senegal sustainable bio-fuel research study 2013
TRANSCRIPT
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An Overview of GBEP & Current Feedstock Recommendations
for Sustainable Biofuels Development
Zachary Figueroa, Biola University
Leah Wills, Biola UniversitySarah Gross, Messiah College
Sara Bissig, Asbury University
Emily DenBleyker, Gordon College
GlobalDevelopment EnterpriseGerry Hartis, Director
Spring2013
SENEGAL
Jacob Bechtol, San Diego Christian College
Bri Lopez, Westmont UniversityAnthony Kendirjian, Fresno Pacific University
Jared Henke, Carson Newman College
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TableofContents
ExecutiveSummary............................................................................1
I. CountryProfile:Senegal...............................................................4GeographyandClimate..............................................................................4
Agriculture.................................................................................................6
Economy....................................................................................................7
Health,Education,&FamilyLife.................................................................8
II. TheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipIndicators:AFrameworkforEvaluatingFeedstocks...............................................................10
Degradation/Exploitation........................................................................13
Resources................................................................................................15
Land........................................................................................................17
Access.....................................................................................................19
Livelihood................................................................................................20
FoodSecurity...........................................................................................24
Jobs.........................................................................................................26
SustainableEconomicGrowth.................................................................28
Productivity.............................................................................................31BeyondtheIndicators..............................................................................33
III. FeedstockProfiles................................................................................39A.Peanuts..............................................................................................40B. SweetSorghum...................................................................................48C. Sugarcane...........................................................................................58
IV. FeedstockConclusions...............................................................70V. FinalScorecard..........................................................................74 VI. ElementsofAchievingJusticeinSenegalThroughBiofuels........75 AppendixI:ReportAbbreviationKey..............................................................79
AppendixII:FTFInfographiconAgriculture-LedGrowth.................................80
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ExecutiveSummary
COUNTRYPROFILE
SenegalislocatedonthewestcoastofAfricaanditsclimateischaracterizedbyanalternating
dryandrainyseason.Senegalreceivessmallamountsofrainfallbutmassivequantitiesof
sunshine.Itseconomyiscenteredonagriculture;groundnutsandfishhavetraditionallybeen
thecountrysmajorexportsbuthavebeenrecentlyflagging.Someagriculturalproductshave
increasedinproductionandcropdiversificationisalsogrowing.Inrecentyears,SenegalsGDP
hasmaintaineda5%annualrealgrowth.Senegalreliesheavilyondonorassistanceandforeign
directinvestment.In2012,theeconomybegantoreboundafteraweak2011buttheeconomy
continuestosufferfromunreliablepowersupply.Senegalhasworkedinrecentyearsto
strengthenitseducationalsystems,thoughliteracy,absenteeism,andinfrastructurearestill
problematic.Healthcareisstilllimitedandchildrensufferfrompreventablediseases.Senegal
alsoexperiencesfoodshortagesandlackofaccesstocleanwater.
THEGLOBALBIOENERGYPARTNERSHIPINDICATORS
In2008,aTaskForceonSustainabilityfromtheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipbeganworkingon
alistofindicatorsthatwouldrevolutionizebioenergyproductioninthedevelopingworld.The
24indicatorsareorganizedintothreepillars:environmental,social,andeconomic.They
provideaholisticandintegrativeframeworkforevaluatingthesustainabilityofpotential
biofuelfeedstocks.Ninemajorthemeswereidentifiedasrepresentingdebatessurroundingthe
developmentofbiofuels:degradation,resources,land,access,livelihood,foodsecurity,jobs,
sustainableeconomicgrowth,andproductivity.
(1)DegradationandExploitation.Senegalsuffersfromdeforestation,desertification,andpoorsoilquality.Abiofuelsindustrywouldmitigateemissionsandaddresstheseissues.
(2)Resources.Senegalhasagoodamountofwater,buttheamountofwaterneededforbiofuelsinSenegalhasyettobedetermined.Intermsofland,thethreeproposed
feedstocksarealreadygrowninSenegalsolanduseisnotamajorconcern.
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(3)Land.LandrightsinSenegalarenotstraightforward:landisnotprivatelyowned,asalllandwasnationalizedin1961.Landdistributionislefttolocalcouncils.Thisimpacts
businessesthinkingofinvesting,astheycanhavenorealguaranteeofownership.
(4)Access.Infrastructure,especiallyrailwaysandroads,areseverelydeficientinSenegal.Infrastructuredevelopmentwillbecriticaltoasustainablebiofuelproduction.
(5)Livelihood.Womenandchildrenarecurrentlyburdenedwithcollectingfuelwoodforenergyforcooking,whichlimitstimeforincome-generatingactivitiesandeducation.
Theysufferfromhouseholdairpollutionandinjuriesduringbiomasscollection.
(6)FoodSecurity.60%ofSenegalsfoodisimported,pointingtodomesticfoodinsecurity.Thereisusuallyatrade-offbetweenbiofuelproductionandfoodproductionintermsof
landandresources,andthisisaconcerninSenegal.
(7)Jobs.Senegalhashighunemploymentandmostofitsjobsareintheagriculturesector.Therearehighhopesforjobcreationthroughbiofuelproduction.
(8)SustainableEconomicGrowth.Senegalproducesnodomesticenergyandimportsitsoil,reflectingtotalenergydependence.Thecurrentnecessityoffuelwoodtodomestic
energysecurityisunsustainable.Newsourcesofenergymustbedevelopmentto
improveenergydiversityandnetenergybalance.
(9)ProductivityandEfficiency.Productivitydependsonlong-termsustainabilityachievedthroughaddressinggenderinequality,wagedisparity,andeducation.
FEEDSTOCKPROFILES
Peanuts.Peanutsareusedtoproducebiodieselthatisinterchangeableandblendablewith
traditionalpetroleum-baseddiesel.Environmentally,peanutsappeartobeasustainable
feedstockforbiofuelproductionastheyalreadygrowinabundanceinSenegalandthrivein
hot,dryclimates.Socially,however,thecurrentsituationfacingfarmersisunacceptable;many
havegoneunpaidfortheircrop.Theindustryislargelyrunbythreecompanieswhohavenot
managedthemechanicsoftheirsupplychainjustly.Economically,peanutbiodieselproduction
wouldcreatejobsbuttheproductioncostmaybetoohigh.
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SweetSorghum.Sweetsorghumisusedtoproducebioethanolandallpartsofthecropcanbe
utilized.Itiswidelyrecognizedashavingsignificantpotentialasapro-poorenergycrop.
Environmentally,thepictureisincompleteassweetsorghumisstillanewfeedstockoptionfor
biofuelandresearchispresentlybeingconducted.Likepeanuts,sweetsorghumisalready
growninSenegal.Socially,bioethanolproductionsweetsorghumdoesnotcompetewithfood
production.Butpresentproductionisonasmallscale,sothefullsocialimpactsarestill
unknown.Economically,theyieldfromsweetsorghumishighandtheproductioncostislow.
Itsnetenergybalanceisverygoodandcomparabletosugarcane.
Sugarcane.AFrenchmonopoly,theSenegaleseSugarCompany(CSS),dominatesthesugarcane
industryinSenegalandethanolisalreadybeingproducedfromsugarcane.Environmentally,
technologyisbeingdevelopedtomakesugarcaneproductionsustainable.Socially,expanding
sugarcaneoperationsshownoestimatedchangeinincomeforCCSemployees,thoughthey
couldreducefuelcostsandimproveenergydiversification.Economically,theSenegalese
governmentandprivateactorshavemadesignificantinvestmentsintosugarcaneproduction
alongthelinesoftheBrazilianmodel,butefficiencymustbeincreasedandproductioncosts
minimized.
SCORECARDANALYSIS
JUSTICETHROUGHBIOFUELS
DevelopingbiofuelsinSenegalcouldimproveenvironmentalsustainability,positivelyimpact
lives,andreducedependenceonforeignoil.Butabiofuelindustrycouldalsohavenegative
impacts,especiallywhenconsideringthefoodversusfueldebateandtheindividualrights
debate.Ifbiofueldevelopmentcouldthreatenthelivelihoodsofsocietysmostvulnerable,this
couldleadtosocialinstability.Nonetheless,Senegalmustconsiderbiofuelsbecausetheycould
provideahedgeagainstglobalinstabilityresultingfromincreasingfuelandfoodcosts.Biofuel
canprovideagreatopportunityforaccomplishingjusticeifproperpoliciesareimplemented
andrespectedbygovernmentsthatseektoreducecorruption,protecttheruralpoor,and
makelong-termplans.Biofuelcanpromotejusticethroughimprovedhealth,increasedenergy
security,andabalancedeconomy.
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I. CountryProfile:SenegalFigure1:
GeographyandClimate
SenegalislocatedonAfrica'swestcoast.Withasurfaceareaof196,722km,Senegalhas700km
ofcoastlineandisborderedbyfourcountries:Malitotheeast,GuineaandGuineaBissauto
thesouth,andsurroundingonthreesidesTheGambia.Senegalisrelativelyflat,withthe
exceptionoftheFoutaDjalonhighlandsnearthesoutheasternborder.Senegal'sclimateis
characterizedbyanalternatingdryseason,fromNovembertomid-June,andarainyseason
frommid-JunetoOctober.Averagerainfallis1,500mminthesouthofthecountry,spreadover
fourmonths,and400mminthenorth,concentratedintooneandahalfmonths.Theclimateis
somewhaterratic,directlyaffectingagriculturalactivities,livestockfarming,andtheagri-food
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industry,therebyaffectingthecountry'sabilitytomaintainsustainedeconomicgrowth.
Senegalisamongthecountrieswiththegreatestamountofsunshinehours:around3,000
hoursperyear.Themostprominentandexploitedextractableresourcesincludesodiumfrom
LakeRetba,1phosphateandlimestoneintheThisregion,andgasintheDiamniadioregion.
1Hussain,Misha.Senegallookstothesaltoftheearthinpictures.TheGuardian.29March2013. http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/gallery/2013/mar/29/senegal-salt-earth-in-pictures
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Agriculture
Senegalsagriculturalsectorhastwocontrastingsides.Ontheoneside,sluggishsalesof
groundnutproductsandthedeepcrisisinfisheries,thecountrysmajortraditionalagricultural
exports,havebroughtdownthesectorsGDPcontributions.Groundnutsearnlessforeign
revenue,witha60%dropinoutputoverthepast20years,2andreformofthegroundnutsector
stillmuchtoaccomplish.3Overfishinghasdiminishedfishstocks,andunemployedfishermen
illegallymigratetoEurope.Effortstoconserveresourcesaretooslowandoverfishingisstill
insufficientlycontrolled.
Ontheotherside,Senegalhasseengrowthinsomeagriculturalproducts,suchascerealsand
horticulture.Productionofrice,maize,andmaniochasincreasedinrecentyearstomeetrising
localdemandsinurbanareas.Thefruitandvegetablessub-sectorpresentsthemainhopeof
diversifyingSenegalsagriculturalexportstructure.GrownmainlyintheregionsoftheNiayes,
theSenegalRiverValley,Casamance,andDakar,fruitsandvegetablesforexporthavedone
wellsincethe1994devaluationoftheCFAfranc.Senegalsgeographicalandclimaticsituation
enablesout-of-seasoncropstobegrownfortheEuropeanmarket.Theprimarysectoran
annualgrowthrateof6.2%between2002and2005.4
2Hazard,E.,A.BarryandA.Anouan.AidforTradeandAgro-basedPrivateSectorDevelopmentinAfrica:LessonsfromSenegal,OECDDevelopmentCentre,Paris(2006).3OECD/AfDB,AfricanEconomicOutlook2006-2007,OECD/AfDB,Paris.2007.
4Bankofeconomicandfinancialdata.ANSD(NationalAgencyOfStatisticsAndDemographics),MinistryofEconomyandFinance,Dakar.2007.
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Economy
Senegalhasapopulationof11,519,226,ofwhich51.9%isfemale5.About40%ofthe
populationlivesinurbanareas.Thepopulationgrowthrateis3.1%peryear.Sixmainethnic
groupsmakeupthepopulation:Diolas,Malinks,Peuls,Serers,SoninksandWolofs,butothers
exist(Kobianas,Manjack,etc.).6Senegalreliesheavilyondonorassistanceandforeigndirect
investment.Inrecentyears,SenegalhasmaintainedanannualGDPgrowthaveragingabove
5%,andannualinflationhasbeenpusheddowntothesingledigits.In2009,theglobal
economicdownturnreducedgrowthto2.2%.In2010,theIMFcompletedthePolicySupport
Initiative,anon-dispersingprogramwhich,inDecember2010,approvedanewthree-year
policysupportinstrumenttoassistwitheconomicreforms.7Senegalalsoreceives
disbursementsfroma$540millionMillenniumChallengeAccountforinfrastructureand
agriculturedevelopment.In2012,theeconomybegantorebound.Theeconomycontinuesto
sufferfromunreliablepowersupply,whichhasledtopublicprotestsandhighunemployment
andhaspromptedmigrantstofleeSenegalinsearchofbetterjobopportunitiesinEurope.
5Ibid.6Senegal.CIAWorldFactbook.https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sg.html
7SenegalandtheIMF.InternationalMonetaryFund.http://www.imf.org/external/country/sen/
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Health,Education,&FamilyLife
Senegalhasbeenworkingeffectivelyinrecentyearstomakesignificantgainsinitseducation
systems,achievinguniversalaccesstoeducation,withprimaryschoolenrollmentratesupfrom
69.8%in2000to92.5%in20098.ThemostfundamentalgoalsofSenegaleseeducationareto
achieveabasicten-yeareducationforallchildren.Throughpartnershipswithgovernmental
agencieslikeUSAID9andprivateorganizations,Senegalcancontinuetostayontracktoreach
itsgoals.TheprimaryregionsbeingtargetedforsuchdevelopmentincludeFatick,Kolda,
Kedougou,Sedhiou,Tambacounda,andZiguinchor10
Amidthegainsthereremainsmuchworktodobecauseonlyapproximately47%ofSenegalese
areliterateand2.7millionchildrenstillremainoutofschool11
.Also,despiteeffortstobuild
newschools,infrastructureisstillinadequateandclassroomsareovercrowdedinmany
places.Whengirlsarephysicallyabletododomesticwork,theyaretakenoutofschool,
dramaticallyaffectingthesuccessofeducationefforts.12
Evidencehasshownthatmuchoftheresistanceineducationadvancementshavebeendueto
deeplyembeddedfamilialculturethrivinginSenegal.AlthoughcolonizedbytheFrench,the
countryhassinceadoptedanoverwhelmingSunniMuslimbasethataccountsfor90%ofthe
totalpopulation.13Assuch,Senegalismainlyapatriarchalsocietyinwhichwomenhavefewer
rightsthanmenandrightsareoftensuppressed.14Evenmoreso,womenandgirlsareconfined
tohomeliferatherthanworkoreducation.AsthecountryispredominatelyMuslim,
8EducationOverview.USAID.http://senegal.usaid.gov/en/node/12
9EducationProgramActivities.USAID.http://senegal.usaid.gov/en/node/4910
Ibid.
11ChallengesremaintoensurequalityeducationinSenegal,saysUNexpert.UNNewsCentre.14January2011.http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37271#.URhm0FpU6x412Shryock,Ricci.Senegalesegirlsforcedtodropoutofschoolandworkasdomestichelp.UNICEF.16November2010.http://www.unicef.org/education/senegal_56856.html13Senegalese.CountriesandTheirCultures.EveryCulture.com.http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Rwanda-to-Syria/Senegalese.html14SituationofwomeninSenegal.TieInternationales.http://www.tie-germany.org/what_we_do/new_organising_-_women_in_senegal-2.html
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overcomingreligious,cultural,andsocietalnormsisdifficultandmustremainaconsideration
foranydevelopmenteffort.
Similartoeducationandfamilialfactors,healthcareavailabilityandqualityaretwoofthemost
integralconsiderationsasdevelopmentoccurs.Overthelastdecade,significantadvancements
andinvestmenthavebeenmadeintheSenegalesehealthcareindustry.SenegalsMinistryof
Health,partneredwithlocalcommunitiesandoutsideorganizations,workstoreducethemost
pressingissuesofmaternalandchilddeaths,infectiousdisease,andotherillnesses.Efforts
havefocusedoncombattingtheeffectsofmalaria,tuberculosis,andHIV/AIDSinadditionto
advancementsinfamilyplanning.15
AsdevelopmentmovesforwardinSenegalitwillbenecessarytofurtherconsidersuchfactorsinordertomakeinformeddecisionsaboutwhichdevelopmentsmightbebestsuitedforthe
people.Ifthechildrenandfuturegenerationsarenoteffectivelyeducatedaboutthe
necessitiesofnutrition,hygiene,health,work,andfurtherdevelopmentthenanyefforttoward
sustainablegrowthwillnothavelong-termsuccess.Continuedeffortsinadvancingcultural
perceptionofwomenineducation,workforceparticipation,andsocietalparticipationwill
equallybenecessaryifsustainableadvancementisdesired.
15Healthprogramactivities.USAID.http://senegal.usaid.gov/en/node/47
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II. TheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipIndicators:AFrameworkforEvaluatingFeedstocks
In2008,theTaskForceonSustainabilityfromtheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipbeganworking
onalistofindicatorsthatwouldrevolutionizebioenergydevelopmentinthedevelopingworld.
Theirlistof24indicators,publishedinNovember2011asTheGlobalBioenergyPartnership
SustainabilityIndicatorsforBioenergy(orGBEPIndicators),aimstoprovidepolicy-makersand
otherstakeholdersasetofanalyticaltoolsthatcaninformthedevelopmentofnational
bioenergypoliciesandprogrammesandmonitortheimpactofthesepoliciesand
programmes.16Theindicatorsareorganizedintothreeinterdependentpillars
environmental,social,andeconomicthatcategorizethethemesoftheindividualindicators.
Certainthemesguidedtheplacementofindicatorsundereachpillar.
Inourresearch,wehavetakentheGBEPIndicatorsandusedthemtodevelopapictureofthe
possibleuseofbiofuelsinSenegal,particularlyexaminingthefeasibilityandimpactofbiofuel
productioninthatcountry.
Thetwenty-fourGBEPindicatorsprovideaholisticandintegrativeframeworkforevaluating
potentialbiofuelfeedstocks.Thefollowingsectionwillexaminetheindicatorsastheyrelateto
criticaldebatessurroundingbiofueldevelopment,sothatthesustainabilityofthreespecific
feedstockscanbeproperlyevaluatedinthenextpartofthisreport.
16TheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipSustainabilityIndicatorsforBioenergy.(GlobalBioenergyPartnership,2011),1.
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Figure2:GBEPIndicatorsRelationshipsandLinkages
Note:ThischartshowstheinteractionbetweenthethreeGBEPindicatorframeworkpillarsandhighlightsthe
debatesandlinkagesourresearchhasyielded.
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Figure3:GBEPThemePillars
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Degradation/Exploitation
FivedifferentGBEPindicatorscovertheoverarchingthemeofdegradation,whichmonitorsthe
potentialpollutantsabiomasswillproduceasitisconvertedintobiofuel.Specifically,the
themecoversairpollutants,soilquality,woodresources,andbiodiversity.Senegalhasthe
potentialtoavoidenvironmentaldegradationifitacceptstheuseofbiofuelinitscountryand
producesaccordingtotheEnvironmentalProtectionAgenciesadvancedfuelstandard.Asthe
technologyexiststomakethisarealitydependingonwhichfeedstockisusedtoproduce
biofuel,thechoiceisleftuptoinvestmentpartnersanddirectionoftheindustry.
Lifecyclegreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsareasubstantialconsiderationinthethemeof
degradation.Measuringthelifecycleemissionsofbiomassaccountsforallemissionsfrom
growthtoenduse.Ifthebiomassdoesnoteffectlandchangeemissionsorintakesasmuch
carbonwouldingrowingasinburning,thebiomasscanaccountforatheoreticalzeroGHG
emission.Moreover,ifthebiofuelcanbeusedintheproductionandtransportationofthefuel,
itcanevenfurtherimpacttheemissions.Non-GHGemissionsmonitornon-carbonpollutants.
Overall,biofuelshavebeenshowntoproducefewerpollutantsthanbiofuels.Aslongas
harvestingtechniquessuchascropburningareavoided,theseemissionscanbefurther
decreased.Non-GHGemissionscanhaveaprofoundsocialimpactbyprovidingabiofuel
alternativetocurrentwoodorcharcoaluse.Indoorsmokeinhalation,aproblemduetocurrent
fuelsources,canbeeliminated.
PartofcalculatingthelifecycleGHGemissionsisaccountingforlandchangedueto
deforestation.DeforestationinSenegalisduetoavarietyofreasons,fromharvestingwoodfor
charcoaltoagriculturalexpansion.TheFoodandAgriculturalOrganizationhasindicatedin
severaloftheirreportsthatagriculturallandclearancehasbeentheprimarycauseof
deforestationinSenegalwithanannuallossof0.5%.17However,charcoalproductionisa
17Bensch,Gunther&JrgPeters.CombatingDeforestation?ImpactsofImprovedStoveDisseminationonCharcoalConsumptioninUrbanSenegal.GermanDevelopmentEconomicsConference.2011.
http://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/48312/1/9_bensch.pdf
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significantcontributoraswellandaccountsfor28%ofthedegradationofSenegal'swooded
savannasandwoodland.
Senegal'ssoilqualityisverypoor.Becauseofthis,alongwithotherfactors,only10%ofthe
totallandcanbeusedforagriculturalefforts.Feedstockslikepeanutsandsugarcanethatcan
growininfertileandisolshavethepotentialtoimprovesoilqualityonavarietyoflevels.Not
onlydocropslikesugarcaneandsorghumputnitrogenbackintothesoilenrichingitforfuture
farming,buttheverypresenceofvegetationhelpsavoidwinderosion.Senegalalsofacesa
problemduetoovergrazingitsland.
Figure4:Soildegradationduetoagriculturaldevelopment
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Resources
NodataisyetavailableforhowmuchwaterisusedinSenegalforbioenergyproduction,but
generallyalargeamountofwaterisneededtoproduceethanol.IntheUnitedStates,corn
ethanolusedincarsrequiresabout50gallonsofwaterpermiledriven.18MuchofSenegalhas
accesstocleandrinkingwater,thankstoavarietyofprivate-publicpartnerships,mostnotably
theProgrammeofDrinkingWaterandSanitationfortheMillennium,launchedin2003bythe
UNDevelopmentProgrammeandthegovernmentofSenegal.Thisprogramaimstoraise
householdsrateofaccesstocleandrinkingwaterfrom64%in2004to82%by2015.In2009,
74%ofruralresidentsinSenegalhadaccesstodrinkingwater.19Senegalhasabout258billion
cubicmetersoftotalrenewablewaterresourcesperyear,equalingabout2021cubicmetersof
thesamepercapita.20
18Biofuelproduction:adrink-or-driveissue?MissouriUniversityofScienceandTechnology.2009.http://news.mst.edu/2009/04/biofuel_production_a_drink-or-.html19InSenegal,accesstowaterlife-transforming.UNDevelopmentProgram.http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/environmentandenergy/successstories/access_to_water_i
stransforminglifeinruralsenegal/20AQUASTATdatabase.FoodandAgricultureOrganization.http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm
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Figure5:VegetationandLandUseofSenegal
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Land
Landuseandland-usechangearemostconcernedwiththeuseoftheland.Becausethethree
feedstocksexaminedinthisproposalarealreadygrowninSenegal,thisisnotaslargea
problemaswithothersituations.LandrightsinSenegalarenotstraightforwardasthereare
severalmechanismsthroughwhichonecanaccesslandownership.Landisnotprivately
owned;alllandwasnationalizedin1961.Thegovernmentsetupfourzonestocategorizeland
usages:urban,special,agriculture,anddevelopment.Landdistributionisleftuptolocal
councilswhoareresponsibletomanagethelandintheirterritory.Theseruralcouncilsoften
consultwithtribalchiefswhendecidinglandallocation.Althoughthelandisnotprivately
ownedasitpassesthroughfamilylines,itcanstillbeaccessedthroughloansandrentals.
Ownershipisnotguaranteed,however,asthelandisstillownedbythegovernment.Local
councilsultimatelydecidewhogetstousetheland.Ifthecurrentownerisnotusingthelandto
produceatadequatelevels,thecouncilcangivethelandtosomeoneelse.TheLandTenureAct
of2011didallowurbanpopulationstosolidifylandrightsasitallowsownerstochangea
temporaryholdonlandintoapermanentdeed.
ThelackofindividuallandrightsinSenegalimpactsbiofuelproductionsinseveraldifferent
ways.Commercialinterestswhowanttobuylandtoeithergrowbiomassorproducebiofuel
oftenhavenoguaranteeoflandownership,despitethefactthattheycanmakeadealwiththe
localgovernment.Thismakescommercialinterestswaryofinvestinginbiofuel,astheyhaveno
guaranteeofmakingbacktheirmoneyback.
Moreover,urbanandrurallandownershiparetreatedindifferentways,furthercomplicating
theissue.WhiletheLandTenureActprovidessomeguaranteeofownershipforurbandwellers,
localcouncilsstillhaveauthorityoverruralland.Thismakeslandtenurecomplexandoffersno
guaranteeofownership.
PerhapsthemostsignificantimpactistoruralSenegalesefarmers.Thesesubsistencefarmers
relyontheirlandtoprovideforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Withoutaccesstoland,they
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wouldhavenowayofprovidingfood.Althoughthisislandthathasbeenpasseddownthrough
familylines,itlegallybelongstothestate.Thismeansthatthelocalcouncilscouldeasilyresign
ownershipofthislandforavarietyofreasons;forinstance,ifacorporationweretooffera
lucrativeamountofmoneyorifanotherfarmerneededmoreaccesstolandthelocalcouncil
couldreassigntheland.
Allthingsconsidered,productionofbiofuelwillallowforinvestmentthatwillempowerthe
people.Whenconsideringtheissueoflandrightsonecaneasilydiscerntheneedtoprivatize
landtoattractforeigninvestors.Yetifprivatizationoccurs,itneedstobedoneinanequitable
mannerthatwillnottakelandfromthepeoplethatneeditthemost.Thisindicatormeasures
thepercentageoflandusedforbiofuelproduction,includinglandusedtogrowbiomassand
refinebiofuel.Notonlydoesthislandneedtobeavailableforownership,itshouldnot
competewithfoodproduction.Inanareawherefoodsecurityisstillaveryrealissue,biofuel
productionshouldaidfoodsecurityandnotbecomeahindrance.
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Access
Thesuccessofasustainablebiofuelindustrydependsoncustomersbeingabletoaccessthe
newsourceofbioenergy.Indicator14measuresincreasedaccesstobioenergyandIndicator23
measuresinfrastructureneededfordistributionsystems.
Presently,infrastructureinSenegalisdeficient.Senegalhas906kilometersofrailway,but
difficultiesinmanagementandlackofinvestmenthaveledtodegradationoftherailways.
Therehavebeenmassivedelays:oftentrainscannottravelmorethan20kmperhourbecause
ofthebadstateofthetracks.RoadsinSenegalarealsodeficient,inbothquantityandquality.
Roadspenetrationasmeasuredbykilometersperthousandofpopulationis0.99;theworld
averageis10.15.TheWorldBanklistssomeofSenegalsinfrastructurechallengesas:improving
roadconditions,boostingairandrailtraffic,updatingelectricityinfrastructure,andboosting
thepaceofexpansionofthewater-and-sanitationnetwork.21TheWorldBankrecommends
moreprivate-sectorinvestment.
OnepositiveaspectofnationalaccessinSenegalistheportofDakar,oneofthelargestdeep-
waterseaportsalongtheWestAfricancoast.Itslocationatacrossroadsofsealaneslinking
EuropeandSouthAmericamakeitanaturalportofcallforshippingcompanies.
Inorderforabiofuelindustrytobesustainableanddevelopthecountryeconomicallyand
socially,theremustbeinfrastructureinplacetofacilitatethedistributionanduseofbioenergy.
ThisinfrastructureislackinginSenegal.
21ClemenciaTorres,CeciliaM.Briceno-Garmendia,andCarolinaDominguez.SenegalsInfrastructure:AContinentalPerspective.WorldBank.September2011.
http://elibrary.worldbank.org/content/workingpaper/10.1596/1813-9450-5817
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Livelihood
ThreeGBEPindicatorshavebeencategorizedwiththesocialthemeofLivelihood.Thistheme
examinesthepotentialimpactofbiofuelonthequalityoflife,healthandsafetyofthose
involvedinthecurrentprocessofenergycollectionanduse.Theseindicatorsare:
13.Changeinunpaidtimespentbywomenandchildrencollectingbiomass
15.Changeinmortalityandburdenofdiseaseattributabletoindoorsmoke
16.Incidenceofoccupationalinjury,illnessandfatalities
ThereislittleempiricaldataforSenegalintermsoftheseindicators,butthereissignificant
anecdotalevidencepointingtotheunsustainablenatureofthecurrentenergysituation.
Likewise,thepotentialimpactsofswitchingfromunsustainablesourcesandusesofenergyto
biofuelusearelargelyanecdotal.
Insum,awidespreadlackofaccesstomodernenergyservicesnegativelyimpactsthelivesof
theSenegalesepeopleinthewaysidentifiedbythefollowingindicators.Increasedaccessto
sustainablemodernenergyservices,suchasabiofuelindustry,wouldlikelyimprovequalityof
life,healthandsafetyofthosewhogainaccess.However,thequestionofwhowouldreceive
accessisunclear;totargetextremepoverty,onewouldlooktotheruralareasofSenegal,
occupyingtheeasternandnorthernpartsofthecountry,butalackofinfrastructureandother
concernswouldperhapsmakethisgeographiclocationlessfeasiblethanamorepopulated
area.Whileenergyaccessisatitsworstinruralvillages,peopleinurbanareasasexplained
belowstilllackaccesstoenergyandusedangerousmethodsofacquiringenergy.
Indicator13:Changeinunpaidtimespentbywomenandchildrencollectingbiomass
AccordingtoareportbytheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,Firstandforemost,the
energychallengeinruralareasofSenegalisagenderissue.22Throughoutsub-SaharanAfrica
22Seck,Papa.TheRuralEnergyChallengeinSenegal:AMissionReport.UNDPHuman
DevelopmentReport2007-2008.
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itislargelythedutyofwomenandchildrentocollectbiomass,usuallyfuelwood,toprovidethe
energyforcooking.
InSenegal,biomasscollectionisessentiallyadutythatisreservedforwomenandyoung
girls.23Thisdivisionofhouseholdlaborhasledtoseveretimeconstraintsonwomenandgirls.
Theprocessoffindingbiomassgenerallystartsaroundeightoclockinthemorningandtakes
severalhours.ElisabethFayeandMarieThiar,womenfromthevillageofNianing,saidThis
lifestyledoesnotaffordusamomentofrespiteastheproperfunctioningofourhouseholds
dependsonit.24AcrossSenegal,womenstimeisoppressedbyamultitudeofhousehold
responsibilities.
Collectingfuelwoodlimitsthetimeavailabletothemforeducationandincome-generatingactivities.Womenwholiveinareaswithmoderatetoseverewooddeficitsspendmoretimeon
houseworkandlesstimeonselforwageemployment.WhilethereisnoSenegal-specificdata
fortimespentgatheringbiomass,studieshavebeenconductedelsewhereinsub-Saharan
Africa.Thesestudiesrevealthatcollectingfuelwoodhasbecomeincreasinglydifficultandtime-
consumingasdeforestationandforestdegradationhaveincreasedthedistancesthatmustbe
travelledtoobtainasufficientsupplyoffuelwood.
Indicator15:Changeinmortalityandburdenofdiseaseattributabletoindoorsmoke
Lackofaccesstoclean,efficient,modernsourcesofenergyinthehomecanimpacthealthin
manyways.Theprimaryhealtheffectsresultfromtheairpollutioncausedbyburningsolid
fuels(primarilywood,butsometimescoal,dung,orcropwastes)onopenfiresorsimple
stoves.25Thesmokefromthesolidfuelcontainsvariouspollutants,includingsmallparticulate
matterandcarbonmonoxide.Breathingthispollutedairdirectlyimpactswomenandchildren
whospendmuchtimeinthehome.TheWorldHealthOrganizationestimatesthenumberof
prematuredeathscausedbysmokeinhalationtoexceeddeathsfrommalariaandtuberculosis
23Ibid.24Ibid.
25TheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipSustainabilityIndicatorsforBioenergy.GlobalBioenergyPartnership.
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inAfrica.26By2030,WHOestimatespredictover1.5milliondeaths(or4,000daysperday)by
2030duetotheuseofbiomassininefficientstoves.27
Householdairpollution(HAP)isaseriousprobleminSenegal.HAPkills6,300peopleperyearin
Senegal,andaffectsoversixmillionSenegaleseannually.28Thislargeimpactisduetothefact
thatalarge%ageofthepopulationburnsfuelwoodintheirhomes.AccordingtotheGlobal
AllianceforCleanCookstoves,47.7%oftheSenegalesepopulationusewoodforcooking.29
Manyhavebeguntouseanimaldung,aslandclearingandcontrolsontheuseofforest
resourceshaveincreased.
NdiagaSarr,wholivesinthevillageofRoffinSenegal,testifiestothehealthimpactsofburning
biomassindoors:duringtherainyseason,bothwoodbranchesandanimalresiduesbecomeunusableandwomenhavetoresorttousingoldhouseholdclothsandplasticpans.
Consequently,womenoftencomplainofeyeinjuriesandotherrespiratoryproblemsstemming
fromtheuseofthesematerials.30
Switchingtocleanerfuelsandincreasingfuelefficiencythroughbetter,saferstovescanreduce
healthrisksforallfamilymembers,butespeciallyforwomenandchildren.
Indicator16:Incidenceofoccupationalinjury,illnessandfatalities
Besidesbeingtime-consumingandunhealthyforwomenandchildren,theprocessofcollecting
biomasscanbephysicallyunsafe.Injuriesfromcarryinglargeamountsofwoodarecommon;in
2006,theaverageloadoffuelwoodinsub-SaharanAfricawas20kg.31Testimoniesfrom
26Putti,VenkataRamana.EnergyAccessforPoorinUrbanandPeri-urbanAreasAnEmergingChallenge.WorldBank.15November2011.http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTAFRREGTOPENERGY/Resources/717305-1327690230600/8397692-1327691245128/Urban_and_Peri_Urban_Challenges_AEI_Workshop.pdf 27Bioenergy:Thepotentialforruraldevelopmentandpovertyalleviation.UnitedNationsEnvironment
Programme.2011.8.28Senegal.CleanCookstovesInternational.http://www.cleancookstoves.org/countries/africa/senegal.html
29Ibid.
30Seck,Papa.
31Blackden,MarkC.,andQuentinWodon,eds.Gender,TimeUse,andPovertyinSub-SaharanAfrica.TheWorldBank.2006.
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Senegalesewomenconfirmthatmanywomencarryover20kgofwood.32Furthermore,women
arevulnerabletoviolencewhencollectingfuelwood.
Alternatively,accesstobioenergywouldeliminatetheneedforexhaustiveandpotentially
dangerouswoodcollection.Jobsinthebiofuelindustrywouldlikelybesaferthanthecurrent
scenario,ofwomencollectingfuelwoodtoburnintheirhomes.
32Seck,Papa.
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FoodSecurity
Nearly60%ofSenegalsfoodisimported,leavingtheSenegalesepeoplehighlydependenton
foreignimports.TheinsecurityoffoodinSenegalreachedanall-timehighwiththefoodriots
of2007-2008.Changinganderraticweatherpatternsplayedalargeroleinthefoodinsecurity
inSenegalduringthistime.Also,thegovernmentwentthroughchangesinpoliciesthatcreated
alackofincentiveforagriculturalproductionwhichgreatlycontributedtofoodshortages.Due
totheirhighdependencyonforeignproducers,theSenegalesegovernmenthasmorerecently
beenmakinggreatereffortstofindsustainableresourcesforfoodandenergy.Senegalhas
nearly19millionhectaresofland,butonly7-12%ofthatlandisabletobecultivated.2-50%of
thearablelandisalreadybeingusedandcultivatedbyfarmersandbusinesses.
Thefoodvs.fueldebatehasexistedaslongastheprospectofbiofueldevelopmenthasexisted.
InthecaseofSenegal,itisquestionabletheirlandcouldsustainalargebiofuelindustrywithout
takingawayfromthealreadyminisculefoodsources.Butitisnotjustbiofuelproductionin
Senegalthatthreatenstheirfoodsecurity.Shouldinternationalbiofuelproductionsincrease,
thepricesoffoodbeingimportedbySenegalwillalsoincrease,becauselandthatwasbeing
cultivatedforfuelwillbeusedforbiofuels.Senegalsstateoffoodinsecuritywouldnotbeable
tohandlehavingtopayevenhigherpricesforimportedfood.Ontheotherhand,enteringthe
emergingworldmarketofbioenergycouldhelpSenegalslong-termeconomyprospectsand
thusallowthemtoaffordfoodimportsortechnologicaladvancesinagriculturalproductions.
TheWorkofUSAID
ToseehowSenegalsnationalfoodbasketaffectsdevelopmentchallengesandopportunities,a
currentU.S.governmentinitiativeforSenegalcanbeexamined:FeedtheFutures2011-2015
MultiYearStrategyPlan.ThisplanfocusesonfoodsecurityinSenegalandcanbeconsidered
whenlookingatbiofueldevelopmentinSenegal.
FeedtheFuturehasapriorityonaMillenniumDevelopmentGoal(MDG)forSenegals
economicdevelopment.ByfocusingondevelopmentpartnersincludingUSAIDtheyareaiming
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toincreaseincomesandimprovenutritionalstatusbypromotingamorediversefoodbasketat
thecommunitylevel.Thisstrategyseekstoimplementaholisticandtargetedapproachto
nutritionandagriculture.Theyarefocusingonathreestaplegrainvaluechain:rice,maize,and
millet.Thesethreecropshavethepotentialforthegreatestcontributiontodevelopmentand
partnerinvestment.
ThesethreeSenegalesestaplesgreatlyinfluencedailydietsinthepoorestregionsandholdthe
greatestpotentialforreducingundernutritionandpovertyandofferageographicfocusto
increasetheimpactoftheUSGovernmentoveralldevelopmentinvestmentsintwozones:the
SenegalRiverValleyandtheSouthernForestZone.ThisUSdonorinvestmentwillcreate
corridorsofagricultureproductivityandimprovetheprivatesectorbusinessenvironment.
Thesetwofocuszonestouchonpartsofnineadministrativeregionsrepresenting42.6%of
Senegalspopulationandincludefiveofthepoorestregions:Fatick,Kedougou,Kolda,Matam,
andTambacounda.
Itisimportanttoconsiderthatthemissiondoesnotselectpeanuts,livestock,ordairy.
AlthoughSenegalwillcontinuetoproducepeanutsasanimportantcropandbenefitnitrogen
fixingrotationtograins,thepeanutoilmarketisdecliningandlosesinthesoybean,sunflower,
andrapeseedoilmarketsarenolongerexpectedtorebound.
USAIDiscurrentlyworkingwithSenegaltoimprovenaturalresourcemanagementwithinthe
twozones.TheUSGovernmentiscreatingseedtechnologyandresearchinSenegalthatis
welcomedbytheSenegalesegovernment.USAIDandSenegalisstrategicallyinvestinginfive
soon-to-befullyfunctionalandscaledcertificationlabsinordertoaddressfoodinsecurity,
productivityandclimatechangeconcernstotheregion.Eachofthesecanbenefitdecision
makingforfeedstockchoicesinbiofueldevelopment.
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Jobs
Indicator12measurestheimpactofabiofuelsindustryhasonemploymentinanation.The
indicatorprimarilymeasuresjobcreation,whilerecognizingthepotentialforjoblossor
displacementduetoabiofuelsindustry.Tomeasurenetjobgain,thewholevaluechaininthe
biofuelsindustrymustbetakenintoaccount.GBEPsuggestscomparingtheworkersneeded
perjouleofenergycontentcreatedtocomparableenergyindustries,inordertoreceivean
accuratemeasureofjobscreated.Measuringnetjobgainmustbeconsideredwithcertain
factorsinmind:Theamountofjobsbothskilledandunskilled,howmanyjobsarepermanent
andhowmanyaretemporary,howanationdefinestemporaryemployment,howanation
definesself-employment,whetherworkdonebyfamilymemberscountsandhowmanyhours
arenecessaryforthatworktocount,whetherthejobscreatedareinlinewithinternational
laborstandards,andwhatpercentageofthejobscreatedareperformedbywomenand
youth.33
Bysomeestimates,Senegalhasa23.7%unemploymentrate.Unemploymentishigherinrural
areas,andishigherformenthanwomen.Currently77.5%ofjobsinSenegalareinthe
agriculturalsector.Theserviceindustryaccountsforanother16%ofjobsinSenegal.Senegalis
anexporteroffishandgroundnuts,itstwomainindustries.Despiteitsprevalence,agriculture
onlyaccountsfor16%ofSenegalsGPD.34
ExpectationsforabiofuelsindustrycreatingjobsinSenegalarehigh,coupledwithlittleconcern
forjoblossanddisplacementasaresultofabiofuelsindustry.Dr.PatrickE.Meyerreports,It
isestimatedthateveryethanolplantinAfricawouldcreateupto100,000jobs.Highhopesfor
biofuel-relatedjobcreationhavebeenexpressedinarangeofcountries,includingColombia,
Venezuela,Indonesia,Malaysia,India,China,Tanzania,Uganda,andSenegal.Thebiofuels
industryinBrazilhasbeenestimatedtohavecreated700,000jobs.Inlinewiththelanguageof
33GBEPIndicatorshttp://www.globalbioenergy.org/fileadmin/user_upload/gbep/docs/Indicators/The_GBEP_Sustainability_Indicator
s_for_Bioenergy_FINAL.pdf34GhanaandSenegalStudyFindings.InternationalLaborOrganization.2009.http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/yen/downloads/psi/psi_study.pdf
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theindicator,Onaverage,biofuelsrequireabout100timesmoreworkersperjouleofenergy
contentproducedthanthehighlycapital-intensivefossilfuelindustry.35Biofuelsindustryjob
creationwouldcertainlyhaveagreaterpotentialforthecreationofjobscomparedtomost
otherenergyindustries.Abiofuelsindustryalsohasthechanceofemployingmorewomen.
Ononehand,thereisgreatoptimismthatjatrophawillprovideemploymentopportunitiesfor
theruralpoor,particularlyforwomen.36Biofuelshaveagreatchanceofcreatingjobsin
Senegal,thenatureofthejobs,whetherskilledorunskilled,temporaryorpermanent,mustbe
measuredaftertheestablishmentofabiofuelsindustryinSenegal.
35Meyer,Patrick.BiofuelReviewPart6:JobCreationandGovernmentSpending.2010http://www.todaysengineer.org/2010/Dec/biofuels-pt6.asp36CaseStudy:Senegal.BillandMelindaGatesFoundation.2008.http://biofuelsandthepoor.com/case-study-
senegal/
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SustainableEconomicGrowth
Netenergybalanceisoneofthemostimportantdeterminantsofeconomicefficiencyfora
country'senergysector.Initsmostbasicdefinition,thenetenergybalanceseekstoidentifythe
countrysconfigurationofdifferentenergyuses,aswellasthelevelsofefficiencyinvaluesof
rawsupplyinputstoconvertedfueloutputsandconsumption.Thisindicatorisapplieddirectly
tobioenergyproduction,enduses,conversions,andpathways.Italsorelatestoresource
availability,importandexporttrends,andwheretotroubleshootinefficiencies.Thus,its
ultimategoalistoprovideusefuldatasystemstoensureoptimalenergybalanceisbeing
achieved,andtounderstandwheretheoutputsarelackingandwhy.
Senegalfacesaparticularchallengeinthatitproducesvirtuallynodomesticenergywhichitcan
exportandisalsohighlyreliantonbiomassandimportedoil.Becauseofthis,constant
modification,improvingtechnology,andreallocationofresourcesisofutmostimportance,as
thecostofhavingtoimportsomuchoilisbarelysustainableforcountrywithsuchalowGDP.It
isidentifiedbyIEAandvariousotherorganizationstobeacountryofparticularvulnerabilityfor
itsenergysecurity,asitsNEIR(NetEnergyImportRation)isabove50%.Thismeansthatits
currentmodelofenergyproductionsustainslessthanhalfthecountry.Ifcalculationsfor
biomasswhichareoneofitsprimaryfuelsareremoved,thecountryhasanear90%NEIR,
whichmeansitsextremelydependentonforeigncountriesforitsenergysupply.
What'smoredauntingisthefactthatnaturalshiftsintheenvironmentharmthebiomass
utilization,whichforSenegalisbasedheavilyinitemssuchasfirewoodandcoal.Forexample,
in2005,approximately2.8milliontonsofbiomasswereusedandconsistedofabout1.1million
tonsfirewoodand315,000tonsofcharcoal.Thesecurityofthefirewoodenergysupplyatthis
pointintimeisthemostimportantfactorinmaintainingoverallenergysecurity.Firewood's
contributiontotheenergybalanceandforeconomicsecurityisthreatenedbyaseriesof
constraintsbydesertification,orlossofhighqualitylandshiftingtodrydesertat
unprecedentedrates.What'sworseisthatprivateentitiesandmonopoliesseektomaintainthe
statusquo,astheyareabletoprofitofftheuseoffirewood;especiallyduringthesedry
periods.
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Althoughbiomassdoestotal45%ofthetotalendconsumptionofenergy,thishighpressureon
biomassresourcescompoundedbydesertificationandoverusehasgeneratedadeficitinthe
availabilityoftraditionalenergysourcesparticularlyforhouseholds.ThusasSenegalhashigh
relianceoncertainfuels,ensuringanoptimalNetEnergyBalanceisonceagainoneofthe
greatestdeterminantsforSenegal'seconomicsuccessandsecurity.Improvingtherationsand
reducingoverrelianceononesectorwillsignificantlystrengthenitseconomyandencourage
furtherinvestmentaswell.TheenergybalanceforSenegaliscalculatedintonsofoil
equivalent(TOE)basedonanetcaloricvaluebasistowidenthecomparisontootherformsof
energy.Alsothetotalprimaryenergysupply(TPES),therawenergyinput,istobecomparedto
thetotalfinalconsumption(TFC),whichindicateshowoptimumtheconversionprocesswasto
usablefuelsanditsendconsumption.BasedoffreportsproducedbytheIEAin2009,Senegal
hadatotalfinalconsumptionofapproximately2.13millionTOE.Thiscomparesto2006where
2.3millionTOEwasthefinalconsumption.Thehigherrate2006ismoredesirableasitreflects
notonlyabetteroutputfromprimaryresource,butalsototalenergyconsumptionmeansa
morevibranteconomyingeneral;alsomeaningthatmorehouseholdshaveaccesstoenergy.
ThisisconsistentwithreportsthatSenegalisonadownwardtrendforenergysecurity,
economic,andsocialvariables,meaningthatit'sstrugglingatthemomenttomakeprogress
andissusceptibletotheongoinginstabilityinAfrica.Theoveralldownwardtrendisalsoreflectedbya5-yeardecreaseinoverallconsumption,whichcanalsobelinkedtoemployment
andotherunstableeconomicfactors.
OnebenefitofthisisthattheTFChasahigherratethantheprimary(indicativeofpositive
energyconversionoutput),explainedbythefactthatimportsgivewaytobettertechnology
andforeignassistanceinrefiningtechnologies.Biofuelsdolackintermsofpositiveconversion
duetolackoftechnology,andin2009hadaTPESof1.21millionTOEcomparedtoitsTFCof
840,000TOE.SincethissectoriswhatSenegalreliesonsodearlyandisalmostentirely
domesticallyproduced,investinginbetterbiofueltechnologywillgoaverylongwayin
improvingtheTFCrateandimprovethelivelihoodfortheSenegalese.
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TofurtherillustratethesituationforSenegal,the2006figurealsotranslatestoatotalof0.2
TOEperhabitant,ascomparedtotheAfricanaverageof0.45TOE.Thismeansthatindividuals
areusinghalfasmuchenergyonaveragecomparedtomostotherAfricannations,further
highlightingtheimportanceofinvestingandoptimizingitsenergysector,especiallywhen
consideringthefactthatonly42%ofthepopulationhasaccesstoelectricity.
AnotherkeydeterminantofSenegalsoveralleconomicsuccessisitsadvantagesand
deficienciesofsustainableeconomicdevelopment.Oneofthehighlyelevatedandimportant
butinefficientareasofSenegalseconomyisitsagriculturalsector.Thefactremainsthatwitha
growingpopulationandoveralldifficulteconomicscenariosglobally,Senegalscurrentmodel
foragricultureisunsustainable.WhileSenegalpridesitselfinitscommunalself-farming
practiceswhichdomuchtohelpstarvationthefactremainsthatSenegallacksamarket-
basedagriculture.
OneofthegoalsofUSAIDhasbeentohelpencouragemarketeconomiesforexportandalso
tradewithinthecountry.Whatfurthercompoundstheproblemisthefactthatsincehigher
educationisntwidespread,mostoftheworkforceisforcedtoworkintheagriculturalsector.
68%ofthelaborforceisconcentratedasfarmers,thusprovidinglittleincentiveformaking
moneywithinthecountryaspricesaredrivenverylow.Wagesalsoremainlowforthefarmers,asthereisnoshortageofthem,andusuallyendupgrowingtoself-sustaininsteadofachieving
monetarybenefits.OfthetotalGDPinSenegal,farmersonlyearn14%ofthetotalGDPandthis
reflectsasevereunsustainablemodelforfuturegrowth.Thus68%oftheGDPfromthis
standpointgoestotheservicesindustry,andreflectstheeconomicbenefitsofeducation.Other
areasoffocusforlong-termsustainabilityincludereformedirrigationpractices,betterhuman
resourcescapacityforthepublicandprivatesector.
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Productivity
ProductivityonamacroscalerevealsmanytransparentissuesinSenegal.Oneofthemost
transparentproblemsinSenegalssocietalmodelisthefactthatwomenarenotexpectedto
earnawageandareencouragedtoremainathome.Theproblemwithisthateachfamilyunit
lacksanadditionalbreadwinner,andmostlabordonebywomenisuncompensated.Alreadyin
highlyindustrializedcountries,genderwagegapsexist.ForSenegalesewomenthisproblemis
madeworsebecausetheyalsohelpwithfarmingbutareoftenunderpaidorhavenoaccessto
thefundsthatareearned.ThefactremainsthatSenegalisoneoftheworld'spoorest
countries,withaboutonethirdofthepopulacelivingoffabouta$1.25aday.Thus,Senegal
shouldfaceitsfearforchangeandrealizeithasnochoicebuttoaccepthelpfromvarious
institutionsforthesakeofitschildrenandtorealizetheconsequencesofitspreferenceforself-
sustenance.Investinginchildren'sfutureshasadirectcorrelationwithallareasofprogressand
istheleadinghealthindicatorforanycountry.
First,Senegalisgreatlybenefitedfrominternationalorganizations,astheseorganizations
realizeitspotentialanditsoverallimportanceforstabilityintheWestAfricanregion.Agencies
suchastheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency(CIDA)domuchtofocusonthe
progressforchildren.Theyemphasizeimprovementofaccesstoeducationacrossallsectors,
especiallyforgirls.Between2000and2010,theycreated3,447newprimaryschools.This
allowednearly600,000newstudentstoattendanear50%increaseinenrollment.UNICEF
hasalsotakenupthetaskofhelpingschoolenrollmentbyassistingCIDAonadifferentfront-
addressingspecificallythelowerattendanceforgirlsinschools.Asawhole,approximately
500,000childrendon'tattendschool,andofthis,300,000aregirls.Onemajorreasonforthisis
thelackofseparatetoiletfacilitiesforthegirls,andthegirlsareoftenharassedforusingthe
"bush"orattemptingtousethesamefacilities.
Thus,throughtheirBuildingforLifeprogram,UNICEFhashelpedbyestablishingproper
facilitiesaswellaseducatingtheSenegalesepeopleonproperhygiene,peerconflictreduction,
andstressmanagement.Thekeyistoinvestineducationtopromotemoreserviceindustry
jobsandshiftthelaborforceawayfrommainlyagriculture.Atthesametimeitmustaddress
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theproblemofneglectingfemalesattheexpenseofnotonlyhumanvaluebutalsofor
economicsecurityforfamilies.
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BeyondTheIndicators
PotentialImpactsofBiofuel
Thepotentialimpactsofbiofuelontimespentgatheringbiomassaremanifold.Modern
bioenergyservicescanreducetheamountoftimespentbywomenandchildrenonbiomass
collection,improvehealthandreduceillnessandinjuryfromHAP,freegirlstimesotheycan
receiveeducation,andfreewomenstimesotheycangenerateincome.Womensdomestic
burdenscanbesignificantlylightened.Additionally,energyfrombiofuelcouldlightuphomes,
allowingchildrentostudyindoors.
Onecasestudyreflectssomeofthesebenefits.IntheeasternSenegalesevillageofKalom,a
powerplantwasbuiltin2012withfundingfromtheGermanInvestmentCorporationand
GermanmunicipalpowercompanyStadtwerkeMainz.Itisgeneratingmorethanjust
electricity.Poweredbyagriculturalwaste,thestationhaslituphomes,lightenedwomens
domesticburdensandevenputalittlemoneyinsomeresidentspockets.37Thegeneratorat
theplantusesgroundnutshellsanddriedmilletstalksasfuel;farmresiduethatwasonce
uselesshasbecomeasourceofincome,asvillagersgetpaidtocollectthebiofuel.All1,300
residentsofthevillageareconnectedtothegrid,andover80%ofthepowergeneratedisnot
yetbeingutilized.
Accordingtoa2011reportbytheGlobalNetworkonEnergyforSustainableDevelopment
(GNESD),ithasbeenreportedthatmodernbioenergycouldplayasignificantrolein
addressingtheglobalcleancookingfacilitygapwithspecificreferencetobiogasandadvanced
cookstoves.Additionally,thedevelopmentofmodernbioenergy,derivedfromsustainably
derivedbiomassresources,isseenbymostlocalgovernmentsasanalternativeenergyoption
withgoodpotentialtoalleviatepovertyandtocontributetoruraldevelopment.38
37Adigbli,KoffiganE.BiomassPlantLightsUpRuralSenegal.AllAfrica.30August2012.http://allafrica.com/stories/201208310561.html 38Bioenergy:Thepotentialforruraldevelopmentandpovertyalleviation.UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.2011.5.
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BiofuelforUrbanandPeri-UrbanAreas
Thoughmostrelevanttoruralareas,theseindicatorsalsoapplytoperi-urbanandurbanareas
ofSenegal,makingtheissueofaccesstomodernenergyservicesnationwide.Senegalslargest
citiesarelocatedalongitscoastline;Dakarisbyfarthelargestcityat2,396,800people,
followedbyTouba,Thies,Mbour,andKaolack.39
Thoughaccesstoenergyisgreaterinurbanareasthanruralareas,40%ofpeoplelivinginSSA
citieslackaccesstoelectricity.40Accesstomodernenergyservicesinurbanareas,accordingto
aWorldBankreportentitledEnergyAccessforPoorinUrbanandPeri-urbanAreasAn
EmergingChallenge,iskeytopovertyreduction,asproductiveusesofenergygenerateincome
andprovideemployment.
Meanwhile,citiesacrossAfrica(includingSenegalesecities)willcontinuetogrowdramatically
inthecomingdecades:sub-SaharanAfrica(SSA)isthefastesturbanizingregionintheworld,
andby2025Dakarspopulationisprojectedtogrowbyover50%.
OfthepopulationlivinginSSAcities,about70%liveinslums.41Approximately50%ofthese
slumdwellersareconnectedtoelectricity;theseconnectionsaredangerousand,ofcourse,
hurtutilitiescompanies.42
Asinruralareas,slumdwellersrelyonbiomassastheirprimary
cookingfuel.
Peri-urbanareasarelocatedonthefringesofcities,betweenruralandurbanareas.Theseperi-
urbanareaslackenergyaccess,becauseelectricitycompaniesprovidecoverageforurbanareas
andruralelectrificationagenciesfocusonruralareas.Thereispotential,therefore,for
developmentofsmall-scaleperi-urbanenergysuppliers.
39Senegal:PrincipalCities. CityPopulation.2010.http://www.citypopulation.de/Senegal.html40Putti,VenkataRamana.41Ibid.
42Ibid.
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ThereportEnergyAccessforPoorinUrbanandPeri-urbanAreasAnEmergingChallenge
breaksdownenergyaccesslikethis:
Figure6:
Accordingtothesamereport,barrierstoenergyaccessfortheurbanpoorinclude:
affordability,legaltenure,adequateinfrastructure,educationandawareness,andlackoftrust
betweenserviceprovidersandslumcommunities.Waystobreakdownthesebarriersinclude:
developmentofenergyaccessprograms;multi-stakeholdercollaborationbetweencivilsociety,
utilities,community-basedgroups,andlocalgovernment;aregulatoryframeworkthatsupports
accessfortheurbanpoor;andachangeinmindsetofslumdwellersfromillegalconsumption
tolegalenergyforproductiveactivities.43
UrbanBioenergy
AccordingtotheEnergyStudiesInstitute,urbanbiomasscanproducerenewablebioenergy.
Throughnewbiotechnologies,urbanorganicwaste(urbanbiomass)canbeconvertedinto
43Putti,VenkataRamana.
Rural
-Non-proximate to grid
- Lack of access to electricity
with significant number of illegal
connections
- High un-affordability issues
- High use of traditional fuel-
wood
Peri-Urban
- Low proximity to grid
- Lack of access to electricity
with significant umber of illegal
connections
- High un-affordability issues
- Combination of different types
of traditional biomass (fuelwood,
charcoal)
Urban
- High proximity to grid
- High access to electricity, with
significant number of illegal
connections
- High ability to pay for electricity
- Combination of traditional biomass
and modern energy services
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usefulbioenergy.Dependingontheavailability,characteristicsandenergyneeds,urban
biomasscanbeconvertedintobiodiesel,biogas(includingH2andCH4),bioethanol,and
biocrudethroughwhatanIntegratedBioenergySystem(IBS).44AnIBScanprovidethe
followingbenefits:conversionofurbanbiomasstomultipleCO2-neutralbioenergysources;full
utilizationofresourcesbyconvertingbiomassresiduesintobioenergy;enhancedefficiencyof
individualbioenergyprocesseswithinterfacingtechnology;savedenergyfromtransporting
urbanbiomasstoacentralizedwastedisposalfacility;supplyingofbioenergytoclose-by
consumersinthecommunity;andmitigationofacceleratedglobalwarmingbycapturingCO2
withalgaephoto-bioreactors.45Thissystemcouldalsobeimplementedinremotevillagesand
peri-urbanareas.
WhoBenefits?
Biofuelspresentasignificantopportunityforfarmers,asthedemandforcleanenergyissurging
worldwide.Farmersproductscanmeetthisdemand.Amodernbiofuelsindustrycouldalso
providefarmerswithauseforcropresidueslikesstalksandleaves,whichcanbeconverted
intoethanolorelectricity.Anotherbenefitwouldbethedemandforlaborinbiofuel
production,asbiofuelproductionisaslabor-intensiveasagriculture.Thiscreatesan
opportunityforincreasedjobsandthereforeincomeofpoorruralpeople.
However,therearemanychallengestoproducingbiofuel(outlinedthroughoutthisreport)and
thereisnoguaranteethatbiofuelswillbenefitthepoorestofthepoor.Inordertoreach
Senegalspoorest,theremustbedeliberateattentiontotheirneedsandcarefulmanagement
atalllevelsofproduction.AsJoachimvonBraunandR.K.PachauriwriteintheirreportThe
PromisesandChallengesofBiofuelsforthePoorinDevelopingCountries,
Ascountriesmovetostrengthentheirenergysecuritybyincreasingtheiruseofbiofuels,they
shouldalsoworktoensurepoorpeoplesandsmallfarmersparticipationinthecreationofa
moresustainableglobalenergysystem.Withsoundtechnologyandtradepolicies,win-win
44RenewableEnergyfromUrbanBiomass.EnergyStudiesInstituteBulletin(2:1).June2009.
http://www.esi.nus.edu.sg/news/2012/02/09/renewable-bioenergy-from-urban-biomass45Ibid.
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solutionsthatis,positiveoutcomesforthepooraswellasforenergyefficiencyarepossible
withbiofuelsindevelopingcountries.46
OtherSocialImpacts?
Lackofaccesstomodernenergyservicesaffectsnotonlyeconomicproductivityandthe
environment,butisastumblingblocktotheadequateprovisionofotheressentialbasic
servicessuchashealthcareandeducation.47Accordingtoa2011reportbytheUnited
NationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),recentempiricalevidenceindicatesthataccessto
modernenergyinpoorcommunitiesprovidesthebasisforalleviatingpovertyandproducing
ruraldevelopment.
Donecorrectly,thereportsaysbioenergycancontributetoprovidingcleanenergyaccessin
ruralareasandthushelpcreateeconomicopportunities,generaterevenue,andcatalyzerural
development.OnecasestudyconductedinMalidemonstratessomeofthesocialbenefitsthat
canarisefromaccesstobioenergy.Mali,likeSenegal,isalsolocatedinWesternAfrica;the
villagestudiedislocatedinsouthernMali,about200milessoutheastofSenegal.
CaseStudy:GaraloVillageElectrification,Mali
TheGaralovillageelectrificationrepresentsacommunity-levelapproachtoruralenergy
challenges.Thebudgetwas$765,000andtheinitiativeprovideselectricityto250subscribers,
privatehouseholdsandcommunityfacilities.Italsoprovideselectricitytopower42public
streetlights.Thegeneratorusedisahybridpowerplantthatrunsformorethanfivehoursdaily
ondieselandjatrophacurcasoil.
46VonBraun,JoachimandR.K.Pachauri.ThePromisesandChallengesofBiofuelsforthePoorinDevelopingCountries.InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute.2006.14.47Bioenergy:Thepotentialforruraldevelopmentandpovertyalleviation.UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.2011.8.
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Socialbenefitsoftheprojectinclude:
- Considerableeducationalprogressforstudentswhocannowreadatnightintheirhomes;
48
- Localorganizationalstructuressuchasajatrophacooperativeandavillageelectricitycommitteetorepresentthepopulationinenergyquestions,andtheconstructionofa
powerhouseandoffices;
- Increasedinformationandcommunicationtechnologiessuchastelevisions,radios,andpersonalcomputersinthevillage;
- Income-generatingactivitiesforfarmersandwomensgroupswhoparticipateinjatrophaseedproduction.
Whilethebenefitsofusingjatrophaasafeedstockforbiofuelproductionaredebatable,a
similarlocalbioenergyprojectcouldgreatlyadvancedevelopmentinSenegalandprovide
numeroussocialbenefits.
48UNEP,11.
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III. FeedstockProfilesOurcontinentshouldhaveasitsvocationtobecometheprimaryworldsupplierofbiofuels,
[]Thissteptodevelopmentcleanenergyisallthemorepertinentbecauseitcallsfor
immenseareasofcultivableland,whereAfricabenefitsfromaclearadvantage,49
-PresidentofSenegalAbdoulayeWade,Reuters,July28,2006.
BiofuelsandSocialConflict
Thoseinterestedintheopportunitiesforbiofueldevelopmentappreciatetheinterestmadeby
Africanpolicymakerswhenrealizingthepotentialroleofbiofuelsasrenewableenergy.
Biofuelspresentopportunitiesforincreasingruralincomesandreducingpovertywhen
managedcarefullyfromaperspectivetoincludetheinterestsofpeoplewhoselivelihoods
dependontheland.50Withadequateplanning,clearlyidentifieddevelopmentoutcomes,and
environmentalandsocialimpactassessmentsaswellasacommitmenttoimprovingthelivesof
theruralpoor,biofuelsmightbecomeanappropriateopportunitytopursueinorderto
revitalizeruraleconomies.Importantly,abiofuelsdevelopmentstrategythatfavorsthepoor
alsorequiresprovisionsforsmallfarmerstogainaccesstomarketsandtraining.51These
provisionsforsmallfarmersincludesocialfactorssuchas:accesstoland,localfoodsecurity,
inclusionofsmallholdersandincomegeneration,communitydevelopment,energysecurityand
localaccesstoenergy,andgenderequity.
Ourstudyyieldedthreeprimefeedstockconsiderations:
A. PeanutsB. SweetSorghumC. Sugarcane
49Africancountriesunitetosetupbiofuelassociation.MorningStar.29July2006.http://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/news/content/view/full/3295250Wolde-Georgis,Tsegay&MichaelH.Glantz.BiofuelsinAfrica:APathwaytoDevlopment.InternationalResearchCenterforEnergyandEconomicDevelopment.http://www.ccb-boulder.org/wp-
content/uploads/2013/01/biofuels-in-africa.pdf 51LodeMessenmaker,op.cit.
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A.PeanutsEnvironmentalIndicators
PeanutsareacashcropandanexistingindustryinSenegal.52Duetotheir15-18%oilcontent,
asabiofueltheyarehighlyregardedforbiodiesel.Biodiesel,ingeneral,isregardedashighly
interchangeableandabletobeblendedwithtraditionalpetroleum-baseddiesel.53
InaccordancewiththeGBEPEnvironmentalindicators,wehaveresearchedtheareasofGHG
emissions,soilquality,harvestlevelsofwoodresources,water-useandefficiency,water
quality,biologicaldiversity,andlanduseandland-usechangerelatedtobioenergyasthey
relatetopeanuts.
Carbonisamongthegreenhousegasesemittedbypeanutsduringtherefiningprocess.
However,comparedtotraditionalfuelsources,peanutsreduceGHGemissionsbyabout78%
(notincludingland-usechanges).54PeanutbiodieselGHGemissionsoverallreduceoverhalfthe
amountofemissionsoftraditionalfossilfuels.55
Peanutsgrowbestinloose,well-drained,sandysoil.56Thistypeofsoilistraditionallyfoundin
dry,warmclimatessuchasthatofthePeanutBasininSenegal.
57
ThePeanutBasiniseastofDakarandaccountsforabout30%ofSenegalslandarea.
58PeanutsinSenegalalreadyaccount
forroughly4,638.7ha,about40%ofthearablelandinSenegal.Althoughpeanutsarethemain
cropscurrentlyinthePeanutBasinregion,therearesomecottonandsorghumcropsbeing
growninthatareaaswell,mainlyasrotationcropswithpeanuts.Changingthislandfrom
peanutstoanothercropcouldbeverynegativetothecountrysGDPbecausepeanutsmakeup
52AgricultureinSenegal.Wikipedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Senegal53Biodiesel.Wikipedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel54Biodiesel.CenterforClimateandEnergySolutions.http://www.c2es.org/technology/factsheet/biodiesel
55Ibid.
56Howpeanutsaregrown.ThePeanutVan.http://www.peanutvan.com.au/how-peanuts-are-grown.php57SenegalAgriculture.EncyclopediaoftheNations.http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Senegal-AGRICULTURE.html58NaturalresourcesmanagementandsustainabledevelopmentinthePeanutBasinofSenegal.SenegaleseAssociationforthePromotionoforganicAgriculture.http://www.aspab.interconnection.org/projects/p2-en.html
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about60%ofagriculturalexportsforSenegal.Also,growingmorepeanutscouldaffectfood
suppliesiftheyaregrownonarablelandthatismoresuitableforfoodcrops,suchasriceor
wheat.
Peanutsarerotatedwithcropslikecotton,sorghum,andsugarcane.Forpeanutstoprosper
theyrequireabout1to2inchesofwaterperweek.59Therearenopollutantsreleasedby
themintothesoil.Nitrogenandironbasedfertilizersareknowntoincreaseyields,butthere
areknowncasesofnitrogenbeingleakedintowaterways.60Whenthesepollutedwaterways
reachtheoceanorlakestheycreatewhatareknownasdeadzones.Thesedeadzonesare
areasnearcoastlineswherenitrogenhasabsorbedoxygeninthewaterandcreatesanexpanse
ofwaterthatisinhabitabletomarinewildlife.ThiscouldgreatlyimpactSenegalbecausethey
alsohavealargefishingindustrythataccountsforalargeportionofexportsandGDP.61
Ifprocessedintobiodiesel,peanutswouldreducewoodgathering,especiallyifdiesel-powered
stoveswerebeingused.Also,becausebiodieselisnearlyinterchangeablewithfossilfueldiesel,
theprospectofpeanutbiodieselisliabletomakepositiveimpactsinruralandurbancentersif
theyusedieselpoweredgeneratorstoprovideelectricity.62
59Howpeanutsaregrown.60Gohari,AliAbdzad&SeyyedAliNoorhosseiniNiyaki.EffectsofironandnitrogenfertilizersonyieldandyieldcomponentsofpeanutinAstanehAshrafiyeh,Iran.American-EurasianJournalofAgriculturalandEnvironmental
Science,9(3):256-262,2010.http://idosi.org/aejaes/jaes9(3)/5.pdf61Biello,David.Fertilizerrunoffoverwhelmsstreamsandriverscreatingvastdeadzones.ScientificAmerican.14March2008.http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fertilizer-runoff-overwhelms-streams62Biodieselstovenowwerecooking.BiodieselEnergyRevolution.http://www.biodiesel-energy-revolution.com/biodiesel-stove.html
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SocialIndicators
Access
AccordingtoFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO),Senegalsyieldforpeanutsin2010was
1.08metrictonsperhectare,producingatotalof1,286,860tonsofpeanuts.63However,in
2011theiryieldwascutinhalfto527,528tonsduetoadrought.
ForsustainabledevelopmentstrategiesinSenegalitisbesttodeterminethedegreeofland-
tenureofSenegalspeanutfarmersbylookingatthePeanutBasin,whichisnearly30%ofthe
nationslandareaandaccountsforaroundthree-quartersofSenegalsgrainandpeanut.64
AccordingtoastudybyUSAID,themajorityofSenegalspopulationlivesandfarmsinthisarea.
ThisregionistheheartofSenegalsagriculturedevelopment.Socialfactorsinthisareatobe
consideredarethedifferentsubgroupsofthepopulationwhichincludeethnicgroups,men,
women,children,aswellastheinclusionoffarmers,theirtraditionalknowledgeofsurrounding
areas,andtheirparticipationandchoiceinthedevelopmentprocess.
Jobs
AccordingtoSUNEOR,thelargestfoodcompanyandexportofpeanutoilinthecountry,
peanutsaretheengineoftheruraleconomyandtheirproductionaccountsforaround40%of
cultivatedland,takinguptwomillionhectares.Thepeanutsectorprovidesemploymentforas
manyasonemillionpeople.
However,thepeanutindustryiscurrentlyfacingfinancialtroublesthatdirectlyaffectthe
incomeofthesmallfarmer.AstudyproducedbytheInternationalIslamicTradeFinance
Corporation(ITFC)inpartnershipwiththeInternationalTradeCentre(ITC)showsthatglobal
demandforpeanutoilhasbeengraduallydecliningoverthepastfewyears,duetothe
increasedavailabilityofcheaperpalmandsoybeanoilsubstitutesandtheirregularsuppliesof
Africa,CaribbeanandPacific(ACP)exportingcountries.Duetothisdropinpeanutdemand,the
63FAOSTAT.FAO.http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor
64NaturalresourcesmanagementandsustainabledevelopmentinthePeanutBasinofSenegal.
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localoilseedcrushersareunlikelytoprocesslargeramountsofgroundnutsregardlessofthe
increasesinproduction.
AccordingtoUDAForeignAgricultureServicereportissuesJuneof2011,Groundnutswere
deliveredtofactories,yetverylittlemoneyreturnedtofarmers.Forsomecommunities,such
asthevillagesSikatourm,Koumbole,Kavil,andSanguel,intheheartofthegroundnutbasin,
largestocksofgroundnutshadbeenleftinthehandsofproducers.Itwasreportedthatinthe
ruralcommunityofFandene,morethan70%ofproducerscouldnotselltheirgroundnuts.65
ThesefinancialissuesarearesultoftroublesbetweentheGovernmentofSenegalandtheoil
processingcompanies.
Income
InadditiontofinancialinstabilitywithintheGovernmentofSenegalandSengalstopthreeoil
processingcompanies,ComplexeAgro-IndustrieldeTouba(CAIT),NouvellesValorisation
d'ArachideduSenegal(Novasen)andSuneor(whosecompanysexportsofpeanutoilaccounts
for45-50%oftheworldmarkettransactions),manyfarmersarenotbeingpaidenoughoron
time.66Aspartofofficialmarketingchannels,farmersusuallydelivertheirpeanutgrainstooil
processingfactoriesusingprivateoperatorsinchargeofstockingandtransportation(OPS).
However,duetoinsufficientfundsin2011,processingcompanieswereunabletosecure
financesnecessarytopurchaseandprocessthecrop.ThisledtomanyOPSnoreceivingtheir
money,andinreturntheycouldnotpayfarmersfortheirgrains.
Manyfarmershavereceivedbonimpays,alsoknownasI.O.U.s,fordeliveredgrains.The
OPSandthefarmersaresupposedtobepaidwhentheoilseedproducersreceivemoremoney
fromthebank.However,sincegroundnutplantingbeginsduringtherainyseason,aroundJune
orJuly,thismeansthatunlessfarmersfindadifferentsourceofrevenue,theywaithalfayear
orlongerbeforebeingpaid.
65http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Oilseeds%20and%20products%20Annual%20Update%
202011_Dakar_Senegal_6-30-2011.pdf66SuneorSA.InstitueofDevelopingEconomiesJapanExternalTradeOrganization.http://www.ide.go.jp/English/Data/Africa_file/Company/senegal04.html
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AccordingtoaUSDAreportin2012,halfwaythrough2010/11,a$32.4milliondebthadbeen
createdbyoilprocessors-leaving60%ofthefarmerswithoutpaymentforthe140,000MTof
peanutscollectedatthattime.
Manyfarmers,whopreviouslyreceivedbonimpays,haveturnedawayfromthemarketing
systemorganizedbythestate.Insteadofworkingwithprivateoperatorsinchargeofstocking
andtransportationofgroundnuts,thefarmerssellthegroundnutsdirectlytoindividual
informalprivateoperators(OPI)usuallyatabetterpricecomparedtotheonefixedbythe
governmentofSenegal.
ABBCnewsarticleindicatedthattheUnionofAgriculturalCooperatives(UNCAS),whichlooks
aftertheinterestsofpeasantfarmersinover4,500villages,hasbeenlookingintonewtransportationsystemstohelpfarmerschannelgroundnutstoproductioncompaniessince
2002.Theydontnothavethenecessarycapitaldoachievethis.Changesareneededtoprovide
fornewchannelstotheSenegalesefarmer.67
Peanutsandfoodsecurity
PeanutsaremainlyexportedratherthanconsumedbySenegal,andwillnotaffectthenational
foodbasket.Althoughthehouseholdfoodbasketiscomplementedbygroundnutsand
cowpeas,cerealsrepresentapproximatelytwo-thirdsofthedietaryenergysupply.58%ofthe
Senegalesedietconsistsmainlyofcerealssuchasmillet,sorghum,andrice,andfish,themain
proteinsource,accountsfor47%ofproteinconsumed.68
GenderEqualityImpactingFoodSecurity
Tofocusontherolebothmenandwomenhaveinthepeanutsector,acasestudyfrompeanut
plantsinAsiaisexamined.Datafromthecasestudyprovidesinsightstothespecificrolesmen
andwomenplayinthepeanutproductionandhighlightsthedifferentvalueseachgendercan
67Simpson,Chris.PeanutbluesinSenegal.BBCNews.24May2002.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1964795.stm68SenegalFY2011-2015Multi-YearStrategy.FeedtheFuture.2011.http://www.feedthefuture.gov/sites/default/files/country/strategies/files/SenegalFTFMulti-YearStrategy.pdf
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providefortheirfamily.Womenareheavilyinvolvedintheagriculturesectoratalllevelsfrom
workinthefieldtopostharvestprocessingandmarketing.
AstudydonebyaThaiAgronomistfromKU,presentedresearchontheRoleofMenand
WomeninPeanutProductionandPost-harvestTechnologyinThailand.Dr.Jungjun
Duangpatraspresentationhighlightstheimportanceofthepeanutcropinsmall-farm
productionthatdependsonfamilylabor.Accordingtoherresearch,forhouseholdfood
securityinthepeanutsector,thewomen'sroleseemstobemoreimportantthanthatof
men.69
Dr.PatriciaC.Jimenez,fromFarmHomeResourcesManagement(FHRM)alsopresented
researchonPeanutsinHouseholdFoodSecurityandExtensionStrategiestoEnhanceWomen'sRoleinPeanutSector.Afterinterviewswithfemalepeanutproducersinthecentral
partofthePhilippines,herstudiesrevealedwomenfullyparticipatedinallpeanutproduction
activities,suchasinplowing,harrowing,planting,weeding,harvestingandpost-harvest
activitiessuchasdryingandstoring.Womenseffortswereveryinvolvedinpeanutprocessing
andincome-generatingtosupportfamilyincome.
RoleofFamiliesinthePeanutProduction
AsummaryfromDr.Jimenezprovidedthefollowingstatementonafamilymodelinthepeanut
business:Somefamiliesdotask-sharingintheirpeanutbusiness,fatherandsondothe
cookingwhilethemotheranddaughterdothepeanutvending.Thelocalgovernmentunitsand
theRuralImprovementClubsofthePhilippinesprovideeducationonthenutritional
importanceofpeanutinmanagingdietarydeficiencies.Therearealsoprogramstoinclude
peanutproductsinchildren'sfeedingprogram.Thismodelprovidesaglimpseintodifferent
keyfactorsthatsupportbothafamilyandtheproductionofpeanuts.70
69Duangpatra,Dr.Jungjun.ResourcePapers:Summaries.FAOCorporateDocumentRepository.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac794e/AC794E06.htm70FAOCorporateDocumentRepositoryProducedbyRegionalOfficeforAsia&Pacific
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EconomicIndicators
Productivity&Efficiency
Usingpeanutsasafeedstockforbiofuels,inparticularbiodiesel,isperhapsamoneylosing
endeavor.Calculationusingwhatinformationwasavailableshowsthatproducingbiodiesel,
soldat$3.06pergallon,willnotbringprofitorbreakevenwhencomparedtofarmingcost;
however,theproductioncostsarebasedonaUSfarmingmodelincludingmachineryand
irrigation.Mostlikely,mostSenegalesefarmsdonotuseheavymachineryorirrigation.
AccordingtoanarticlebyRoyRobinsonthedollarpergallonsubsidyisdrivingthebiodiesel
industry.Evenwithsoyoil,thepriceisnotcompetitivewithdiesel,withoutthedollarpergallon
subsidy.71
Agovernmentsubsidycouldensuretheprofitabilityofpeanutsasafeedstockfor
biofuels.Otherwise,Robinsondismissestheprofitabilityofpeanutsasafeedstockbysaying
thattheproblemispeanutoilontheworldmarketismorevaluablethansoyoil,making
conversiontobiodieseleconomicallyimpractical.72AccordingtoIndexMunde,thepriceof
peanutoilontheworldmarketis$1924.00,orroughly$6.02pergallon,opposedtobiodiesel,
whichisaroundthepriceofdieselwhichcurrentlystandsat3.04pergallon.73More
informationisneededaboutthescaleofpeanutfarminginSenegalandcurrentglobaland
Senegalesepriceanddemandforpeanutoilandbiodieseltosaywithconfidencethatusing
peanutsasafeedstockforbiodieselisanon-profitableendeavor.
Peanutsarebestusedfortheproductionofbiodieselasopposedtootherformsofbioenergy.
SenegalesepeanutcompanySuneoralreadyproducespeanutoil,which,accordingtoBoiled
PeanutWorld,isonlyafewstepsawayfrombecomingbiodiesel.74TheRobinsonarticleputs
71Robinson,Roy.PeanutBiodieselPromisingButCostlyAlternativeFuel.RenewableEnergyWorld.November8,2006.http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2006/11/peanut-biodiesel-promising-but-costly-
alternative-fuel-46465 72Ibid73IndexMunde.PeanutOilvsDiesel-PriceRateofChangeComparison.March13,2013http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=peanut-oil&commodity=diesel74BoiledPeanutWorld.PeanutBiodiesel.2012.http://www.boiled-peanut-world.com/biodiesel.html
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peanutbiodieselproductionat123gallonsperacre,or303.93gallonsperhectare.75Suneor
producesaveragesaround900,000tonsto1milliontonsofpeanuts.76Expandingproduction
andusingtheexcessforbiodieselwouldcertainlyhaveapositiveeffectonenergyuseon
Senegal,asbiodieselcanbeusedinregulardieselengines.Anewinitiativeofa100hectare
peanutfarmwouldproducearound30,393gallonsofbiodiesel.Asthescaleofthefarming
endeavorincreasesodoestheimpactthatbiodieselwouldhaveonfueluseinSenegal,any
productionofpeanutoilbiodieselwouldhaveapositiveenergyimpactaspeanutoilbiodiesel
hasapositivenetenergybalanceinproduction.
75Ibid
76SuneorSA.
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B. SweetSorghumEnvironmentalIndicators
Sweetsorghumhasashort4-monthgrowingseason,andcanberotatedwithsugarcane,
resultingin2harvestsperyear.77Eachgrowingseasonrequires12to15inchesofrain,or24to
30inchesoverthecourseoftheyear,whichalignswellwiththe27inchesofrainSenegalgets
peryear.Putanotherway,twoharvestsperyearrequire8000m3ofwaterperhectare.Sweet
sorghumgrowsinavarietyofsoiltypesanddepths,andcantoleratesomeamountofsalinity.78
Littlenitrogenisneededinfertilizertogrowthefeedstock,only100to200kilogramsper
hectareperyear,whichmeansthatlessnitrogenwillleakintothewaterduringprocessing.
Greenhousegas(GHG)emissionsareamajorconcerninthebiofuelindustry.Biofuelfrom
sweetsorghumhaveshownareductionofGHGsinMozambique,withasavingpotentialof
1515.99to1203.58CO2eqperyearwhenusedforelectricityenergygeneration.79Inaddition,
firstandsecondgenerationbioethanolcontributestothemitigationofGHGs.However,sweet
sorghum-basedethanolrankspoorlyagainstfossilfuelinregardstoacidification,
eutrophication,photochemicalsmog,andozonedepletion.80
Biofuelfromsweetsorghumarestillbeingresearchedanddeveloped,buttheoutcomeslook
promising.Eachpartofsweetsorghumcanbedistilledandusedtoproduceethanol.Per
hectare,thegraincanproduce760liters,juicefromthestalkcanproduce1400liters,and
residuescanproduce1000liters.Thebagasseisusedforfeed,pulp,andfertilizer,andmost
commonlyco-generatesheatandpower.Thereisalsoapossibilityfortheproductionof
pellets.81
77Elbehri,Aziz,AnnaSegerstedt,andPascalLiu.BiofuelsandtheSustainabilityChallenge.FoodandAgricultureOrganization,2013.21.78Sorghumfactsheetinfavorites79BiofuelsandtheSustainabilityChallenge.20. 80Ibid.,21
81Ibid.,19.
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Comparedtocrudeoil,sweetsorghumisextremelyefficient.Forbiofuelyields,sorghum
producesabout.21to.6tons(420to1200pounds)perhectare.Theproductionofethanol
fromgrainsandsugarandtheproductionofgreenelectricityfromsurplusbagasseresultsin
thesavingof3500litersofcrudeoilequivalentsperhectareofcultivationarea.Theproduction
offoodfromgrainsandethanolfromjuiceresultsinthesavingof2300litersofcrudeoil
equivalentsperhectareofcultivationarea.Dependingontheyield,productionmethod,and
landcoverpriortosweetsorghumcultivation,,about1.4to22kilogramsofCO2eqaresaved.82
SorghumisalreadygrownincentralandnorthernSenegalwiththepotentialforgrowthinthe
southernhighplains,reducingtheconcernforlanduseandland-usechange.Becausesorghum
isnotusedforfood,itdoescontributetothefoodsecuritydebate,anditcanbeintercropped
withlegumestoreducethefertilizerrequirementandaddtothefoodsupply.Overall,sweet
sorghumisanenvironmentallyviableoptionforbiofuelinSenegal.
82Ibid.,20.
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SocialIndicators
LandTenure
AccordingtoUSDAsagriculturalresearch,sorghumsyieldofdrymatteraverages5.8tonsper
acreandethanolyieldaverageof198gallonsperacre.Theoptimumnitrogenfertilizerrate
requiredtomaximizeprofitis90poundsperacre.83Achievinggoodyieldsmayrequirehigher
inputsofpesticidesandfertilizersaswellastillageandirrigation.Newvarietiesandethanol
beingattainedfromlignocellulose-richstalksafterfermentationofthejuicehaveestimated
ethanolyieldsof760litersperhectarefromthegrainand1,400litersperhectarefromthe
residues.Biofuelyieldsrangebetween0.21and0.6tonsperhectare.
TheFAOsaysthatallcomponentsoftheplanthaveeconomicvalue.Thepotentialusesofall
partsofsorghumsfeedstockincludethegrainbeingusedasfood,theleavesforforage,the
stalk(alongwiththegrain)forfuel,andthefiber(cellulose)eitherasmulch,animalfeed,or
fuel.Morespecifically,thebagasse(cropresidueleftafterjuiceextraction)canbedriedand
burnedtofuelethanoldistillationandtheseresiduesbeingusedforanimalfeed,paper,pulp,
fuelpellets,orfertilizerwiththemostcommonfunctionbeingforco-generationofheatand
power.84
Thesimplicityofethanolproductionfromsweetsorghumcouldlenditselftoon-farmorsmall-
cooperativeeffortsatfuelmaking.Ethanolproductionplantscouldchoose,withsome
additionalequipment,tomakeseasonalrunsofsweetsorghumjuice.Thecropsstalkscontain
upto75%juice,varyingbetween12-23%insugar.85Althoughsweetsorghumhasanobvious
advantagebecauseitssugarcontentrequiresfewerandcheaperenzymesforconversionthan
otherleadingmaterialssuchascornstarch.However,thejuiceisperishableandneedstobe
fermentedimmediately.
83USDAForeignAgricultureServicedatabase.http://www.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/psdQuery.aspx
84SweetSorghumResearch.UniversityofNebraskaLincoln:DepartmentofAgronomyandHorticulture.
http://agronomy.unl.edu/sweetsorghum85Ibid.
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Becausetherearenocurrentcommercialharvestersdesignedspecificallyforthecrop,sorghum
istypicallyprocessedintosyrupforhumanconsumptionthroughlabor-intensive,farming
practices.AccordingtoreportsofaU.S.basedcompanyworkingwithsweetsorghumcalled
BioDemensionsInc.,themajorityofthesweetsorghumbeinggrowntodayisusedtomake
sorghumsyrup,andgrownandproducedbyfairlysmallfarmerswhosellitlocally.86
BioDemensionsInc.isabusinessdevelopmentcompanythatharvests,crushes,andprocesses
sweetsorghum.Aportionofthesugarisfermentedtoethanol,whilethebagassewillbe
evaluatedforbothfuelpelletsandanimalfeed.Thehydrousethanolcreatedinthisprocessis
usedinanindustrialenginetopowertheon-siterollmill,whichextractsthesweetsorghum
juicefromthecane.
Sorghumisahigh-yielding,nutrient-efficient,anddroughttolerantcropthatisvitaltomeeting
theworldsgrowingdemandforsustainableagriculturalsystemsandcanbecultivatedonover
80%oftheworldsagriculturalland.Currently,sorghumisbeinggrowninthecentraland
northernregionsofSenegal.87Withanagriculturalpopulationof8,734farmersin2010,43.61%
offemalesareactiveinagriculturalwork,while56.39%aremale.Ofthepopulationactivein
agriculture,56.98%arefromruralvillages,while43.02%arefromurbanareas.88Smallholder
farmersinSenegalpredominantlyproducesweetsorghum.Althoughproductioncostsare
about50%lowerforlargerbiofuelplants,studiesshowthatsmall-scaleproductionisalso
viableandshowsgreatpotential.
Access
Comparedtotraditionalbiomasscollection,morepeoplewillhaveaccesstoenergyusingsweet
sorghumasabiofuelthroughgeneratedbioelectricity.Duringtheprocessofbiofuel
production,surplusbioelectricitycanbegeneratedfromsweetsorghumbagassesubstitutesfor
electricityoriginatingfromvariousfossilenergycarriers(i.e.coalandnaturalgas).Additionally,
86Greving,Bill.Thepotentialforsweetsorghumbiofuels.EthanolProducermagazine.15July2010.http://ethanolproducer.com/articles/6844/the-potential-for-sweet-sorghum-biofuels/87Senegal:Droughtcausesworriesinpeanutproducingregion.FAO:ProductionEstimatesandCropAssessment
Division.3September2002.http://www.fas.usda.gov/pecad2/highlights/2002/09/senegal/senegal_peanuts.htm88FAOdatabase.http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html#VISUALIZE_BY_AREA
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numerouscarbondioxideemissionscanbeavoided.Whentheentirebagasseisconvertedinto
second-generationethanol,theenergyforthefirst-generationethanolconversionoriginates
frometernalfossilenergy.89
Alongwithsweetsorghumgeneratingbioelectricity,thefeedstockhasthepotentialof
integratingwithsugarcanetosupplybothethanolandelectricity.Successfulproductiontrials
demonstratingthishavetakenplaceinEurope,Asia,andAfrica.Whenintegratingsweet
sorghumwithsugarcane,thefibrousresiduesobtainedfromtheextractionofsugarsfromthe
stemshavesimilarpropertiestosugarcanebagasse,whichcanbeusedinasimilarwayto
produceelectricity,aswellasprocessheatandpower.90
IntheFAOs2013study,theproductioncostsofsweetsorghumwere50%lowerforlargerbiofuelplants.However,otherstudiesshowthatsmall-scaleproductioncouldbeviableand
thatthebioenergygeneratedfromthisfeedstockhastheabilitytoreachpeopleinruralareas.
However,thetransportationandstorageofsweetsorghumpresentnumerousobstacles,
includinghowthebiomasswillbetransportedtoalocationforprocessing.Transportationand
storageposeachallengeforsmallholdersbecausesorghumneedstobeprocessedrapidlyafter
harvest(itlosessugarcontentifnotprocesseswithinthreeweeks)andthebulkinessofthe
feedstockwiththecropbeingover70%watercontent.Duetoreasons,thereisaneedforsolidinfrastructureandefficientorganizationinsorghumproduction.
Timeuse
IfbioelectricitycouldbegeneratedandsuppliedtoruralhouseholdswithinSenegal,sweet
sorghumcouldreducethetimespentcollectingbiomass.Forexample,ifethanolfromsorghum
canbeconvertedintofuelpellets,timetraditionallyspentgatheringmaterialswouldbe
significantlyreduced.Thisconversionispossiblethroughabioenergyfuelpelletmillfor
feedstock.TheHenanBrandMachineryCorporationlocatedinChinacurrentlyexportspellet
89Biofuelsandthesustainabilitychallenge.69.
90Ibid.,21
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millsfor$800-20,000dollars.Themillbreaksdownrawmaterialssuchassorghumstalkforfuel
pe