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Using Self-Monitoring Strategies to Address Behavior and Academic Issues

By Rachel L. Loftin, Ashley C. Gibb, and Russell Skiba

Students with behavioral and academic difficulties typically have limited awareness and understanding of their own behavior and its effects on others. Self-monitoring interventions equip students to recognize and keep track of their own behavior (Hoff & DuPaul, 1998; Rhode, Morgan, & Young, 1983). Using these strategies, students can learn to identify and increase positive, pro-social behaviors, the behaviors necessary for success in general education settings. Self-monitoring interventions are among the most flexible, useful, and effective strategies for students with academic and behavioral difficulties (Mitchum, Young, West, & Benyo, 2001). They have demonstrated efficacy for targeting a range of academic abilities (Rock, 2005), self- help skills (Pierce & Schreibman, 1994), behavioral problems (Todd, Horner, & Sugai, 1999), and social behaviors (Strain & Kohler, 1994). Self-monitoring is useful for students from preschool to adulthood and can be taught to individuals at a variety of levels of cognitive functioning. Self-monitoring interventions foster independent functioning, which allows individuals with disabilities to rely less on prompts from others (Koegel, Koegel, Harrower, & Carter, 1999).

This article provides an overview of the five steps involved in planning a self-monitoring intervention:

1. Identify the target behavior. 2. Select/design a self-monitoring system. 3. Choose reinforcers and how the student will earn them. 4. Teach the student to use the system. 5. Fade the role of the adult in the intervention.

The steps will be described through use of a case study that illustrates how self-monitoring techniques can increase appropriate classroom behavior in a general education setting. In the case study, the self-monitoring intervention was implemented with “Scott” (pseudonym), an 11-year-old with an emotional/behavioral disorder (EBD). Prior to intervention, Scott required almost constant verbal reminders

to remain quiet and working. He disrupted the class with frequent, off-topic comments and never raised his hand before speaking. Scott seemed to enjoy the peer attention he received for making such comments. His teacher decided to try a self- monitoring strategy to increase hand-raising and appropriate comments.

Identify Target Behavior

The initial step for developing a behavior plan, such as a self-monitoring intervention, is to identify the target behavior. It is helpful to identify a simple action to measure, such as behavior that occurs during a certain time of day or performance related to a specific subject and to define the unit in observable, measurable terms. Scott’s teacher decided to target only appropriate hand-raising, even though disruptive comments were also an issue. She defined appropriate hand-raising as any instance in which Scott raised his hand and, when called on, offered a comment or question that pertained to the topic currently under discussion. To start, she used the intervention during social studies class.

While undesired behaviors, such as talking out in class or hitting peers, can be the target of successful interventions, the plan will have a more positive tone and may be more willingly accepted by the student if positive behaviors are identified. Teaching the student to engage in the desired behavior in place of an undesirable one will provide a means for obtaining the result the student wants (in Scott’s case, attention from teacher and peers), while reducing or eliminating the undesired behavior (speaking out in class) (Marquis et al., 2000). Rather than having Scott keep track of days when he disrupted class, his teacher elected to have him monitor appropriate hand-raising. With this approach, she was able to reinforce, not punish, his behavior.

Select the Self-Monitoring System

To fit seamlessly into a classroom, home, or work setting, self-monitoring interventions may be structured in a variety of ways. The design of the self-monitoring device is largely determined by the student’s needs and setting in which the intervention will occur. Checklists and charts are common materials used to record behavior, while golfer’s wrist counters and other mechanical devices may also be used. For Scott, a simple chart was adopted. He kept the chart in his desk and made a tally mark in the corresponding box each time he successfully raised his hand and, when called on, offered an appropriate comment in class.

Choose Reinforcers and Criteria

Once the target behavior is defined and the system is selected, reinforcers and criteria for earning them are determined. Some students are very motivated by self-monitoring alone. They enjoy pushing the button on their wrist counter, giving themselves checks, or crossing things off to-do lists. Many students, however, require extra teacher attention or other reinforcers to be successful with a self-monitoring intervention. To ensure success when first beginning an intervention, frequent reinforcement is recommended. Offering a choice among preferred reinforcers increases the likelihood of a successful intervention (Dyer, Dunlap, & Winterling, 1990). Scott enjoyed using school computers but rarely had an opportunity to do so because of a classroom policy about losing computer privileges for disruptive

behavior. Scott and his teacher decided that extra computer time with a peer would be an appropriate and motivating reinforcer for successful participation in class. Extra time with a friend also allowed Scott to receive peer attention that he tried to gain when talking out in class.

Although it was not used for Scott’s intervention, many self-monitoring interventions include self-recruited praise, or teaching the student to bring his data to a teacher or other adult to earn positive attention or other reinforcement. For example, in the classroom a student may use a system in which she gives herself a check for every five minutes she spends on-task. When she has four checks, she brings the paper to her teacher and is complimented on work well done. Self-recruited praise is especially useful for students whose disruptive behavior is used to gain attention from teachers. However, it is important to determine that a student finds praise reinforcing. Many students, particularly adolescents, may prefer not to receive overt teacher attention; using teacher attention in such a situation as a reward could actually worsen behavior.

Teach the Student to Use the System

Scott met with his teacher to discuss the target behavior and the self-monitoring system. After she defined the system, he had an opportunity to ask questions about the new arrangements. Together, teacher and student discussed potential problems with the intervention and came to an agreement about how to handle problems that might arise. When Scott’s teacher was confident that he understood the intervention, she described several examples and non-examples and asked Scott whether they would count as appropriate hand-raising. This collaboration in the planning stages helps prevent potential problems that can occur when the adult and child disagree about use of the system. Student involvement in planning may also increase student investment in the intervention.

Once a system is in place, the teacher compares the student’s information with his or her own observations of the behavior and provides feedback on the accuracy of data collection. Practice sessions can provide an opportunity for teacher and student to gain reliability with the system. When students consistently self-monitor with great accuracy, the teacher can end reliability checks. For Scott, practice checks with the teacher occurred daily for four days. At that time, he was over 90% reliable and began to use the system independently.

Fade Prompts and Reinforcers

Gradually, reinforcers should be faded and the expectations for behavior raised. As he was successful with independently and accurately recording behavior, Scott’s teacher stopped reminding him to use his system and set higher goals for earning computer time with his friends. By the end of the school year, Scott was on the same computer plan as other students in the class, and his teacher no longer checked his planner to make sure he accurately self-monitored. When work becomes more difficult or behavioral expectations shift, it may be helpful to provide more assistance or reinforcement. Promoting the maximum level of independence at which the student can be successful is the primary goal.

Conclusions

Self-monitoring strategies are individualized plans used to increase independent functioning in academic, behavioral, self-help, and social areas. Rather than focusing on reducing a student’s undesired behavior, self-monitoring strategies develop skills that lead to an increase in appropriate behavior. When self-monitoring skills increase, corresponding reductions in undesired behaviors often occur, even without direct intervention (Dunlap, Clarke, Jackson, Wright, 1995; Koegel, Koegel, Harrower, & Carter, 1999). This collateral behavior change allows teachers and parents to address multiple behaviors with one efficient intervention.

For Scott, self-monitoring led to an increase in hand-raising and appropriate class participation and a decrease in talking out in class. As a result, his teacher spent less time disciplining him. When Scott’s class participation improved, his academic performance improved as well. This collateral gain is a clear illustration of the efficiency of the self-monitoring intervention. Increasing the use of one skill, Scott’s teacher was able to change multiple behaviors: participation, talking out, and academic performance.

References

Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., Jackson, M., & Wright, S. (1995). Self-monitoring of classroom behaviors with students exhibiting emotional and behavioral challenges. School Psychology Quarterly, 10, 165-177.

Dyer, K., Dunlap, G., & Winterling, V. (1990). Effects of choice making on the serious problem behaviors of students with severe handicaps. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 515-524.

Hoff, K. E., & DuPaul, G. J. (1998). Reducing disruptive behavior in general education classrooms: The use of self-management strategies. School Psychology Review, 27, 290-303.

Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Harrower, J. K., & Carter, C.M. (1999). Pivotal response intervention 1: Overview of approach. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 175-185.

Marquis, J. G., Horner, R. H., Carr, E. G., Turnbull, A. P., Thompson, M., Behrens, G. A., et al. (2000). A meta-analysis of positive behavioral support. In R. Gersten, E. P. Schiller, & S. Vaughn (Eds.), Contemporary special education research: Syntheses of the knowledge base on critical instructional issues. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Mitchum, K. J., Young, K. R., West, R. P., & Benyo, J. (2001). CSPASM: A classwide peer assisted self-management program for general education classrooms. Education and Treatment of Children, 24, 111-140.

Pierce, K. L., & Schreibman, L. (1994). Teaching daily living skills to children with autism in unsupervised settings through pictorial self-management. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 471-481.

Rhode, G., Morgan, D. P., & Young, K. R. (1983). Generalization and maintenance of treatment gains of behaviorally handicapped students from resource rooms to regular

classrooms using self-evaluation procedures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 16, 171-188.

Rock, M. L. (2005). Use of strategic self-monitoring to enhance academic engagement, productivity, and accuracy of students with and without exceptionalities. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7, 3-17.

Strain, P. S., & Kohler, F. W. (1994). Teaching preschool students with autism to self monitor their social interactions: An analysis of results in home and school settings. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, 2, 78-89.

Todd, A. W., Horner, R. H., & Sugai, G. (1999). Effects of self-monitoring and self-recruited praise on problem behavior, academic engagement, and work completion in a typical classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1, 66-76.

Rachel L. Loftin and Ashley C. Gibb are doctoral students, and Russell J. Skiba is a professor, all in the Counseling and Educational Psychology Department, Indiana University, Bloomington. They may be reached at 812/856-8300 or rloftin@indiana.edu.

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Implementing Self-Regulation and Self-Monitoring in the Classroom

What is Self-Regulation?

“Teachers, and particularly teachers of students with emotional/behavioral disorders, are

increasingly faced with challenges, regarding the instruction and management of their

students" Sutherland, 2002, p. 110). Singer and Bashir (1999) state in their article that self-

regulation is considered a “meta” construct that is specifically defined as “a set of behaviors

that are used flexibly to guide, monitor, and direct the success of one’s performance" Singer &

Bashir, 1999, p.265). They support that self-regulation is co-constructed with social

interactions. Therefore, self-regulation occurs within settings in which a student is engaged

in task performance. It is also a result of personal process, the environment, and one’s own

behaviors. The process of self-regulation includes three sub-processes: self-monitoring,

self-evaluation, and behavioral adjustment. Self-regulation can be seen in how students

prepare for learning, stay engaged in tasks, and differ their problem solving approaches.

What is Self-Monitoring?

“Self-Monitoring is the process of having individuals record data regarding their own

behavior for the purpose of changing its rate” (Coleman& Webber, 2002, p.103). Self-

Monitoring can contribute to the success of staying on task and task completion during

reading, writing, and math. Students are taught the skills necessary to observe their own

behavior and record if a targeted behavior occurred. There are a number of ways students

can record their data. Some ways include: 1) check marks 2) hash marks 3) answering

yes and no questions 4) circling numbers and 5) coloring boxes in on a grid. Direct

instruction, modeling, and practice and feedback are generally used to teach students self-

monitoring procedures. “Research indicates that self-monitoring has consistently produced

outcomes of improved academic performance and classroom behavior” (Coleman& Webber,

2002, p.106). The purpose of the information given in this paper is to: 1) give teachers some

evidence and examples of how and why these self-monitoring and self-regulation

interventions work. 2) give teachers information about what interventions should include 3)

how to train students in these skills and 4) teacher implications. 

Comparing self-monitoring and group monitoring

The ability to interact with peers is a basic skill (Gumpel and Golan, 2000). According

to Gumpel and Golan, social skills are shaped by ones environment. They examined an

alternative model to social skills and social competence. They compared the use of two

behavioral monitoring systems: 1) self-monitoring and 2) group monitoring while playing

board games. Self-monitoring skills fall under the general rubric of self-management.

They assessed whether socially inappropriate behaviors were absent do to the fact that they

were lacking the social skills or whether training in the behavioral monitoring skills would

bring out the skills from the person’s repertoire. They came to the conclusion that using

methods that would increase self-regulation, the social skills training could be conducted

successfully. The two types of training that they used were self-recording and group

monitoring. They found that self-recording increased appropriate behaviors and decreased

inappropriate behaviors. Gumpel and Golan believed that once students were trained to

attend to their behavior that the skills would maintain. They also accept that the researchers

in the field of emotional behavioral disorders and learning disabilities have focused on these

metacognitive skills to improved academic achievement. 

Self-Monitoring Plus Encouragement

Hutchinson, Murdock , Williamson, and Cronin (2000), found the effects of using

encouragement and self-monitoring together as an intervention as within the study of a six -

year old African American boy named George, who was identified as emotionally disturbed

and behavior disordered and was having problems in his classroom. The problems occurred

during the boy’s advanced reading group, which took place an hour each day. The teacher

described the boy as being too hyper and wanted to take him out of the group. The teacher

described his disruptive behaviors as: 1) taking 2-3 minutes to start an activity after she

already asked him, 2) generally being off task, 3) hitting and kicking his peers, and 4) talking

and singing aloud out of his seat. The intervention required teaching George the use of the

self-management technique of self-monitoring, and combining this with encouragement by

using points and praise. Teacher praise was defined as, the teacher’s verbal approval of his

behaviors. For example the teacher may say, “I am proud of you. You are a great kid,

George!” George was given one point for each of his non-disruptive behavior during reading

hour. George’s grandmother redeemed his points. George filled out a self-recording form

that was established as a letter to his grandmother. He checked off each of the tasks that he

successfully completed that day during reading hour. For each box that he checked per day,

he received a point. The researcher’s data showed that George’s off task behaviors were

better during the intervention of using self-monitoring and encouragement from the teacher.

A factor that affects the academic development of students with emotional/behavioral

disorders is the interactions between the students and their teachers (Sutherland, 2000). It is

unfortunate that studies show that although teacher encouragement is effective for increasing

academic and social outcomes, teachers rarely use it in their classrooms. By using self-

monitoring plus encouragement as a direct intervention, teachers will increase the number of

desired outcomes. 

Using Self-regulation As An Intervention in Communication Skills

Singer and Bashir (1999) designed a more self-regulated approach in dealing with

oral and written communication. They implemented the intervention on George, a sixteen

year old, Junior in high school with some speech-language evaluation. Singer and Bashir feel

that strategies for speaking and writing are correlated with the three sub-processes of self-

regulation. George could learn to recognize the feelings that he experienced when dealing

with ineffective verbal expression such as anxiety, louder volume, and pitch. George

employed self-reflection and self-evaluation strategies. Singer and Bashir encouraged him to

apply his flexibility. This meant that George could select a strategy based on the demands of

the situation and his experiences at the time, as a speaker. George’s ability to become more

self-regulated progressed rapidly. By the end of the school year he was experiencing

success with his oral and written expression in both English and History. George’s

expression was relaxed, fluent, organized, coherent, and intelligent. 

The Good Student Game

“The Good Student Game is an effective classroom management tool appropriate

for meeting the diverse needs of today’s classroom teachers”(Babyak, Luze, & Kamps, 2000,

p.216). The Good Student game allows the students to self- monitor. Teachers who are

already feel the classroom pressures may prefer student self-monitoring instead of teacher

self-monitoring. The Good Student Game provides opportunities for student to assess their

own behavior. This game is designed for elementary classrooms during independent work

time. Teachers should play this game at least once per day. The classroom is divided into

teams, when a student breaks a rule the teacher puts a mark under the team’s name. Any

team with fewer marks than was established at the beginning receives rein forcers. Teachers

can make this game more successful by: making sure that target behaviors are stated,

reasonable goals are set, there are clear start and finish times, appropriate intervals are used,

and the teacher provides feedback to the students. 

Training Students To Use These Skills

Training children in self-monitoring can be done in Middle School as part of their

regular curriculum leading to improvements in their use of these processes (Zimmerman,

1996). Students can regulate greater control over how learning situations turn out. A study

done by Nicaise and Gettinger (1994 sited in Zimmerman 1996) involved how a

psychologist’s intervention involving four social cognitive phases of self-regulation could be

used as a tool to teach reading strategies to four students experiencing comprehension

problems. Students met with an instructor who modeled four comprehension strategies:

predicting what is likely to happen next in the text, clarifying difficulties occurring during

reading, summarizing, and setting reading goals. All four participants gained from the

intervention. The students found the intervention to be effective. The results show that when

goals are set and strategies are taught through modeling and then monitored under the

student’s perceptions and conditions, their enjoyment regarding the task was enhanced. 

Benefits of Using Self-monitoring and Self-regulation

Research has documented improved outcomes for self-management components

including: self-instruction, self-reinforcement, and self-monitoring (McDougall, 1998).

Individual studies have varied improved outcomes in: time-on-task, on-task behavior,

classroom disruptions, and independent performance. Researchers observed and cited

benefits for teaching students self-management processes in general and special education

settings, these included: increase in students self-reliance, decreasing students reliance on

parents, teachers, and care takers and, allowing teachers to spend less time on classroom

management and more on instructional tasks. 

Before Implementing These Iterventions

There are things that teachers need to know before implementing an intervention.

The most important issue is that they must understand the student’s abilities. A student

interview should be conducted to gain information about problems that the student has with

communication and academic performance. Present these problems with the student. Use

the information that is obtained by the assessments to help the student acknowledge the

influence of different settings. Discuss the student’s strengths. Assist the student in

recognizing how the intervention will enhance his or her daily performance. Have the student

commit to achieving the goals set for the intervention (Singer and Bashir, 1999). 

Components of an Intervention

There are five components to an intervention (Singer & Bashir, 1999). 1) the goals

need to be designed to address self-regulatory and strategic needs of the student 2) goals

should not be isolated from the day-to-day demands for communication and learning that the

students encounter 3) help the students understand where, when, why, and how to use the

strategies and teach the students to recognize which tasks require self-regulatory behaviors

4) support the students to find strategies that help fit their own style and needs 5) set up

conferences with them in order to appraise their growth and set goals according to these

growths.

SPIN- A teacher implication

With any intervention, teachers need to monitor the impact on the behaviors that were

targeted. Curriculum based assessment (CBA) is one way of monitoring the students

performance (King-Sears & Bonfils, 1999).. CBA consists of frequently collected data

graphically displayed providing a visual decision, allowing the teacher to indicate whether the

intervention is working or not. SPIN was a sequence that was described by King-Sears and

Bonfils used as a self-management instruction sequence.  

The steps in SPIN include: selecting the student’s behavior that is targeted for self-

management, prepare materials and lesson plans for self-management, then instruct the

student using a 10-step process, and note the effectiveness.

Step one in the 10 step process involves identifying examples of the targeted behavior. In

step two the benefits of using self-management are described. Step three requires students

to participate in practicing the target behavior. In step four the self-management device is

shown to the student for the first time. Step five involves the teacher modeling how to use the

self-management device. Step six provides guided practice within role-playing situations. In

step seven the student’s mastery of the use of the self-management device is assessed. In

step eight students are reminded of both the specific class period in which they would begin

using the device and the date when they would begin using the device. Step nine involves

the independent use of the device in the actual setting. And in step ten the teacher assesses

if the students are using the device accurately.

Conclusion-Final Note For Teachers

It is important for teachers to realize what self-regulation and self-monitoring are. It

is also important for them to realize how they can use these in their classrooms as

interventions. Teachers should know about training their students in these skills. It is

important for teachers to be able to collect data on whether or not their chosen interventions

are producing successful outcomes.

References 

Babyak, A.E., Luze, G.J., & Kamps, D.M. (2000). The good student game: behavior

management for diverse classrooms. Intervention in School and Clinic, 25,

216-223.

Byres, J.P., Miller, D.C., & Reynolds, M. (1999). Learning to make good decisions: a

self-regulation perspective. Child Development, 70, 1121-1140.

Fulk, B.M., Brigham, F.J., & Lohman, D.A. (1998). Motivation and self-regulation.

Remedial and Special Education, 19, 300-309.

Gumpel, T.P., & Golan, H. (2000). Teaching game-playing social skills using a self-

monitoring treatment package. Psychology in the Schools, 37, 253-260.

Hutchinson, S.W., Murdock, J.Y., Williamson, R.D., & Corin, M.E. (2000), Self-

recording plus encouragement equals improved behavior. The Council for

Exceptional Children, 3, 54-58.

King-Sears, M.E., & Bonfils, K.A. (1999). Self-management instruction for middle

cchool ctudents with LD and ED. Intervention in School and Clinic, 35, 96-107.

McDougall, D. (1998). Research on self-management techniques used by students

with disabilities in general education settings. Remedial and Special

Education, 19, 310-320.

Singer, B.D., & Bashir, A.S. (1999). What are executive functions and self-regulation

and what do they have to do with language-learning disorders?. Language,Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 30, 265-273.

Sutherland, K.S. (2000). Promoting positive between teachers and students with

emotional/behavioral disorders. Preventing School Failure, 44, 110-114.

Coleman, M.C., and Webber, J. (2002). Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. Boston,

MA: Person Education Company.

Zimmerman, B.J. (1996). Enhancing student’s academic and health functioning: a

self-regulatory perspective. School Psychology Quarterly, 11, 47-66.

 

 

Teaching Students to Self-Monitor Their Academic & Behavioral Performance

The ability of a student to self-monitor his or her performance is a natural step toward becoming independent, which can only happen when students take responsibility for their own behavior and essentially become “agents of change” (Hanson, 1996; Porter, 2002; Rutherford, Quinn, & Mathur, 1996). Self-monitoring is defined as the practice

of observing and recording one’s own academic and social behaviors (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2000; Rutherford, Quinn, & Mathur, 1996; Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2000). Being able to self-monitor reflects a shift from reinforcement by others to self-reinforcement of appropriate behavior (Hanson, 1996). There are a number of systems of self-recording and self-monitoring procedures that stem from social skills and behavior management programs; however, self-monitoring can also be used effectively with academics (Hanson, 1996; Rutherford, Quinn, & Mathur, 1996). Furthermore, self-monitoring can be used both to assess where students are functioning academically and behaviorally and to improve academic or behavioral performance (Carr & Punzo, 1993; Rutherford, Quinn, & Mathur, 1996).

Self-monitoring is a strategy that can be used with students of all ages and disabilities (DiGangi, Maag, & Rutherford, 1991), is relatively unobtrusive, appeals to students, and is inexpensive and relatively quick to implement (Carr & Punzo, 1993). Self-monitoring has been shown to be effective in increasing more appropriate behaviors, increasing on-task behavior in the classroom, boosting completion of homework assignments, improving both academic performance and social skills, and reducing disruptive behaviors (Blick, & Test, 1987; Carr & Punzo, 1993; Hallahan & Kauffman, 2000; Rutherford, Quinn, & Mathur, 1996; Schunk, 1997; Smith, 2002; Trammel, Schloss, & Alper, 1994). In addition, self-monitoring actively engages the student as a participant in improving his or her behavior (Blick & Test, 1987), thereby increasing his or her investment in the process. Finally, self-monitoring techniques is an effective tool for generalizing and maintaining skills over time, because students can perform them any time and in any setting without needing an adult to help them (Blick & Test, 1987; Rutherford, Quinn, & Mathur, 1996). However, students first need to be taught how to self-monitor their academic and social behaviors.

To be successful self-monitors, students need to learn to keep track of what they are doing and how they are thinking so they can adjust their behaviors and thoughts in order to meet goals or complete tasks (Porter, 2002; Smith, 2002). The first step in teaching students to monitor themselves is to select and clearly define a target behavior (Carr & Punzo, 1993; Stainback & Stainback, 1980; Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2000). Next, a student or observer records instances of the behavior to provide evidence of the problem and its frequency (Carr & Punzo, 1993; Schunk, 1997; Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2000). The next step is to set learning and performance goals and identify consequences for meeting or failing to meet their goals (Schunk, 1997; Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2000). There is then a cognitive component to self-monitoring behavior that requires students to talk themselves through a set of instructions (self-talk) for completing a task or to ask themselves a question or series of questions about their feelings or behaviors (Brophy, 1996; Kamps & Kay, 2002; Porter, 2002; Smith, 2002). If a student is monitoring his or her on-task behavior, for example, he or she may ask “Am I on task?” when a timer goes off and tally the answer on a recording sheet. As the student learns to monitor his or her performance on a regular basis, the timer is phased out (Blick & Test, 1987). Students can also be taught to ask themselves questions about their academic learning and performance, such as asking, “How many math problems have I completed in the last 10 minutes? How many are correct?” (Carr & Punzo, 1993). If the goal is to monitor reading comprehension, a student might be taught to ask, “What am I studying this passage for? What is the main idea of this paragraph?” (Wong, 1986). Students will need to practice repeatedly each of these steps and then implement them

in actual social or academic situations. These steps can either be taught by a teacher (Schunk, 1997; Smith, 2002) or with the assistance of peers (Gilberts, 2000). Students must be taught to self-evaluate their success each day (Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2000). The probability of the internalization of these skills increases if the student participates in a structured and predictable school environment. Finally, the teacher should be prepared to periodically introduce a scaled-down version of the original instruction, if there is a decline in these skills.

To make self-monitoring most effective, strategies should be used constantly and overtly at first and then faded to less frequent use and more subtle use across time (Stainback & Stainback, 1980). It is also important to ensure that students have learned the skills and behaviors that teachers want them to perform as they are using the self-monitoring strategies. To help maintain and generalize positive behavioral changes, self-monitoring should be combined with methods that allow students to evaluate themselves against their earlier performance and to reinforce themselves for their successes (Goldstein, Harootunian, & Conoley, 1994; Hallahan & Kauffman, 2000; Porter, 2002; Schunk, 1997; Smith, 2002; Stainback & Stainback, 1980; Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2000). Cognitive strategies such as “self-talk” (e.g. “hey—good job” or “I knew I could do it”) are especially useful.

Catherine Hoffman Kaser, M.A.

References and Additional Sources of Information

Blick, D. W., & Test, D. W. (1987). Effects of self-recording on high-school students’ on-task behavior. Learning Disability Quarterly, 10(3), 203-213.

Brophy, J. (1996). Teaching problem students. New York: The Guilford Press.

Carr, S. C., & Punzo, R. P. (1993). The effects of self-monitoring of academic accuracy and productivity on the performance of students with behavioral disorders. Behavior Disorders, 18(4), 241-50.

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