sensation&perception

7/31/2019 Sensation&Perception

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Sensation, Attentionand Perception


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Sensation

Stimulus-detection process

Sense organs respond to and translate stimuliinto nerve impulses sent to brain


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Sensory Processes

Psychophysics

Studies relations between physicalcharacteristics of stimuli and sensorycapabilities

Concerned with both:

Absolute limits of sensitivity Sensitivity to differences between stimuli


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Attention and Awareness

AttentionHighest Level of awarenessConsequence of earlier perception

Modes and LevelsOutward Vs Inward ModeAffect Vs Cognitive ModeConscious Vs Unconscious Levels


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Outward Vs Inward Mode

Outward ModeExperienced as focused concentrationRest information disregarded, not lost

Inward ModeWe appear not to be paying attention

Takes tension away from outward.


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Affect Vs Cognitive mode

Affect : Feelings & Emotions

Cognition : Thought and Information Processing

Present in both outward and inward modes.


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Conscious Vs Unconscious Levels

Conscious : Higher level of awareness

Preconcious : Memories which can be brought to

consciousness

Preattentional : Sensation which can be brought

to consciousness

Unconcious : Memories one cannot call


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4 Levels of attention

Preattention : Uses little capacity

Focal attention : Uses modest capacity

Comprehension : Make meaning out of word

Elaboration : Integration with existingknowledge


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Variables of Attention:

Involvement:Attention demands involvement, not physical

presenceAffective tags Danger BeautyIdentification

Things identical to us Appeal: stronger in adolscentsHuman InterestInterest in seeing joy, sorrow, elements of relations


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Variables of Attention (contd.):

Enhanced self-worth

Cultural Appeals

Transient needs satisfaction

Humor


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Experience:

ExpectationPeople get attracted to unexpected things.

NoveltyA new thing absorbs attention

HabituationHabituation makes you believe the thing.

Successive contrastAfter seeing a waterfall, the other things seem

going upwards.


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Attention

Some Environmental Factors Affecting Attention

Intensity Novelty

Movement Contrast Repetition


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Attention

Some Personal Factors Affecting Attention Motives Interests Threats to well-being

Gestalt Theory Wholes perceived are more than and different

from the sum of their parts


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Perception: is a processby which individuals organize

and interpret their sensoryimpressions in order to give meaning totheir environment.


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What Is The Perceptual Process?

Perception. The process by which people select, organize,

interpret, retrieve, and respond to information. Perceptual information is gathered from:

Sight. Hearing. Touch. Taste. Smell.


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Factors influencing the perceptual process.

Characteristics of the perceiver.

Characteristics of the setting.

Characteristics of the perceived.


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Characteristics of the perceiver. The perceptual process is influenced by the

perceivers:

Past experiences. Needs or motives.

Personality.

Values and attitudes.


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Characteristics of the setting. The perceptual process is influenced by the

settings:

Physical context.

Social context.

Organizational context.


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Characteristics of the perceived.

The perceptual process is influenced by characteristicsof the perceived person, object, or event, such as:

Contrast.

Intensity.

Figure-ground separation.

Size.

Motion. Repetition or novelty.


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The vase/two faces figure-ground illusion


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The OldWoman/YoungWoman Illusionand Frames of

Reference


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Frame of Reference Effect


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Social Information Processing ModelStages of the perceptual process.

Information attention and selection.

Organization of information.

Information interpretation.

Information retrieval. Choice of response


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Response to the perceptual process.

Thoughts.

Feelings. Actions.


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Social Perception - interpreting informationabout another person

Social PerceptionPerceiver Characteristics

Familiarity with target Attitudes/Mood Self-Concept Cognitive structure

Target Characteristics

Physical appearance Verbal communication Nonverbal cues Intentions

Situational Characteristics Interaction context Strength of situational cues

Barriers


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What Are Common Perceptual Distortions?

Common perceptual distortions include: Stereotypes or prototypes. Halo effects. Selective perception. Projection. Contrast effects. Self-fulfilling prophecy.


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StereotypesCombines information based on the category or

class to which a person, situation, or object belongs.

Strong impact at the organization stage.

Individual differences are obscured.


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Halo effects. Occur when one attribute of a person or

situation is used to develop an overallimpression of the individual or situation.

Likely to occur in the organization stage. Individual differences are obscured. Important in the performance appraisal

process.


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Selective perception. The tendency to single out those aspects of a

situation, person, or object that are consistentwith ones needs, values, or attitudes.

Strongest impact is at the attention stage. Perception checking with other persons can

help counter the adverse impact of selectiveperception.


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Projection. The assignment of ones personal attributes to

other individuals. Especially likely to occur in interpretation

stage. Projection can be controlled through a high

degree of self-awareness and empathy.


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Contrast effects. Occur when an individual is compared to other

people on the same characteristics on which

the others rank higher or lower.


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Self-fulfilling prophecy. The tendency to create or find in another

situation or individual that which one expectedto find.

Also called the Pygmalion effect. Can have either positive or negative outcomes.


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S lf P t ti


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Self Presentation

Expressing ourselves and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an

impression that is consistent with ones ideals.


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How Can The Perceptual Process Be Managed?

Impression management. A persons systematic attempt to behave in

ways that create and maintain desiredimpressions in others eyes.

Successful managers: Use impression management to enhance

their own images.

Are sensitive to other peoples use of impression management.


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Impression Management

Name dropping Appearance

Self-description Flattery Favors Agreement with opinion


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Impression Management Strategies

INGRATIATION: Deliberate effort to make afavorable impression, often through flattery.

SELF-PROMOTION: Efforts to make yourself appear to be more competent.

INTIMIDATION: Communicating an ability andinclination to provide negative outcomes to

others.

EXEMPLIFICATION: Creating an impression of moral superiority and integrity.


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Impression Management Strategies

SUPPLICATION: Creating an impression of being helpless, needy, weak, and dependent.

MODESTY: Creating an impression of beinglikeable and competent by understatingaccomplishments.

SELF-HANDICAPPING: A self-presentation

strategy in which a person creates obstacles forhis or her own performance. To excuse failure. To enhance success.


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How Can The Perceptual Process Be Managed?

Distortion management.

Managers should:

Balance automatic and controlled

information processing at the attention andselection stage.

Broaden their schemas at the organizing

stage. Be attuned to attributions at the

interpretation stage.


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What Is Attribution Theory?

Attribution theory aids in perceptualinterpretation by focusing on how people attemptto: Understand the causes of a certain event.

Assess responsibility for the outcomes of theevent.

Evaluate the personal qualities of the peopleinvolved in the event.


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Attribution Theory Elements

Personal/Dispositional Attribution The primary cause of an individuals actions is

some inherent internal characteristic thatinfluenced the behavior.

Situational Attribution The cause of an individuals actions is some

environmental condition that influenced thebehavior.


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Internal versus external attributions of causes of

behavior.

Internal causes are under the individuals

control. External causes are within the persons

environment.

4-6a


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Causal Attributions: Suspected or inferred causes of someones behavior.

Attributionsaffect our

subsequentbehavior

andexpectations

aboutpeople

A behavior

is observed

Peopleconsider theantecedents

of the

behavior- Whydid the

behavioroccur?

Peopledeterminethe causesof behavior

- Thisrepresents

anattribution

Antecedent Attribution Consequence

General Model of Attribution Process


4-6b


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Attribution Example

I will gotalk toemployeeand offersupport andcoaching.

- This

employeenever didthis before.- Theemployee isgoingthrough abad divorce.- Thisemployee is notmotivated.

The poorperformancewas due

to personalissuesoutside of work.

Antecedent Attribution Consequence

Anemployeeturns in a

report thatcontains many

errors



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Fundamental attribution error.

Applies to the evaluation of someone elsebehavior.

Attributing success to the influence of situational factors.

Attributing failure to the influence of personalfactors.


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Self-serving bias

Applies to the evaluation of our own behavior.

Attributing success to the influence of

personal factors .

Attributing failure to the influence of

situational factors .

4-7a


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ConsensusInvolves comparing an individuals behavior with that of his

or her peers.

Basic Premise : An attribution is based on the consensus,distinctiveness, and consistency of the observed behavior.

DistinctivenessInvolves comparing a persons behavior or accomplishmentson one task with the behavior or accomplishments from othertasks.

Highly distinctive behavior or results represents a situationwhere the current behavior or result is significantly differentfrom typical behavior or results on other tasks.

Kellys Model of Attribution


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