seminar 2012, recently edited
TRANSCRIPT
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THE ROLE OF
THE ROLE OF AGRO FORESTRY SYSTEMS FOR CARBON SEQUESTERATION
MESFIN TSEGAYE
GRADUATE SEMINAR
SUBMITTED TO SCHOOL OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES
Programme: Agroforestry and Soil Management
HAWASSA UNIVERSITY
WONDO GENET COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE COURSE
GRADUATE SEMINAR
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MARCH, 2012
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents ..........................................................................................................................iAcronyms and Abbreviations ........................................................................................................iWhy Carbon sequestration is important? ..................................................................................1Carbon sequestration: Conceptual frame works in view of agro forestry systems ...................5
Below and above ground biomass potential of Agroforestry systems for Carbon Sequestration . 9Carbon sequestration in above ground biomass ......................................................................9Carbon sequestration in below ground biomass ....................................................................10
Comparative advantages of Agro forestry systems for carbon sequestration ............................ 11Conclusion .................................................................................................................................16References .................................................................................................................................17
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
CIFOR Centre for International Forestry Research
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GHG Green House Gases
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change
Mg Mega Gram
Mt Mega Ton
NMA National Meteorological Agency
NMSA National Meteorological Services Agency
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's
SOC Soil Organic Carbon
SOM Soil Organic Matter
Tg Tera gram
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1. Introduction
To date, searching cost effective methods to sequester carbon is emerging as a major
international policy goal in the context of increasing concerns about global climate change.
Hence, the role of Agroforestry as an option for carbon sequestration gets attention because of
carbon storage potential in its multiple plant species and soil as well as its applicability in
agricultural lands and in reforestation. The potential seems remarkable; however, it has not yet
been adequately documented and properly exploited. If Agroforestry systems are properly
designed and managed, it could be effective for sequestering carbon. Like in other land-use
systems, the extent of C sequestration will depend on the amounts of C in standing biomass,
recalcitrant C remaining in the soil, and C sequestered in wood products (Montagnini and Nair,
2004).
Why Carbon sequestration is important?
Obviously, the entire scientific community agrees that global Warming is really taking place
right now, and has taken centre stage in the international arena over the last decade and it is
now becoming a serious, perhaps even a thorniest societal issue and has produced profound
changes in many earth systems and consequently to biological and human activities that are
sensitive to the climate (IPCC, 2007; Nordhaus, 2007). This is due to increase in temperature of
the earths near-surface air and oceans in recent decades; the major reason for this is increase in
atmospheric concentrations of the so-called greenhouse gases (GHGs). More importantly, CO2
is the principal one causing this threat as a result of human activities such as burning of fossil
fuels (carbon-based) fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas and deforestation (IPCC, 2007).
NOAAs Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI), which tracks changes in radiative forcing
from greenhouse gases over time, shows that radiative forcing from greenhouse gases has
increased 21.5% since 1990 as of 2006. Much of the increase (63%) has resulted from the
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contribution of CO2. The contribution to radiative forcing by CH4 and CFCs has been nearly
constant or declining, respectively, in recent years. Almost all of the increase is due to human
activities (IPCC, 2007).
Human induced climate change due to emission of greenhouse gases is one of the major
environmental problems of the 21st century. It is a frightening challenge due to several factors:
Climate change will have impacts on human health, terrestrial and aquatic ecological systems,
and socio-economic systems (e.g. agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and water resources (IPCC,
2001b).
Due to climate change, the agricultural sector in developing countries has been among the most
vulnerable. At the same time, climate change is yet an additional threat to urgent rural
development demands including food security improvement, poverty reduction and provision
of an adequate standard of living for growing populations. Furthermore, the impact of climate
change is also affecting developing countries more severely than developed countries because
of their generally low adaptive capacities (IPCC, 2003).
Developing countries in general and least developed countries like Ethiopia in particular are
more vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate variability and change. For example, due to
the effect of climate, Ethiopia has experienced both dry and wet years over the last fifty five 55
years. Years like 1952, 1959, 1965, 1972, 1973, 1978, 1984, 1991, 1994, 1999 and 2002 were
dry while 1958, 1961, 1964, 1967, 1968, 1977, 1993, 1996, 1998 and 2006 were wet years.
Studies made at NMA have shown that there is a link between ElNino and LaNina Phenomena
and Ethiopian rainfall (Haile, T., 1988, Korecha, D., and Barnston, A.G, 2007, Gissila, T. etal,
2004). With regard to temperature changes, studies revealed that there has been a warming
trend in the annual minimum temperature over the past 55 years. It has been increasing by
about 0.37 0 C every ten years.
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For the IPCC mid-range (A1B) emission scenario, in Ethiopia the mean annual temperature
will increase in the range of 0.9 -1.1 C by 2030, in the range of 1.7 - 2.1 C by 2050 and in the
range of 2.7-3.4 C by 2080 over Ethiopia compared to the 1961-1990 normal. A small
increase in annual precipitation is also expected over the country.
Ethiopia is highly vulnerable to drought. Most of the country is prone to drought (NMSA,
1996, Degefu, W., 1987). Drought is the single most important climate related natural hazard
impacting the country from time to time. Drought occurs anywhere in the world but its
damage is not as severe as in Africa in general and in Ethiopia in particular. Due to low
adaptive capacity. Recurrent drought events in the past have resulted in huge loss of life and
property as well as migration of people. Furthermore, the other climate related hazards that
affect Ethiopia from time to time are flash and seasonal river floods. Areas in the Afar Region
along the Awash River, in the Somali Region along the Wabi Shebele River and in the
Gambela Region along the Baro-Akobo River, in the Southern Region along the Oomo-Gibe
River, Bahirdar Zuria and Fogera areas along the Abbay River in the Amhara Region are prone
to seasonal river floods (Endalkchew, B, etal, 2004).
The major adverse impacts of climate variability in Ethiopia include:-.
Food insecurity arising from occurrences of droughts and floods;
Outbreak of diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, water borne diseases (such as cholera,
Dysentery) associated with floods and respiratory diseases associated with droughts;
Land degradation due to heavy rainfall;
Damage to communication, road and other infrastructure by floods;
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Major floods which caused loss of life and property occurred in different parts of the country in
1988, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996 and 2006. For example in the 2006 main rainy season (June-
September), flood caused the following disasters (NMA, 2006):
More than 250 people died, about 250 people were unaccounted for and more than 10,000
People became homeless. Due to the Diredawa flood, more than 364 people died, and more
than 6000 people were displaced due to flooding of about 14 villages in South Omo.
More than 16,000 people were displaced in West Shewa.
Similar situations also occurred over Afar, Western Tigray, Gambella Zuria and the low lying
areas of Lake Tana.
To date, Climate change is the burning issue, for example Schmidt et al., (2010) indicated that
it is caused by the obvious gases such as that water vapour accounts for about 50% of the
Earth's greenhouse effect, with clouds contributing 25%, carbon dioxide 20%, and the minor
greenhouse gases (GHGs) and aerosols accounting for the remaining 5%.
Since carbon dioxide accounts for 80% of the non-condensing GHG forcing in the current
climate atmosphere, carbon dioxide therefore qualifies as a major GHG which is being the
principal control knob that governs the temperature of Earth. The increasing carbon emissions
into the atmosphere have drastically modified water and energy balance on the earth and
peoples livelihood (IPCC, 2000, 2001; Houghton, 2002, 2003, 2005).
IPCC (2007) reported that the average surface temperature of the Earth is likely to increase by
1.1-6.4C by the end of the 21st century, relative to 1980-1990, with a best estimate of 3.2 to
1.8-4.0C. The average rate of warming over each inhabited continent is very likely to be at
least twice as large as that experienced during the 20th century.
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From the aforementioned discussions it is obvious to realize that, Humans are at a difficult
crossroad. Carbon dioxide is the lifeblood of civilization. It is also the direct cause for climate
disaster. Consequently, it needs an urgent way out of this climate disaster through direct human
intervention to enhance the capacity of carbon sinks (carbon sequestration) to absorb GHGs,
especially CO2 from the atmosphere.
In this regard, agro forestry plays it part for carbon sequestration. However, the long term
solution for climate change is neither a one-off intervention nor a stand-alone activity.
Keeping this in mind, the central theme of this review is to show the role of agro forestry for
carbon sequestration by undertaking literature reviews.
Carbon sequestration: Conceptual frame works in view of agro forestry systems
Agro forestry is a sustainable land use system, and encompasses a wide range of working trees.
It includes: fertilizer trees for land regeneration, soil health and food security; fruit trees for
nutrition and income; fodder trees that improve smallholder livestock production; timber and
fuel wood trees for shelter and energy; medicinal trees to combat disease, particularly where
there is no pharmacy; and trees that produce gums, resins or latex products (Garrity, 2004).
Interest in agro forestry in line with climate change has increased since a report by the Inter-
Centre Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2001). Consequent to this, land use change from
annual crops to agroforestry is one of the most promising approaches for sequestering carbon
through CDM.
Carbon sequestration potential of land-use systems, including agroforestry deals the
fundamental biological processes of photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition. As Nair
(2003) carbon sequestration is the difference between carbon gained by photosynthesis and
carbon lost or released by respiration of all components of the ecosystem. Carbon (C)
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sequestration is also the mechanisms to reduce CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and
depositing it in a reservoir. Consequently, the role of trees is so immense to capture and store
atmospheric CO2 in vegetation, soils, and biomass products (Malhi et al., 2008; Ning Zeng,
2008).
Besides, Carbon sequestration involves the net removal of CO2 from atmosphere and storage in
long-lived pools of C. Such pools include the aboveground plant biomass; belowground
biomass such as roots, soil microorganisms, and the relatively stable forms of organic and
inorganic C in soils and deeper subsurface environments, and the durable products derived
from biomass (e.g., timber).
Kumar et al., (2009) reported that Carbon sequestration, i.e. capturing and securing carbon that
would otherwise be emitted and remain in the atmosphere might be a suitable alternative to
control atmospheric emission of carbon. Plants capture CO2 during photosynthesis and
transform it to sugar and subsequently to dead organic matter. As the trees grow, they sequester
carbon in their tissues, and as the amount of tree biomass increases, the increase in atmospheric
CO2 is mitigated.
Houghton et al. (1998) conceptually, trees are considered as a terrestrial carbon sinks. As trees
are the integral components of agroforestry, they can contribute a lot for Carbon sequestration.
Dixon (1995) reported that there are two primary beneficial attributes of agroforestry systems
in terms of C sequestration: (1) direct near-term C storage (decades to centuries) in trees and
soils; and (2) a potential to offset immediate greenhouse gas emissions associated with
deforestation and subsequent shifting cultivation. Accordingly, some projections have been
made on the role of agroforestry in reducing the C emission from tropical deforestation.
According to his report, at a global scale, it has been estimated that agroforestry systems could
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be implemented on 585 to 1275 106 hectares of technically suitable land, and these systems
could store 12 to 228 Mg C ha1 under the prevalent climatic and edaphic conditions.
Watson et al.( 2000) also indicated that the rates of C sequestration in the tropics for
smallholder agroforestry systems ranging from 1.5 to 3.5 Mg C ha1 yr 1 and can be
projected to tripling of C stocks in a twenty-year period, to 70 Mg C ha1.
Kursten (2000) reported that incorporating trees in agricultural production systems like in agro
forestry increase the amount of carbon stored in lands serve for agriculture, at the same time
allowing for the growing of food crops. C sequestration can be estimated based on long-term
carbon storage potential of all components in the system including detritus, soil, and forest
products.
The above discussions can be cemented by the following points: (i) Soil fertility may be a
limiting factor in realizing carbon sequestration potential of planted forests; (ii) mixed stand of
plants might be more efficient than sole stands in carbon sequestration; and (iii) C sequestration
estimates should be based on a holistic view of the long-term carbon storage potential of all
components in the system. Thus, agroforestry outweigh in all above respects than other land
use systems.
Kumaret al., (2009) reported that agro forestry sector has received recent attention for having
the potential to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect.
Average carbon storage by agroforestry practices has been estimated to be 9, 21, 50, and 63 Mg
C ha1 in semiarid, sub-humid, humid, and temperate regions (Schroeder, 1994).
Tree-based land-use systems sequester CO2 through the C stored in their biomass (CIFOR,
2000; Roshetko et al, 2008).
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As reported by different scholars Land-Use Change and Forestry report of the IPCC, agro-
forestry offered the highest potential for carbon sequestration (Nairet al., 2009).
Table 1 Potential carbon storage for agro forestry systems in different eco-regions of the world.
Carbon storage values were standardised to 50-year rotation.
Table 2 Estimated C sequestration potential through agroforestry practices in the USA by 2025
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Eco-region System Mg C ha-1
Africa humid tropical highlands agro-silvicutural 2953
South America humid tropical lowlands agro-silvicutural 39102
Dry lowlands 39195
Southeast Asia humid tropical lowlands agro-silvicutural 12228
Dry lowlands 6881
Australia humid tropical lowlands silvopastoral 2851
North America humid tropical highlands silvopastoral 133
154
humid tropical low lands silvopastoral 104
198
Dry lowlands silvopastoral l90175
Northern Asia humid tropical low lands silvopastoral 1518
Source: Nair and Nair (2003)
Source: (Albrecht and Kandji, 2003)
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Below and above ground biomass potential of Agroforestry systems for Carbon
Sequestration
Carbon sequestration in above ground biomass
Through the establishment of tree-based systems, on degraded pastures, croplands, and grass-
lands, the time-averaged C stocks in the vegetation would increase as much as 50 Mg C ha1
in 20 years, whereas the soil stocks would increase only 5 to 15 Mg C ha1 (Palm et al., 2000).
World Agro forestry Centre (2007) indicated that, even though agroforestry is not primarily
designed for carbon sequestration, it contributes for the mitigation of climate change by
reducing CO2 emissions from the atmosphere and storing it in the above ground biomass, most
carbon enters the ecosystem via photosynthesis in the leaves, consequently carbon is
accumulated in the aboveground biomass.
Long-term sequestration of CO2 occurs efficiently when carbon is stored in woody plants;
hence agro- forestry has greater benefits than other farming systems. Studies suggest that
through agroforestry carbon sequestration could be increased from 2.2 Up to 90-150 tonnes of
carbon per hectare over a potential area of 900 million ha worldwide.
Table 3 Carbon content in above ground biomass of 10 plantation-tree species at 10 years of
age at la Selva, Costa Rica
9Source: F. Montagnini (unpublished data).
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From the above table one can understand that, as trees are the integral components of agro
forestry they play significant role for carbon sequestration through their above grounds
biomass, such as foliage, branches and stem.
Carbon sequestration in below ground biomass
The potential of agro forestry practice for carbon sequestration in below ground biomass, for
example soil-carbon-sequestration has attracted attention besides other environmental benefit
(Lal 2004; Montagnini and Nair 2004; Mutuo et al. 2005; Jimenez et al. 2007; Nair et al. 2009;
Haile et al. 2008).
As far as carbon sequestration is taken in to account, soils have good deal of contribution in
global carbon budget and greenhouse effect. Thus, they contain 3.5% of the earth's carbon
reserves, as compared with 1.7% in the atmosphere, 8.9% in fossil fuels, 1.0% in biota and
84.9% in the oceans (Lal, 2004a).
Moreover, agroforestry systems improve soil quality, through organic inputs from crop residues
and tree litter, resulting in the maintenance or increase of SOM (Young, 1997). Higher levels of
SOM improve crop yield and stabilize soil C.
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Plantation species Stand density
(trees ha1)
Carbon content (Mg ha1)
Foliage Branch Stem Total
Balizia elegans 764 0.6 2.5 17.3 20.5
Calophyllum brasiliense 551 5.8 10.8 29.7 46.3
Dipteryx panamensis 670 5.3 15.4 82 102.6
Genipa americana 278 1.1 4.8 17.5 23.3
Hieronyma alchorneoide 660 2.4 13.5 43.8 59.7
Jacaranda copaia 596 0.8 1.6 42.5 44.9
Terminalia amazonia 462 4.7 14.6 63.2 82.5
Virola koschnyi 610 2 4.1 31 37
Vochysia ferruginea 556 2.7 5.7 30.6 39.1
Vochysia guatemalensis 551 2.2 5.2 55.5 62.8
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Paul et al. (2002) and Sauer et al. (2007) reported that carbon sequestered in soils under agro
forestry from biomass turnover would be greater than under conventional agricultural
operations. Soil carbon in agro forestry systems is from sequestered sources (e.g., biomass
turnover) and external sources deposited within the plantings.
Bangroo et al., (2011) Soil C sequestration helps off-set emissions from fossil fuel combustion
and other carbon-emitting activities while enhancing soil quality and long-term plant
productivity.
Comparative advantages of Agro forestry systems for carbon sequestration
As compared with other land use systems, agro forestry systems provide multiple co-benefits
along with carbon sequestration. IPCC Technical Paper-V Gitay et al., (2002) and Korn et al.
(2003) reported that, agro forestry was identified as an activity that can sequester carbon and
have beneficial effects on biodiversity because it creates more biological diverse systems than
conventional agricultural lands
Time and again, most tropical forests are being cut down largely for agricultural expansion to
feed and to satisfy the energy demands of the burgeoning population; it is unlikely that
productive agricultural lands will be reforested to accumulate carbon. On the other hand, in
agroforestry the accumulation of carbon in woody biomass need not compete with agricultural
production and little or no loss of agricultural productivity. Hence, agroforestry system
outshines other land uses (Unruh et al., 1993).
In natural forest stands, nutrients are efficiently cycled with very small inputs and outputs from
the system, and the soil surface is continuously protected by one or more plant canopies. In
most agricultural systems, the opposite happens; nutrient cycling is limited, while inputs and
outputs are large, and the soil is not continuously protected by a plant canopy. Agroforestry
encompasses the continuum between these two extremes, and emerging hard data show that
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species in agroforestry systems provide added value to soil processes when the competition for
growth resources between the tree and the crop component is adequately managed,Such added
value occurs more commonly in sequential, as opposed to simultaneous, agroforestry systems,
because the competition for water, nutrients and light between the crop and tree component is
separated over time (Sanchez, 1995).
Moreover, agro forestry would be one of the interesting areas of research in land-use related to
carbon sequestration, for various reasons. First, the surface involved is considerable and the
rate of carbon gain is relatively high (0.23.1 t ha1 yr1 according to IPCC. Second, it can
mitigate the important CO2 emission resulting from deforestation. Third, it could provide a
sustainable system from technical, ecological and economic points of view.
FAO (2004); Kumar (2006) indicated that woody perennial based production systems, such as
agroforestry, have the potential to sequester large quantities of CO2 and thereby partially offset
the global warming process.
Besides, agro forestry systems are believed to have a higher potential to sequester C than
pastures or field crops (Sanchez, 2000; Roshetko et al., 2002; Sharrow and Ismail, 2004; Kirby
and Potvin, 2007).
For example, if agro forestry is established immediately after slash and burn agriculture,
35% of the original forest C stock can be regained (Sanchez, 2000).
Studies indicated that carbon sequestration projects relied on single species plantations or fast
growing exotics that are effective in storing carbon, could produce other adverse effects (IUCN
and UNFP, 2002). Such plantations can often result in substantial losses in stream flow, and
increased salinization and acidification (Jackson et al., 2005).
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Figure 1 carbon sequestration potential of different land use systems in millions of tonnes per
year.
From the above figure, as a land use system agro forestry can havegreater potential to sequester
around 600 Mt C year-1, which is larger than other systems.
Moreover, Agroforestry system can sequester large amounts of carbon while providing
additional benefits to the landowner and society (Brandle et al. 1992b; Schroeder 1994; Ruark
et al. 2003; Montagnini and Nair 2004; Peichl et al. 2006). The amount of carbon sequestered
per unit area by agro forestry is substantial due to the large amount of carbon sequestered in the
woody biomass.
Dossa, et al., (2008) also has shown the biomass C stock in the shaded coffee agro forestry
system was higher than that in the open agricultural system.
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Figure 2 Summary of carbon stocks in different ecosystems of the humid tropics. Data are from the
benchmark sites of the Alternatives to Slash and Burn Programme of the Consultative Group for
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)
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Agro forestry do not only accumulate carbon on site but conserve carbon in existing forests by
reducing the need for fuel and agricultural land normally obtained from neighbouring forests
(Baldock, 2007).
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Table 4 carbon stocks ( MgC ha-1) in improved fallow systems adapted from Albercht and
Kandji, 2003, and assuming that biomass is 47 % C.
Several studies on soil carbon dynamics have indicated increased soil organic matter after a
few seasons of tree planting on degraded soils. The above table indicated on-farm trials
conducted in the sub-humid tropics of Togo and Kenya. Soil organic carbon accretions through
improved fallow were estimated between 0.73-12.46 Mg per hectare depending on sampling
depth. Costs and amounts of carbon stored per hectare, according to the agro forestry
mitigation scenarios.
The impact of climate change is affecting developing countries more severely than developed
countries not the least because of their generally low adaptive capacities (IPCC, 2003).
Beyond the apparent mitigation effects of agro forestry systems as outlined above, agro forestry
offers a potential as biomass energy provider. Producing firewood from arable or grazed land
presents interesting opportunities in CO2 mitigation through the substitution of fossil energy
consumption by using wood as energy sources and the protection of existing forests and other
natural landscapes.
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A number of observations indicated that the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) offered by
the Kyoto Protocol could reduce rural poverty by extending payments to low-income farmers
who provide carbon storage through land-use systems such as agro forestry (Smith and Scherr
2002).
Conclusion
As to the scope of this particular seminar review, different literatures pertinent to the present
topic indicated that there are now strong evidences, which show that the earths climate is
changing dramatically. This is mainly because of the increasing concentration of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere in general and CO2 in particular. Besides, Different reports across the
world also mentioned that warming of the climate system is mainly due to anthropogenic
factots as indicated in the above points. These days, it is time to take care of the roof over our
heads, i.e. the atmosphere and we should not forget that the floor under our feet, because the
impact is directly or indirectly associated with them.
As far as human induced climate change is concerned, carbon sequestration through different
agro forestry systems might be a suitable alternative to control atmospheric emission of carbon
by reducing CO2 concentration from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir. However,
Carbon sequestration measures should not be a stand-alone undertaking. Its objectives should
be in accord with other international action programmes. Such as Convention on climate
change: reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, Convention on biodiversity: reduction of
deforestation and preservation of natural habitats, Convention on desertification: increasing
vegetative cover and prevention of land degradation and special programme for food security:
sustainable agricultural practices toward increased food production through maintenance of soil
fertility.
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References
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Baldock, J, Skjemstad, J & Bolger, T, (2007). Managing the carbon cycle In Garden, D.,
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