful expe-riences is an outcome of reviewingdocumentation over time (Cadwell,1997; Edwards, Gandini, & For-man, 1998; Fu, Stremmel, & Hill,2002; Hendrick, 1997; Hughes,2000, 2002).

Jennifer discovered how essentialit is to have time to sift through herwork and organize her observations.She appreciated this cyclical nature ofdocumentation as being an impor-tant step to her inquiry (Gandini &Goldhaber, 2001). Just as toddlersneed time to explore and reflect ontheir actions, so do teachers.

Third, teachers recognize howchildren create bonds with eachother when they enjoy shared learn-ing experiences. Toddlers in Jen-nifer's group continue to be present-ed with experiences that offer possi-bilities for inquiry. Natural interac-tions then occur as children exploretheir common interests. They are

Toddlers AND teachersneed time to explore andreflect on their actions.

"Double, I see double!"

(responsiveness and demand-ingness) that sustain variouscaregiving styles (authoritari-an, permissive, and authorita-tive). Different caregivingstyles are gauged by theirdegree of responsiveness anddemandingness.

• Responsiveness refers to thedegree to which caregiversare supportive, cued intochildren's developmentalneeds, and available to meettheir needs.

• Demandingness refers to theextent to which caregivershave and state expectationsfor behavior, supervise andmonitor behavior, and arewilling to confront a child.

Although Baumrind's care-giving styles have been pre-dominantly used to describeparents, they are also appropri-ate in describing other signifi-cant adults who interact withyoung children, includingteachers, child care providers,coaches, and religious educators.

Authoritarian caregivers demon-strate high levels of demandingnessand low levels of responsiveness(Baumrind, 1971, 1989). They gen-erally use set standards of conduct tocontrol and shape children's behav-ior. They value unquestioned obedi-ence and often have unrealisticexpectations. One side effect of anauthoritarian caregiving style is theunderlying message being sent tothe child. Messages such as "yourneeds are not important and there-fore ultimately you are not impor-tant" cause children to feel power-less, angry, rejected, and inadequate.

These feelings may surface aschildren hear and come to believethat they are not important (i.e.,lack of worth, a component of self-

esteem). Children may fear that theywill be abandoned if they make amistake, and conclude that rules aremore important than their needs.Children who are exposed to pre-dominantly controlling adultsdevelop a sense of self that is indeci-sive and that needs or seeks controlfrom others (DeVries & Zan, 1994).

In contrast, many adults uncon-sciously choose to use a permissivecaregiving style in which childrenare actually the powerful ones andthe adults are powerless (Baumrind,1971, 1989). Permissive caregiversfall in two categories, those who areneglectful and those who are indul-gent. Both of these caregiving stylesgrant freedom to children beforethey are capable of handling theresponsibility.

Neglectful caregivers often-times have been ineffective indisciplining their children inthe past, so they succumb toallowing their children tomake their own decisions.They are considered to below in responsiveness anddemandingness. They allowself-regulation of activities andavoid exercising control.

On the other hand, indul-gent caregivers, while warm andresponsive, choose not to exer-cise control because theybelieve that they do not have aright to control their child inany way. These caregivers areconsidered low in demanding-ness but high in responsivenessand are generally nonpunitive,accepting, and affirmative.

By their actions, neglectfulcaregivers in particular, andindulgent ones as well, aretelling children that no one isthere for them, which may

make children feel discounted,scared, and hurt. From these feelingschildren may make one of two con-clusions about themselves: "I musttake care of other people's feelings"or "Because no one cares about me,I will have to do everything on myown." These two perceptions reflectchildren's feelings of not belongingand lack of worth, both of which arecomponents of less-than-healthyself-esteem.

Authoritative caregivers, on theother hand, demonstrate high levelsof both demandingness and respon-siveness (Baumrind, 1971, 1989).They commonly encourage verbalgive and take and use reason andreinforcement in shaping behavior.Authoritative caregivers generallyhave appropriate expectations of

Nancy P. Alexander

Relationships characterized by authoritative guidance,mutual respect, and cooperation contribute to feelings ofself-worth and healthy self-esteem.


boy touched the image of anotherchild and then went over andtouched the boy's face. Another childlooked down at his image when heappeared on the television screen,and then walked behind the televi-sion to look for himself.

The children's reactions to thevideo provide insights about howchildren explore their understand-ing of sense of self and the repre-sentation of self as an image.Observations like these can helpteachers confirm that a toddler's"categorical" self emerges during

the second year (Lewis & Brooks-Gunn, 1979). These types of expe-riences may well support children'sdevelopment of their self-concepts.Toddlers might well be exploringthe question, "What is the meaningof this image, separate frommyself?"

Jennifer also questioned herunderstanding of the meaning offriendships for children at this age.She observed how, when interestswere shared, children readilyacknowledged the presence of otherchildren. She revisited her under-standing of parallel play and thesocialization of toddlers. Clearly,shared interests were a powerful toolfor bringing children together.

Mirror, MirrorJennifer decided to find ways

extend the toddlers' exploration oftheir images. She was curiouswhether children would play withtheir images of each other andrevisit them without a camcorder.How could the environment bemodified to further children's playwith images?

The teachers in the classroomdiscussed how toddlers often carried

their belongings around the room.They decided to make "travelingmirrors" from Mylar® that could beused by toddlers in multiple ways.Children were soon observedexploring the mirrors. Kerrie lookedat herself, bringing the mirror in soclose that it touched her face.Another child looked at the mirror,and then turned the mirror to showhis reflection to another child.

Jazdia's teacher put two mirrorstogether as though she were holdinga book. Jazdia soon positioned twomirrors in the same way. Mercedes,who was watching Jazdia, put hermirrors together in the same way.The two toddlers examined theirmirrors, looking back and forth.

Later, Jazdia stood on top of twomirrors and exclaimed, "Double, Isee double!" Jennifer asked her,"What's double?" Jadzia replied,"Right here!" pointing to the twomirrors stacked on top of eachother. Jennifer responded, "Jenniferand Jennifer!" Jazdia then went foranother child to show him that iftwo mirrors are stacked on eachother, one sees "double."

The children were also observedstanding on the mirrors with one tod-

Kerrie moves the mirror in close toher face.

A teacher holds up two mirrors like a book. Jazdia positions hermirror the same way.

Mercedes put her mirrors together justlike the teacher and Jazdia did.

children's behavior based on theirdevelopment and are willing toenforce clearly established rules.Accordingly, they demonstratethrough their actions that the wel-fare of children is important andthat the adults in their world areable to be both warm and responsi-ble. They give the implicit messagesthat children's needs are important,as are the needs of others.

In response, children may feelsafe, supported, but also frustrated,and resistant at times. Feelings ofsafety and support are a result of thewarmth and respect elicited by theparent. Occasional feelings of frus-tration and resistance may alsodevelop from having to follow cer-tain rules and guidelines. These feel-ings result from the notion thatwhile there are some rules they mustfollow, they are loved and supportedin their efforts to follow certain rea-sonable expectations. Because theseexpectations are clearly stated andchildren with authoritative care-givers are supported, they generallyfeel capable in their efforts, which isan important component of healthyself-esteem.

In the 30 years since Baumrind's(1971) formulation of these par-enting styles, more attention hasbeen given to the adaptive natureof parenting behavior. For instance,such adaptation takes place whenparents residing in dangerousneighborhoods use very stringentchild management techniques toensure their children's safety(Brody & Flor, 1998).

Brody and Flor (1998) termedthis type of parenting "no nonsenseparenting." It is defined by high lev-els of parental control, greater thanwould be expected from authorita-tive parents, coupled with affection-

ate behaviors, more than would beexpected from authoritarian parents.Accordingly, this type of parentingstyle falls between what Baumrindidentified as authoritative andauthoritarian. This form of parent-ing "communicates to the child thatthe parent is vigilant and concernedfor the child's welfare" (Brody &Flor, p. 805), which should conse-quently nurture healthy self-esteemin childhood and beyond.

Because self-esteem is a socialconstruct, children's interpersonalinteractions with others will influ-ence their self-evaluation. Relation-ships characterized by authoritativeguidance, mutual respect, and coop-eration (Baumrind, 1989; DeVries& Zan, 1994), contribute to feel-ings of self-worth and healthy self-esteem (Buri, Louiselle, Misukanis,& Mueller, 1988). Various behav-iors within the context of such rela-tionships can strengthen children'sacceptance of themselves and others,self-control of their behavior, senseof moral worth, and feelings ofcompetence.

Six specific suggestions for fami-lies and other caregivers to foster thepositive development of children'sself-esteem follow. Although somesuggestions might appear naturaland elementary, they are nonethelessfundamental to the development ofyoung children's self-esteem.

1. Express genuine interest inchildren and engage in jointactivities willingly.

Children can sense when anadult is sincerely interested in theircompany or when they are spendingtime out of duty. Both verbal andnonverbal communication conveysmessages to children as to whetheror not adults are genuine in their

interest in the children and theiractivities.

"Both sociologists and psycholo-gists have found parents' involve-ment with their children's schools tobe important to youth achievementand psychosocial competence"(Brody, Flor, & Gibson, 1999, p.1199). When adults are truly inter-ested in shared activities, their effortsare most productive (DeVries &Zan, 1994) and they communicatethat the child is worthy of their time.

Feeling worthy is an importantdimension of healthy self-esteem(Yabiku et al., 1999). Statementssuch as "The green you painted inyour picture makes me feel like play-ing in the park" sends the messagethat the adult is sincerely interestedin the child's actions. When anadult values a child's contributions,the child is likely to feel a sense ofbelongingness and, consequently, anincrease in healthy self-esteem(Eaton, 1997).

2. Plan age-, skill-, and culturally-appropriate activities that encour-age children to problem solve.

Children benefit from participat-ing in activities for which they canmake real decisions and contribu-tions. Because children can be verycreative in designing solutions andsolving problems, adults shouldmake time to discuss solutions toconcerns and problems with chil-dren (Nelsen, Erwin, & Duffy,1998). When children take respon-sibility by making a contribution,such as helping a teacher or solvinga class dilemma, healthy self-esteemis fostered. For instance, a brokenwater pipe at a laboratory schoolallowed children to problem solveby answering the question, "Howcan we wash our hands before


One toddler developmental mile-stone is that they typically recognizethemselves in pictures between theages of 19 and 24 months, which iswhat Kerrie did. Forman (1999)points out that when young chil-dren view their own images, theyuse a third-person point of refer-ence. Again, that is exactly whatKerrie did.

Forman (1999) refers to the cam-corder as a "tool of the mind" forteachers. By knowing how toddlersdevelop, and observing them inaction, Jennifer and her staff canteach in a way that is responsive tochildren's interests and knowledge.Children's excitement as they sawtheir images on the camera screenled Jennifer to ask herself questions,such as "How do children come tounderstand the representation of selfas an image?"

After reflecting on the learningopportunities that the cameraopened up for teachers, Jenniferdecided to focus her future observa-tions on toddlers' curiosity and theirunderstanding of themselves, theirimage of self.

Watching Children WatchThemselves

The second time thecamera was used, Jenniferwanted to observe chil-dren's interactions with it.What else would they sayor do when they saw theirimages in the screen?

Immediately she notedthat children spent a lot oftime intently watchingthemselves. Her interestin them had apparentlyheightened their interestin themselves!

Jennifer saw that Danny tried tomake sense of his image by touchinghis face as he watched the videoscreen. Danny commented, "I seePablo." He moved the camera andsaid, "I see Kerrie." Turning to Jen-nifer, he asked, "Where is Danny?"

Both teacher and children beganto value the recognition thatemerges from observation of theother. Malaguzzi (1994) speaks tothe value of and need for adults andchildren to be observed and theresulting pleasure that results. Henotes:

When the child is observed, thechild is happy–it's almost anhonor that he is observed by anadult. On the other hand, agood teacher who knows howto observe feels good abouthimself because that personknows that he is able to takesomething from the situation,transform it, and understand itin a new way. (p. 55)

By viewing toddlers as worthy ofrecognition, and as individuals whohave interests, ideas, and theories,teachers enhance their own positiveimage of toddlers.

As the children became morefamiliar with the camera, theyengaged in shared experiences that

created a natural context for form-ing relationships with each other.Instead of a teacher directing thechildren to interact, the excitementof the experience encouraged chil-dren to get their peers involved ontheir own.

Pablo entered camera range,moved in close to the screen, andthen moved back. He repeated thisaction several times. As Pablo playedwith his changing image size, Mer-cedes came along and pointed to thescreen, saying, "There's you andPablo!" Children's actions andwords can provoke questions foreducators about children's under-standing of themselves and others.

Everyone Watches the TapeJennifer decided to play the

videotape for the children andrecord their actions as theywatched themselves. She wonderedhow the children would react toseeing themselves on the tape, and

about how the childrennot shown would respondto the other children'simages. Would the experi-ence spread curiosityamong more of children?

To Jennifer's delight, thetoddlers exhibited a varietyof actions as they viewed thetape. Many stood up andtouched the television screenwhen they saw themselves.Several called out theirfriends' names as theyappeared on screen. One"I see Pablo. I see Kerrie. Where is Danny?"

Children spent a lot oftime intently watching

themselves.

snack?" Their responses included:"We could take all our buckets andgo next door to get water." "Wecould use wet wipes to clean ourhands." "My mother buys water atthe grocery store."

By offering suggestions for solv-ing the problem, children felt con-nected to each other and viewedthemselves as hard workers. Suchtraits are enduring (Verschueren,Marcoen, & Buyck, 1998) and areinternalized, thus promoting healthyself-esteem.

Role-playing is also a greatavenue to help children begin tolearn problem-solving skills. Role-playing enables them to practicebehaviors–both appropriate andinappropriate–in a safe setting(Curry & Johnson, 1990). Boys andgirls in dramatic play centers, forinstance, can be firefighters, astro-nauts, nurses, babies, or farmers!They develop important problem-solving skills by sharing responsibil-ities, clarifying adult roles, and mak-ing group decisions.

3. Use active, reflective listeningto acknowledge children's emo-tional needs.

All feelings are legitimate (Gor-don, 1970). Children communicatetheir feelings through words andactions. Active, reflective listening isbased on the idea that when chil-dren communicate with adults theydo so because they have a need.Active listeners are open andapproachable. Steps in active listen-ing include, but are not limited to:

1) playing the "guessing game"with preverbal infants and tod-dlers (i.e., stating feelings andbehaviors that the child mightbe experiencing),

2) giving names to different feel-

ings (e.g., sadness vs. frustrationvs. anger), and

3) reflecting children's feelingswith statements such as "Itsounds like . . ." or "I hear yousaying . . ." (Gordon).

Statements such as "I know youare angry right now. You wanted toplay with the doll first. It's hard towait but you will have a turn whenApril is finished" communicatestrust and confidence in childrenthat they can deal with their feel-ings. By accepting and respectingchildren's positive and negative feel-ings, adults let children know thatlove is not contingent on an arbi-trary standard (e.g., when the childis being "a good girl", when they"do as they are told").

4. Give meaningful, appreciativefeedback and use realistic wordsof encouragement to children.

Verbal acknowledgement and theuse of value-affirming support havebeen found to be related to healthyself-esteem (Kernis, Brown, & Brody,2000). Feedback on how children

have performed tasks is an importantsource of information about chil-dren's capabilities. A sense of masteryand competence is a significant com-ponent of healthy self-esteem.

Not all feedback and/or praiseare equal, however (Hitz &Driscoll, 1988). Effective feed-back/encouragement, or what hasbeen called "descriptive reinforce-ment" (Hitz & Driscoll), is morevaluable than empty praise and flat-tery, which quickly becomes inef-fective and superfluous. Emptypraise and flattery actually mayharm rather than support childrenby causing dependence, competi-tion, and resentment (Hitz &Driscoll, 1988; Mangin, 1998).

Descriptive responses, on theother hand, help children recognizetheir own accomplishments. Theyhighlight the process instead of justthe outcome (Curry & Johnson,1990). Reinforcement is personal-ized when adults

• use children's names, • choose a variety of encouraging

words, and

Subjects & Predicates

Through role-playing, children develop important problem-solving skills as they shareresponsibilities, clarify adult roles, and make group decisions.


Early childhood educators at Italy's Reggio Emiliahold an image of children as individuals who are compe-tent, capable, and rich with ideas. Rinaldi (2001)explains that adults construct their views of childhoodfrom their society's social and cultural images. These the-ories about childhood then drive educational practices.

One of the fundamental points of the Reggio philos-ophy is an image of the child who experiences theworld, who feels a part of the world right from birth;a child who is full of curiosities, full of desire to live;a child who is full of desire and ability to communi-cate from the start of his or her life; a child who isfully able to create maps for his or her personal, social,cognitive, affective, and symbolic orientation. Becauseof all this, a young child reacts with a competent sys-tem of abilities, learning strategies, and ways of orga-nizing relationships. (Rinaldi, 2001, p. 50)

Teachers who view toddlers as individuals who arefull of ideas and curious with questions and creativitywill closely attend to children's words and actions. Theirinteractions with children closely reflect this image.

Central to the daily work of Reggio Emilia teachers isthe deep belief that teacher and children are co-researchers (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1998).Every day, teachers use observation and documentationto help them identify children's interests, learningprocesses, ideas, theories, and questions.

Reflection and analysis of these observations leads toa better understanding of children's development andlearning. This cyclical process of observation, documen-tation, and reflection informs teachers' decision makingabout curriculum, environment, and interactions withyoung children.

What can teachers in programs in the United Statesdo to fine-tune their observational skills? This articlelooks at the experiences of a teacher seeking to betterunderstand toddlers and their interactions in groups.

Observe With a FocusInspired by the Reggio Emilia approach, Jennifer, a

toddler teacher, regularly observes and records children inher group with a digital camcorder. The camera has a viewscreen so she can see the children while she records whatthey're doing. Later, she transcribes their actions andwords. She and other staff members use her documenta-tion to thoughtfully plan children's learning experiences.

Teachers who are beginning to observe children areoften not sure what to look for. At first, Jennifer simplyexperimented with this more contemporary way ofrecording and analyzing. The focus of her observationsevolved as she increasingly valued children's expressionsand responses.

A First Look...forToddlers and Teachers

When the camera wasintroduced, Jennifer'stoddlers took an imme-diate interest in it, look-ing into the screen toview themselves. Kerrie,a 2-year-old, exclaimed,"There's Kerrie! There'sKerrie again," pointingto the image of herself onthe screen.

Camera in Action! Seeing Toddlers ina Positive Light

Eileen Hughes and Jennifer Lentz

How can teachers focus their observations to document, analyze, andenhance toddlers' actions? These glimpses into one classroom support theimage of toddlers as competent, curious, and full of a sense of wonder!

Eileen Hughes, Ph.D., is Associate Professor in the EarlyChildhood Program, College of Education, University ofAlaska Anchorage.

Jennifer Lentz, B.A., is an Educational Consultant withRural Cap Head Start, Anchorage, Alaska.

Photographs courtesy of the author

"There's Kerrie!There's Kerrie again."

• offer a verbal description of whatthe children are doing to warranteffective praise (Thomas, 1991).

For example, when a child com-pletes a puzzle, statements such as "Isaw how you turned that puzzlepiece to fit just so. You completedit!" are more effective than theoverused "Good job." Feedback thatis specific, genuine, and focused onwhat children are doing results inchildren's increased appreciation oftheir own behaviors and achieve-ments (Hitz & Driscoll, 1988).

When feedback is given is asimportant as how it is given.Although self-esteem is influencedby other's evaluations, a healthy orauthentic sense of self is a feelingthat eventually develops within anindividual. Consequently, when giv-ing feedback, it is important thatone does so judiciously. "Humansare by innate inclination active,curious, and desirous of challenges"(Deci & Ryan, 1992, p. 32). Conse-quently, feedback that is dispensedindiscriminately and without meritmay hinder children's intrinsicmotivation, creativity, and realisticsense of self-esteem (Deci & Ryan;Mangin, 1998).

5. Demonstrate respect for allchildren, family compositions,and cultures.

Having authentic respect for allchildren, including children withdiffering abilities, and for childrenfrom various cultures and races (e.g.,Morrison & Rodgers, 1996) sendsthe message that they are important.

Accepting and learning about chil-dren's similarities, as well as differ-ences, goes far beyond one-timeevents and/or didactic lessons(Curry & Johnson, 1990). Model-ing and encouraging respect for oth-ers will send a resounding messagethat although children and familiesmay be diverse, they all have uniquestrengths to be appreciated.

"Building a child's self-esteem intoday's multicultural classroom mustinclude a sensitivity to each student'slinguistic heritage" (Silicone, 1995,p. 56). One way to demonstrate gen-uine interest in different cultures is tolearn how to say key words in eachlanguage spoken by children andfamilies in the group. Preparing alarge banner to hang in front of theroom with various words for wel-come, for instance, will help establishan inviting classroom for older stu-dents and their families (Silicone).

Because social interactions as wellas academics may be challenging forchildren who are speakers of lan-guages other than English or whohave learning disabilities, it isimportant for teachers to supporttheir academic and social compe-tence (Convoy, Langenbrunner, &Burleson, 1996; Tamaren, 1992).Self-regulation and peer interactionsinfluence and are influenced by self-esteem, so it is important to presentopportunities for all children tomaster specific social skills.

Creating an atmosphere of inclu-sion while recognizing individualdifferences is important in guidingthe development of children'shealthy self-esteem. For instance,when celebrating holidays such asMother's Day, be sensitive to differ-ences in family composition. Recog-nize and validate children who aremothered by adopted mothers,

grandmothers, stepmothers, aunts,fathers, and uncles.

Also, be wary of gender biases. Itis important to be aware of the gen-der information children gatherfrom the environment. Children'sperceptions about themselves andtheir abilities is believed to be assim-ilated into their sense of self-esteem(Ochman, 1996). For example,always calling on males when physi-cal help is needed sends indirectmessages to females that they are notcapable of completing the same task.

While it is commonly expectedthat individuals working with chil-dren will be responsive to various cul-tures and religious groups, it is alsoimportant to remember that assump-tions should not be made about afamily's practices. "Within any cul-tural group–be it ethnic, racial,socioeconomic, or religious–individ-uals and families vary in their beliefsand adherence to the social conven-tions of their community" (Okagaki& Diamond, 2000, p. 78). Conse-quently, wise teachers initiate conver-sations with families to ascertain andunderstand different perspectivesthey may have on such areas as disci-pline and values.

Family participation is also agreat way to help children feel morecomfortable with various culturesand traditions. Invite families to reg-ularly visit the class and bring initems to touch that represent theirmusic, customs, and celebrations.Frequent "tasting parties" are justone great way to share foods fromaround the world!

6. Teach social skills that fosterhealthy self-esteem.

It is likely that children's socialskills and consequent ability tomake friends reflects their self-

When feedback is givenis as important as how it

is given.


in development and learning. Dimen-sions of Early Childhood, 28(4), 25-30.

Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman,G.E. (Eds.). (1998). The hundred lan-guages of children: The Reggio EmiliaApproach–Advanced reflections (2nded.). Greenwich, CT: Ablex.

Katz, L.G., & Chard, S.C. (1991). Engag-ing children's minds: The projectapproach. Stamford, CT: Ablex.

Moran, M.J., & Jarvis, J. (2001). Helpingyoung children develop higher-order

thinking. Young Children, 56(5):31-35.Rosenfield, D., Folger, R., & Adelman,

H.F. (1980). When rewards reflectcompetence: A qualification of theoverjustification effect. Journal of Per-sonality and Social Psychology, 39(3),368-376.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: Thedevelopment of higher mental processes.Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress.

Warash, B., & Kingsbury, D. (1999). The

scrapbook project. In Practical class-room application of language experience:Looking back and looking forward edit-ed by O. Nelson (pp. 59-63). Need-ham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Warash, B., & Workman, M. (1993). Alllife's a stage: Children dictate and reen-act personal experiences. Dimensions ofEarly Childhood, 21(4), 9-12.

Warash, B. (2001). Is it contract day?ACEI Focus on Pre-K & K, 13(3), 4-8.

esteem, and that friendships are ameans to strengthen and refine one'sown self-perception (Curry & John-son, 1990). Correspondingly, lackof social skills is often associatedwith low acceptance in a peer group(e.g., Renshaw & Asher, 1982),which is itself associated with lowself-esteem. Fortunately, socialskill training has been successfulwith children exhibiting difficultiesinteracting with peers (e.g., Factor& Schilmoeller, 1983; Gottman,Gonso, & Schuler, 1976; Zanolli,Paden, & Cox, 1997). Teachingchildren real skills–how to taketurns, how to ask for something,how to enter a group, how to share,and how to respond to someone'sanger (Convoy et al., 1996; Green-berg, 1991; Katz & McClellan,1997)–can help them more effec-tively engage in interpersonal inter-actions with peers.

There are specific steps to mak-ing friends, so it is important foradults to identify children who havedifficulty in particular areas. Wheredoes their need for improvement lie?

• Is it that they always try tochange the rules of the gamewhen they enter a group?Rejected children oftenhave difficulty staying"on task" and may not beadaptable to new situa-tions or new groups ofchildren (Coie, Dodge,& Kupersmidt, 1990)

• Is it that they are unableto share or take turns?Preschoolers are justbeginning to learn tonegotiate and compro-mise, so sharing and tak-ing turns are an ongoingchallenge in the develop-ment of their social skills(Nelsen et al., 1998).

• Do they have faulty interpreta-tions of others' behaviorsand/or intent? Rejected andneglected children often havedistorted interpretations of oth-ers' intentions (Feldman &Dodge, 1987).

Caregivers can creatively offeropportunities for children to workon their social skills without singlingthem out. Organize cooperativeactivities instead of win-lose games,especially with young children whoare often "me firsters and poorlosers" (Rimm, 1997, p. 41).

Similarly, adults who assess theage, skill, and cultural appropriate-ness of each social situation cancoordinate the setting and activitiesaccordingly. Preschool teachers, forinstance, expect a level of egocen-trism (Piaget, 1970) that makes tak-ing turns and sharing difficult.Expecting a young child to share hisfavorite teddy bear with others isinappropriate. Instead, start withobjects and toys that are not as per-sonal to introduce the concept ofsharing and taking turns.

Adults are responsible for assist-ing children to engage in positive

social interactions. For instance,when children exclude others, adultsmust help neglected or rejected chil-dren find a way to reenter the groupand improve peer relations (DeVries& Zan, 1994). Adults must activelyengage children in behaviors thatwill result in positive social interac-tions, and thus support their devel-opment of positive self-esteem.

• • •Self-esteem is socially construct-

ed, so there are numerous opportu-nities to foster healthy self-esteem inyoung children. The strategies pro-posed here target the core compo-nents of self-esteem—feelings ofbelongingness, worth, and compe-tence. Activities that focus on prob-lem solving develop young children'ssense of mastery, while expressinggenuine interest and actively listen-ing to children relay the message thatthey are worthy of attention.Respecting the heterogeneity of the

children illustrates that eachchild plays a significant roleand belongs in the group.Lastly, all of these strategiesfall under the umbrella of anauthoritative and coopera-tive relationship that sets thestage for fostering overallhealthy self-esteem.

ReferencesBaumrind, D. (1971). Current

patterns of parental authori-ty. Developmental PsychologyMonographs 4 (1, Pt. 2), 1-103.

Baumrind, D. (1989). Rearingcompetent children. In W.Damon (Ed.), Child develop-

Nancy P. Alexander

Children's social skills and consequent ability to make friendsreflects their self-esteem. Friendships are a means to strengthenand refine one's self-perception.

Actively engage children in positivesocial interactions.

&SECAHeifer International

Children Are Changing the WorldA Community Service Project of the Southern Early Childhood Association

SECA and Heifer InternationalThe Southern Early Childhood Association and Heifer International have joined

together to sponsor a project to meet the goals of enriching and supporting the global family.

What Are We Asking You to Do?

SECA and Heifer International are offering you several dif-ferent ways to participate:

➀ Raise money to purchase a chick, a cow, or a goat (or otheranimal) and donate those funds to Heifer International.

➁ Incorporate information and materials from Heifer Interna-tional into your curriculum to educate your children aboutthe global family. Heifer International does not requirethat you do a fundraising project in order for you toreceive their materials.

➂ Use the SECA materials developed for prekindergarten chil-dren to supplement your classroom activities. “Join the Glob-al Family” is a resource guide for teachers about animalsand how they support families in different countries.

We’d suggest that you do all three! The curriculum materialsprovided by Heifer International are wonderful, full-color curricu-lum materials and they’re FREE to your program. You don’t haveto do a major fund-raising project. A contribution of $20 to HeiferInternational will buy a flock of 10 to 50 chicks! For a small contri-bution, you can make a big difference to a family in the world.

Tell Us About Your Heifer Project

We’d like to share your Heifer Project with the members ofSECA. We’ll publish articles in both Dimensions and the SECAReporter during the next year about projects that you’ve com-pleted as part of this community service initiative.

To submit an article, please consider the following guidelines:

➀ The article should be 1000 words or less and includeinformation about the type of project, number of chil-dren participating, and the major activities in the project.

➁ We encourage the submission of photos. Photos shouldfollow SECA photo guidelines and photo releases arerequired. You can access a copy of our photo guidelinesat www.southernearlychildhood.org. (Click on theDimensions button.)

➂ Articles and photos can be transmitted electronically [email protected] or by mail to:

Southern Early Childhood AssociationPO Box 55930Little Rock,AR 72215-5930

To order HeiferInternational Resources:

Call (800) 422-0474 and tell the staff which materials youwould like to receive. Specify either the Read to Feed kit orthe Animal Crackers/Fill the Ark materials.

To order SECA Resources:

Call (800) 305-7322 and ask for the Join the GlobalFamily packet.


The paper doll project offeredmany opportunities for socializationthat led to improved communicationskills, too. As children worked ontheir dolls, they were engaged in con-structive conversations of how theymight use the dolls. They used theirpaper dolls in creative ways. Smallgroups of children invented sceneswith the paper dolls as the actors.

Using paper dolls facilitated theimagination of young children to setup pretend scenarios and gave themthe opportunity for more advancedstages of play. The paper dolls weresimple homemade props that set thestage for the children to plan theirown roles. As groups of childrenworked on their dolls, conversationsabout the names they had giventheir dolls arose.

Several children wanted to usetheir paper dolls in a puppet showwith a stage and props. Childrenmade clothes that resembled tradi-tional clothing in Hawaii. They cutslits into the bottom of triangularskirts to replicate grass skirts. Theypretended they were landing on theisland and the paper dolls weredancing and meeting the new peo-ple. Symbolic thinking and the cog-nitive skills that children use inimaginative play such as this arenecessary for continued develop-ment (Bodrova, Leong, Hensen, &Henninger, 2000). Social playenables children to function at ahigher level than their independentlevel of performance.

The paper doll project alsoenabled children to expand on their

knowledge about occupations.When the teacher talked about peo-ple such as firefighters, nurses, doc-tors, and construction workers, cor-responding materials were providedfor children to make appropriateuniforms for the dolls. When thechildren were making firefighteruniforms, many interesting andinformational conversations arose.Elena said that firefirefighters squirtwater from a hose. Dustin said thatthey put water on the fires and 911is for a fire engine. Caroline chimedin with additional information thatfirefighters cool down hot thingsand that they wear hats, boots, jack-ets, and pants. Tommy went on totalk about fire drills.

Encouraging children to revisittheir drawings and creations isextraordinarily valuable in promot-ing their learning (Edwards, Gandi-ni, & Forman, 1998). When chil-dren revisit, they are more likely todevelop mental functions associatedwith higher-order thinking skills(Moran & Jarvis, 2001). Childrenat the Nursery School revisited theirwork and they often revised some-thing on their paper dolls. Some-times they added fingernails tohands or a bracelet to an arm. Somechildren made changes to their orig-inal dolls, while others would makea new cutout form that includedmore detail. These types of behav-iors occurred because children hadthe opportunity to use their cre-ations in various ways.

Families were enthused about theproject, which encouraged the chil-dren's further involvement. Thedolls and dollhouses also were dis-played to families and friends dur-ing an open house at the NurserySchool. Children were excited asthey showed their parents their

accomplishments. It was evidentthat the process was important, andthat the products were somethingthey were very proud of becausethey could use them in their play.

It is easy to recognize the valuesof such a project by noting the chil-dren's increased competency withscissors and recording incidents oftheir more advanced social play.Children's overall accomplishmentswent far beyond these observedmilestones. They made somethingthat they could continue to use.Their dolls were not hung on thewall or placed in a closet for lateradmiration. The paper dolls wererevisited again and again through-out the semester in various playopportunities. They took good careof their paper dolls and respectedtheir materials.

The goal to involve children inmaking a simple old-fashioned toythat could be used in play, and thatin turn would be taken care of, wascertainly accomplished. And thatwas just the beginning of the bene-fits of this contemporary twist on atraditional toy.

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Bodega, E., Leong, D.J., Hensen, R., &Henninger, M. (2000). Imaginative,child-directed play: Leading the way

Social play enables chil-dren to function at a

higher level.

Children took good careof their paper dolls.

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Convoy, M.A., Langenbrunner, M.R., &Burleson, R.B. (1996). Suggestions forenhancing the social behaviors ofpreschoolers with disabilities usingdevelopmentally appropriate practices.Dimensions of Early Childhood, 24(1),9-15.

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