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1 SERCA2a Gene Transfer Decreases SR Calcium Leak and Reduces Ventricular Arrhythmias in a Model of Chronic Heart Failure Running title: Lyon et al.; SERCA2a reduces arrhythmias in heart failure Alexander R. Lyon MD PhD 1 , Mark L. Bannister PhD 1 , Tom Collins PhD 1 , Emma Pearce BSc 1 , Amir H. Sepehripour MD 1 , Sukhpreet S. Dubb MD 1 , Edwin Garcia MD PhD 1 , Peter O’Gara BSc 1 , Lifan Liang MD 2 , Erik Kohlbrenner BSc 2 , Roger J. Hajjar MD 2 , Nicholas S. Peters MD, FRCP 1 , Philip A. Poole-Wilson MD, FRCP 1* , Ken T. Macleod PhD 1** , and Sian E. Harding PhD 1** 1 National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom; 2 Cardiovascular Research Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY; * Deceased;** Joint last author Correspondence to: Alexander R. Lyon, MD PhD Department of Cardiac Medicine National Heart and Lung Institute Imperial College Flowers Building 4 th Floor London SW7 6AZ, United Kingdom. Phone: +44 (0) 7747 865597 Fax: +44 (0) 207 886 6910 Email [email protected] Journal Subject Codes: [132] Arrhythmias-basic studies; [136] Calcium cycling/excitation- contraction coupling; [88] Gene therapy; [148] Heart failure - basic studies n ng g Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph PhD D D D D D D 1** 1** 1** 1** 1** 1** 1** Heart and Lun Institute, I erial Coll e, London, United Kin cular Research Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New o Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, United Kin cular Research Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New Yo * Deceased;** Joint last author by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on April 30, 2018 http://circep.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from

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Page 1: SERCA2a Gene Transfer Decreases SR Calcium Leak and …circep.ahajournals.org/content/circae/early/2011/03/15/CIRCEP.110... · SERCA2a Gene Transfer Decreases SR Calcium Leak and

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SERCA2a Gene Transfer Decreases SR Calcium Leak and Reduces

Ventricular Arrhythmias in a Model of Chronic Heart Failure

Running title: Lyon et al.; SERCA2a reduces arrhythmias in heart failure

Alexander R. Lyon MD PhD1, Mark L. Bannister PhD1, Tom Collins PhD1,

Emma Pearce BSc1, Amir H. Sepehripour MD1, Sukhpreet S. Dubb MD1,

Edwin Garcia MD PhD1, Peter O’Gara BSc1, Lifan Liang MD2, Erik Kohlbrenner BSc2,

Roger J. Hajjar MD2, Nicholas S. Peters MD, FRCP1, Philip A. Poole-Wilson MD, FRCP1*,

Ken T. Macleod PhD1**, and Sian E. Harding PhD1**

1National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom; 2Cardiovascular Research Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY;

* Deceased;** Joint last author

Correspondence to:

Alexander R. Lyon, MD PhD

Department of Cardiac Medicine

National Heart and Lung Institute

Imperial College

Flowers Building 4th Floor

London SW7 6AZ, United Kingdom.

Phone: +44 (0) 7747 865597

Fax: +44 (0) 207 886 6910

Email [email protected]

Journal Subject Codes: [132] Arrhythmias-basic studies; [136] Calcium cycling/excitation-contraction coupling; [88] Gene therapy; [148] Heart failure - basic studies

nng g PhPhPhPhPhPhPhDDDDDDD1**1**1**1**1**1**1**

Heart and Lun Institute, I erial Coll e, London, United Kincular Research Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New oHeart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, United Kin

cular Research Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New Yo* Deceased;** Joint last author

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Abstract:

Background - Sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase 2a (SERCA2a) gene therapy

improves mechanical function in heart failure, and is under evaluation in a clinical trial. A

critical question is whether SERCA2a gene therapy predisposes to increased sarcoplasmic

reticulum calcium (SR Ca2+) leak, cellular triggered activity and ventricular arrhythmias in

the failing heart.

Methods and Results - We studied the influence of SERCA2a gene therapy upon ventricular

arrhythmogenesis in a rat chronic heart failure model. ECG telemetry studies revealed a

significant antiarrhythmic effect of SERCA2a gene therapy with reduction of both

spontaneous and catecholamine-induced arrhythmias in vivo. SERCA2a gene therapy also

reduced susceptibility to reentry arrhythmias in ex vivo programmed electrical stimulation

studies. Subcellular Ca2+ homeostasis and spontaneous SR Ca2+ leak characteristics were

measured in failing cardiomyocytes transfected in vivo with a novel AAV9.SERCA2a vector.

SR Ca2+ leak was reduced following SERCA2a gene therapy, with reversal of the greater

spark mass observed in the failing myocytes, despite normalisation of SR Ca2+ load.

SERCA2a reduced ryanodine receptor phosphorylation, thereby resetting SR Ca2+ leak

threshold, leading to reduced triggered activity in vitro. Both indirect effects of reverse

remodelling and direct SERCA2a effects appear to underlie the antiarrhythmic action.

Conclusions - SERCA2a gene therapy stabilizes SR Ca2+ load, reduces ryanodine receptor

phosphorylation and decreases SR Ca2+ leak, reduces cellular triggered activity in vitro and

spontaneous and catecholamine-induced ventricular arrhythmias in vivo in failing hearts.

SERCA2a gene therapy did not therefore predispose to arrhythmias, and may even represent

a novel antiarrhythmic strategy in heart failure.

Key words: Arrhythmia, Gene Therapy, Calcium, Heart Failure, SERCA2a

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Introduction

Sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase 2a (SERCA2a) gene therapy restores mechanical,

contractile and energetic function in failing human cardiomyocytes1 and animal models of

heart failure (HF).2-4 These beneficial effects form the scientific foundation for a clinical trial

of SERCA2a gene therapy for patients with chronic HF,5 a growing clinical epidemic where

morbidity and mortality remain high despite current conventional therapy.

One concern raised is whether SERCA2a gene transfer to the failing myocardium may

predispose to increased arrhythmic potential, despite the improvements in inotropic and

lusitropic function. However, the studies of SERCA2a expression and arrhythmogenesis

which raise these concerns have been performed on a normal, rather than a failing,

myocardial background.6, 7 The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) of the failing ventricular

myocardium is characterised by increased spontaneous diastolic calcium (Ca2+) release,

frequently measured as Ca2+ sparks in isolated cardiomyocytes, reflecting an increased

opening probability of the ryanodine receptors (RyR2).8, 9 As luminal SR Ca2+ levels

contribute to RyR2 gating,10, 11 and provide the electrochemical driving force for SR Ca2+

release,12 elevating SR Ca2+ by restoring SERCA2a function could hypothetically increase

spontaneous Ca2+ release and trigger arrhythmias. This would be a particular concern given

the increased sympathetic drive seen in heart failure patients, as 1adrenoceptor ( 1AR)

activation increases both SR Ca2+ loading by SERCA2a and may increase the risk of RyR2-

mediated diastolic leak.9 In the first clinical SERCA2a gene therapy trials, all patients have

mandatory implantable defibrillators or left ventricular assist device support which will offer

protection against malignant arrhythmias. However if SERCA2a gene therapy is to be

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ground.6, 7 The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) of the failing ventri

haracterised by increased spontaneous diastolic calcium (Ca2+) r

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extended to the wider heart failure population, are these precautions against proarrhythmia

required?

In this study we sought to address these specific concerns relating to SR Ca2+ leak and

arrhythmogenesis in the failing heart following SERCA2a gene transfer. We studied

spontaneous and catecholamine-induced arrhythmia generation in vivo in a chronic HF model

before and after heterogeneous SERCA2a gene transfer using ECG telemetry and ex vivo

with provocation protocols aimed at producing reentry arrhythmias. A significant

antiarrhythmic effect of SERCA2a gene transfer was detected and therefore we studied the

potential mechanisms for the antiarrhythmic effect. Using a novel AAV9.SERCA2a vector,

which yields more homogeneous (~90%) transfection efficiency four weeks after systemic

venous delivery,13 and lacks the confounding effects of green fluorescent protein, we studied

changes in cardiomyocyte SR Ca2+ content and spontaneous SR Ca2+ release events in freshly

isolated failing cardiomyocytes following in vivo SERCA2a gene transfer.

Methods

Extended methods are included in the online data supplement.

Study Protocols

Two heart failure plus SERCA2a gene therapy cohorts were studied using a previously

described rat model of post infarction chronic heart failure (Figure 1).14 Sham ligated

(SHAM) or age matched unoperated (AMC) animals served as non-failing controls.

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13 and lacks the confounding effects of green fluorescent protein

omyocyte SR Ca2+ content and spontaneous SR Ca2+ release eve

ardiomyocytes following in vivo SERCA2a gene transfer.

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Cohort 1: In vivo and Ex vivo Arrhythmia Protocol

In vivo arrhythmia assessment was performed using implantable ECG telemetry with

continuous 24 hour ECG recording for spontaneous ventricular arrhythmias, followed by an

in vivo intraperitoneal injection of 0.5mg/kg isoproterenol (ISO) for arrhythmia provocation.

Recordings were performed in HF animals at baseline (PREGENE), and six days after

receiving three 50 L intramyocardial injections of Ad.SERCA.GFP or Ad.GFP

(POSTGENE). SHAM cases received three location-matched Ad.GFP injections. Twenty-

four hours later Langendorff perfused hearts were studied for susceptibility to reentry

arrhythmias using programmed electrical stimulation. In a subgroup left ventricular function

was assessed one week post Ad.SERCA2a injection by pressure-volume (PV) analysis.14

Cohort 2: HF + AAV9.SERCA study for Isolated Cardiomyocyte Studies

Sixteen HF rats received a 300 L tail vein injection of AAV9.SERCA2a (2x1011 drp) at least

sixteen weeks post infarction. Four-six weeks later, hearts were harvested for either isolated

cardiomyocyte studies (n=12) or western blotting (n=4). A subgroup (n=6) underwent in vivo

PV analysis prior to sacrifice. HF rats without gene transfer and AMC served as controls.

Isolated Cardiomyocyte Aftercontraction Provocation Studies

The incidence of Ca2+-mediated delayed aftercontractions (DACs) was recorded in freshly

isolated cardiomyocytes at baseline and after perfusion with 1 nmol/L ISO and 100 nmol/L

ISO, with drug washout between doses.

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AAV9.SERCA study for Isolated Cardiomyocyte Studies

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Calcium Sparks, SR Calcium Load and Leak

Spark studies were performed as previously described by our group,14 with spark analysis

based on the standard algorithm developed by Cheng et al.15 Spark mass was calculated using

the following equation: spark amplitude x 1.206 x full width at half maximal amplitude

(FWHM)3 as previously reported.16 Spark-mediated SR leak was the product of spark mass

and frequency from individual myocytes. Total SR Ca2+leak was measured as the tetracaine-

dependent SR Ca2+ leak using the protocol described by Shannon et al,17 with caffeine-

sensitive SR Ca2+ load measured in series allowing SR leak/load calculation for individual

myocytes.

Ryanodine Receptor and Phospholamban Phosphorylation

Phosphorylation of RyR2 and phospholamban (PLB) at both protein kinase A (PKA)

(RyR2809, PLB-Ser16) and calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) (RyR2815,

PLB-Thr17) target sites were measured by Western blotting.

Statistical Analysis

Results were compared using 1 way ANOVA with Tukey’s posttest comparison (quantitative

arrhythmia and HF variables), Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunn’s posttest comparison (Ca2+

spark parameters), paired Student’s t-test (in vivo PREGENE and POSTGENE arrhythmias)

and Fishers exact test (arrhythmia incidence). A p value <0.05 determined statistical

significance.

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of RyR2 and phospholamban (PLB) at both protein kinase A (

eptor and Phospholamban Phosphorylation

of RyR2 and phospholamban (PLB) at both protein kinase A (P

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Results

SERCA2a Protein Levels after SERCA2a Gene Therapy

Focal GFP fluorescence in injected regions was demonstrated in all hearts receiving

Ad.SERCA2a.GFP or Ad.GFP gene transfer in Cohort 1 seven days after intramyocardial

gene injection (Figure 2A). Ad.SERCA2a gene transfer significantly increased SERCA2a

protein levels in the injected and remote uninjected regions compared with both fluorescent

and non-fluorescent regions from HF+GFP hearts (p=0.01) (Figures 2B and S1). Intravenous

AAV9.SERCA2a gene transfer also successfully increased myocardial SERCA2a protein

levels in failing rats in cohort 2 at 4-6 weeks post injection (Figure 2C).

In Vivo Left Ventricular Function (cohorts 1 and 2)

Parameters of systolic and diastolic function, and energetic efficiency, as measured by PV

analysis, were significantly improved in HF rats after treatment with either

Ad.SERCA2a.GFP or AAV9.SERCA2a gene transfer compared with untreated HF controls,

confirming previous observations that SERCA2a gene transfer acts as a positive inotrope and

lusitrope in the failing heart (Figures 2D-G).2-4

Arrhythmia Studies: Cohort 1:

In Vivo Arrhythmias

Spontaneous Ventricular Arrhythmias

This HF model is characterised by a high frequency of spontaneous ventricular arrhythmias

(mean 4269 ventricular arrhythmias per heart per day (n=16)), with the majority being

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stolic and diastolic function, and energetic efficiency, as meas r

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ntricular Function (cohorts 1 and 2)

stolic and diastolic function, and energetic efficiency, as measur

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isolated ventricular ectopic (VE) beats (mean 4025 VEs per heart per day (94% of total

ventricular arrhythmias)) (Figure 3A-B). Heterogeneous Ad.SERCA2a injection significantly

reduced both the total number of spontaneous ventricular arrhythmias (Figure 3A) and the

number of complex ventricular arrhythmias (Figure 3B), compared to HF+GFP and the HF

(PREGENE) phenotype. There was no difference in ventricular arrhythmia incidence in

PREGENE HF cohorts between rats receiving Ad.SERCA2a and those receiving control

Ad.GFP injections. Daily arrhythmia analysis after gene injection in a subgroup of cases

showed a reduction in the arrhythmia burden with the predicted onset of SERCA2a transgene

expression, and no evidence for an early proarrhythmic effect upon spontaneous ventricular

arrhythmogenesis (Figure S2). Spontaneous malignant ventricular arrhythmias (sustained VT

(>30s) and VF (reversible or fatal)) were rare, recorded in 2/16 HF rats (PREGENE), 2/8

HF+GFP rats, 1/8 HF+SERCA2a rats and absent in SHAM MI cases. Analogous to in vitro

studies of APD with SERCA2a overexpression,18 heterogeneous SERCA2a transduction

significantly shortened the abnormally prolonged QT90 (ms) in this HF model in vivo:

SHAM MI + GFP 60 2, HF+GFP 89 2, HF+SERCA 77 2 (p=0.005 vs HF+GFP).

Isoproterenol-Induced Ventricular Arrhythmias

The in vivo ISO injection protocol (0.5mg/kg), which produced matched heart rate responses

in the three study groups (Figure S3), induced a high incidence of malignant arrhythmias in

the HF model. Fatal ventricular fibrillation was triggered in 4/20 HF cases, with reversible

VF observed in a further two HF (PREGENE) cases. ISO-induced VT was present in 11/16

surviving cases. Heterogeneous SERCA2a transfection significantly reduced the total number

of ISO-induced ventricular arrhythmias during the sixty minute period post ISO injection

(Figure 3C). Interestingly SERCA2a transfection completely abolished ISO-induced VT and

VF in the failing hearts, whereas ISO-induced VT was present in 15/20 (75%) of HF

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with SERCA2a overexpression,18 heterogeneous SERCA2a trans

rtened the abnormally prolonged QT90 (ms) in this HF model in

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(PREGENE) and 5/8 (63%) of HF+GFP animals, but absent in SHAM MI + GFP cases

(Figure 3D).

Ex Vivo PES-Induced Ventricular Arrhythmias

SERCA2a transfection of the failing heart had an antiarrhythmic effect, significantly reducing

both the incidence of PES-induced VT (37 16% vs 86 14% p=0.04), and shortening the S2

interval (ms) at which VT was triggered (62 3 vs 73 3 p=0.04) compared to HF+GFP cases.

Arrhythmia Studies: Cohort 2:

Isolated Cardiomyocyte Studies

Cardiomyocytes isolated from infarcted hearts displayed a typical failing phenotype, with

slower Ca2+ transient decay times (Figure 4A), reduced SR Ca2+ content (Figure 4B) and

increased spark frequency (Figure 5). As noted above AAV9.SERCA2a gene transfer

increased myocardial SERCA2a protein levels in failing rats (Figure 2C), leading to

restoration of SR Ca2+ content and transient decay times toward normal levels (Figure 4A-B).

Ca2+ Sparks

Ca2+ spark frequency, and the ratio of Ca2+ sparks:SR load, was higher in the failing

myocytes but did not increase further following SERCA2a gene therapy (Figure 5B and E),

suggesting that the increased SR Ca2+ content after SERCA2a treatment did not promote

additional increases in RyR2 opening frequency in failing cardiomyocytes with a baseline

‘leaky’ SR. Ca2+ spark mass, a parameter reflecting the amount of calcium released with each

spark, was significantly increased in failing myocytes, and reduced to normal levels in failing

myocytes after SERCA2a gene transfer (Figure 5C). The total spark-mediated SR Ca2+ leak,

the product of spark mass and frequency, was also reduced by SERCA2a gene transfer

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frequency (Figure 5). As noted above AAV9.SERCA2a gene t n

rdial SERCA2a protein levels in failing rats (Figure 2C), leadi g

isolated from infarcted hearts displayed a typical failing phenoty

sient decay times (Figure 4A), reduced SR Ca2+ content (Figure 4

frequency (Figure 5). As noted above AAV9.SERCA2a gene tran

rdial SERCA2a protein levels in failing rats (Figure 2C), leading

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(Figure 5D). Interestingly, after SERCA2a gene therapy the degree of spark-mediated SR

Ca2+ leak per unit SR Ca2+ load was significantly reduced (Figure 5F).

Total SR Ca2+ Leak

It has been recently reported that SR Ca2+ leak may also result from spark independent

mechanisms.19 To account for this, ‘total’ SR Ca2+ leak was measured using tetracaine

perfusion to inhibit RyR2 opening in cardiomyocytes isolated from a separate cohort of study

hearts (Figure 6). Tetracaine-dependent SR Ca2+ leak was increased in cardiomyocytes from

the HF model, and was lowered to normal levels in myocytes from HF+SERCA2a hearts

(Figure 6Bi). The SR Ca2+ content in this group of failing cardiomyocytes was reduced, and

elevated back towards normal levels after SERCA2a gene transfer (Figure 6Bii (see

reproducible change matched in figure 4B)). Similar to the spark-mediated leak, total SR

Ca2+ leak, when corrected for matched SR Ca2+ load, showed that rescue by SERCA2a gene

therapy restored a normal SR Ca2+ load/leak relationship (Figure 6Biii). These results

confirmed that SR Ca2+ leak threshold is lowered in heart failure (consistent with previously

reported studies) and this threshold is raised back towards normal levels after rescue by

SERCA2a gene therapy.

RyR2 Phosphorylation

Potential RyR2-dependent mechanisms for resetting of the SR Ca2+ leak threshold were

explored by measurement of RyR2 phosphorylation status. Phosphorylation at serine 2815,

the CaMKII site, after correction for total RyR2 levels, was increased in the HF model, and

reduced to normal levels after SERCA2a gene therapy (Figure 7). Phosphorylation of PLB at

the CaMKII site Thr17 was also increased in failing myocytes. SERCA2a demonstrated a

trend to reduced phosphorylation at PLB-Thr17, particularly in the PLB monomer fraction

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nge matched in figure 4B)). Similar to the spark-mediated leak,

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nge matched in figure 4B)). Similar to the spark-mediated leak,

corrected for matched SR Ca2+ load, showed that rescue by SER

a normal SR Ca2+ load/leak relationship (Figure 6Biii). These re

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(p=0.06 vs HF). Both RyR and PLB phosphorylation by PKA were increased in the HF

model, but unchanged following SERCA2a gene therapy (Figure 7).

Triggered Activity in Isolated Cardiomyocytes

Consistent with the observation of reduced spontaneous SR Ca2+ leak, and despite both

increased SR content and unaltered spark frequency, cardiomyocytes from HF+SERCA

hearts were more stable in vitro, with significantly fewer basal and ISO-induced Ca2+-

mediated DACs compared to HF controls (Figure 8).

Discussion

A number of pre-clinical studies have shown that restoration of SERCA2a protein levels and

activity by gene therapy improves cardiac function in failing ventricular myocardium.1-4

SERCA2a gene therapy represents the first therapeutic strategy specifically targeting

abnormal Ca2+ cycling in heart failure to be tested in a clinical trial.5 However concerns

regarding the potential for SERCA2a gene transfer to increase ventricular arrhythmia

susceptibility via disruption of the SR load-leak equilibrium in favor of increased leak have

been raised.6 Failing ventricular cardiomyocytes are characterised by increased spontaneous

SR Ca2+ release events (sparks) despite reduced SR Ca2+ stores and, intuitively, reloading a

leaky SR by restoring SERCA2a activity could be proarrhythmic, given the mechanistic links

between SR Ca2+ leak, triggered activity and ventricular arrhythmogenesis.20 Furthermore,

heterogeneous restoration of SERCA2a levels using the current vectors and delivery

techniques may increase the dispersion of repolarisation, a biophysical property which

supports continuous wavefront propagation through the failing ventricular myocardium.21

-clinical studies have shown that restoration of SERCA2a prot i

therapy improves cardiac function in failing ventricular myocard

therapy represents the first therapeutic strategy specifically targe

-clinical studies have shown that restoration of SERCA2a protei

therapy improves cardiac function in failing ventricular myocard

therapy represents the first therapeutic strategy specifically targe

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This study was designed to investigate the influence of SERCA2a gene transfer upon

arrhythmia generation and specifically the potential to influence Ca2+-induced arrhythmias in

the failing heart. The main findings of this study were: 1) SERCA2a gene transfer

significantly reduced spontaneous and ISO-induced ventricular arrhythmic events in vivo,

completely abolishing ISO-induced VT and VF (Figure 3). 2) SERCA2a gene transfer

significantly reduced the degree of QT prolongation, the incidence of PES-induced VT and

shortened the S2 cycle length at which VT was initiated compared to failing hearts. 3)

SERCA2a gene transfer normalised Ca2+ transient decay kinetics and reduced the incidence

of ISO-induced Ca2+-mediated delayed aftercontractions in failing cardiomyocytes (Figures 4

and 8). 4) SERCA2a gene therapy did not lower (or raise) spontaneous Ca2+ spark frequency,

but significantly reduced spark mass which had been raised in the HF model. Both spark-

mediated and total SR Ca2+ leak were reduced after SERCA2a gene therapy, despite the

normalised SR Ca2+ load. (Figures 5-6). 5) SERCA2a reduced RyR2 phosphorylation at

CaMKII sites to normal levels, suggesting that molecular remodelling underlies resetting of

the SR Ca2+ leak threshold (Figure 7).

What underpins this significant antiarrhythmic effect of SERCA2a gene transfer in the failing

heart? Several potential direct and indirect mechanisms may contribute, and it is important to

note that these are not mutually exclusive.

Reduced Arrhythmogenic SR Ca2+ Leak

1. Increased Ca2+ Buffering by SERCA2a

Results from the isolated cell studies support a direct antiarrhythmic effect upon intracellular

Ca2+ homeostasis. SERCA2a gene therapy reduced SR Ca2+ leak compared to failing

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al SR Ca2+ leak were reduced after SERCA2a gene therapy, desp

Ca2+ load. (Figures 5-6). 5) SERCA2a reduced RyR2 phosphoryl

normal levels, suggesting that molecular remodelling underlies r

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cardiomyocytes: since the leak is recognised to be proarrhythmic,8, 20 a reduction will be

beneficial. Restored SERCA2a levels may directly influence spark morphology and

arrhythmic potential by limiting the spatial spread of Ca2+ and preventing local Ca2+ elevation

to the threshold levels that initiate and propagate internal Ca2+-induced Ca2+-release,

spontaneous Ca2+ waves and delayed afterdepolarisations (DADs). Inhibiting SERCA2a

activity pharmacologically has previously been reported to prolong Ca2+ spark decay and

increase the space constant of spread for the released Ca2+ ions.22 Reduced DAD frequency in

failing cells after SERCA2a gene transfer was evident both spontaneously and particularly in

the presence of AR activation. Conceivably this may reflect the increased Ca2+ sink

resulting directly from increased SERCA2a activity, and indirectly via the restored capacity

of other cytoplasmic Ca2+ buffers which may be saturated in the failing heart. Modelling of

intracellular Ca2+ release and Ca2+ waves in ventricular cardiomyocytes demonstrated the

importance of resting cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels and buffering capacity to influence the

probability of wave propagation.23 In summary, the buffering effect of restored SERCA2a

levels and activity in the failing cardiomyocyte following gene transfer acts to stabilise the

cell, reducing the magnitude of the SR Ca2+ leak, and preventing the conversion of the

residual Ca2+ leak into arrhythmogenic DADs.

2. Stabilisation of RyR2 Gating

Stabilisation of RyR2 gating also represents an antiarrhythmic mechanism. The SR leak

phenotype in this HF model is reminiscent of that observed under other circumstances where

RyR2 opening probability is increased, such as after application of FK506 to normal

myocytes,24 or in mice overexpressing CaMKII.25 RyR2 mutations leading to increased Ca2+

sensitivity and opening probability also increase spark frequency despite reduced SR Ca2+

load.26 Recently it has been reported that aldosterone, which is increased in the serum and

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+ release and Ca2+ waves in ventricular cardiomyocytes demonst

sting cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels and buffering capacity to influence

ave propagation.23 In summary, the buffering effect of restored S

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myocardium in chronic heart failure patients, stimulates increased spark frequency, reflecting

increased RyR2 opening probability and SR Ca2+ leak.27

Reduced Ca2+ leak following SERCA2a gene transfer to failing cardiomyocytes may reflect

stabilised RyR2 gating. Phosphorylation of RyR2 at both PKA and CaMKII sites, both

elevated in this HF model, is known to increase RyR2 opening probability.8, 9

Phosphorylation at serine 2815, the putative CaMKII site, was reduced to normal levels in the

SERCA2a treated failing hearts (Figure 7). A recent report highlights the importance of the

S2815 CaMKII RyR2 phosphorylation site in the generation of arrhythmias in heart failure.28

Transgenic mice in which S2814 (the murine residue analogous to S2815 in the rat) is

constitutively activated via mutagenesis (S2814D) developed heart failure, increased SR Ca2+

leak and catecholamine-induced ventricular arrhythmias. In contrast, genetic ablation of this

RyR2 phosphorylation site (S2814A) protected against catecholamine-induced arrhythmias in

an aortic constriction model.28

Analogous phospholamban phosphorylation is also consistent with reduced functional

CaMKII activity in the failing hearts after SERCA2a gene therapy. CaMKII activation in

hypertrophy and heart failure may result from either higher basal Ca2+ levels, with increased

formation of calmodulin-Ca2+ complexes, or increased levels of oxidative stress via Ca2+-

independent activation.29, 30 SERCA2a gene transfer to failing cardiomyocytes lowers basal

Ca2+ levels,1 and improves myocardial energetics, a possible surrogate for lower levels of

oxidative stress (figure 2E),2 both changes lowering CaMKII activation. RyR2 stabilisation

may be further enhanced by lower basal cytoplasmic Ca2+ secondary to enhanced SERCA2a

function, as well as better local mitochondrial function resulting in improved local redox

status with reduced RyR2 oxidation by reactive oxygen species.31

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lamine-induced ventricular arrhythmias. In contrast, genetic ablat

ylation site (S2814A) protected against catecholamine-induced ar

ction model.28

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One proposed mechanism for increased SR Ca2+ leak in failing cells is a lowering of the

luminal Ca2+ threshold to trigger spontaneous opening, a process termed store overload-

induced Ca2+ release (SOICR).11, 32 When evaluated in terms of spark frequency, no change in

spark frequency:SR load ratio after SERCA2a gene transfer was observed (Figure 5E),

suggesting the restored SR Ca2+ levels via this intervention do not alter RyR2 channel

opening probability. However placing both the reduced spark-mediated and total SR leak in

the context of the normalised SR Ca2+ load, it appears likely that RyR2 gating by luminal

Ca2+ may also have been altered to a more stable configuration, increasing the threshold for

SOICR towards normal levels (Figure 5F and 6Biii).32 This is supported by previous studies

demonstrating that as SR leak increased the SR Ca2+ load was reduced.17 Our results suggest

that in the chronically failing heart there is a lower SOICR threshold with increased RyR2

phosphorylation and opening, greater leak, and hence lower SR Ca2+ load. These changes are

reversed after rescue by SERCA2a gene therapy, with lower levels of RyR2-2815

phosphorylation and reduced SR Ca2+ leak, and simultaneously the capacity to achieve the

increased SR Ca2+ load observed in this and previous studies after SERCA2a gene transfer.1

3. Indirect Antiarrhythmic effects from Reverse Remodelling of the Failing Ventricle

Recovery of mechanical left ventricular function is reported in various animal models

following SERCA2a gene therapy including this study.2-4 By acting as a ‘molecular left

ventricular assist device’ the improved function of SERCA2a-treated hearts may translate to a

reduction in arrhythmia generation via a number of potential indirect mechanisms. These

include reduced wall tension and the detrimental effects of mechanical-electrical feedback,33

reduction of adverse gene expression profiles,34 improved mitochondrial function and cellular

energetics.35, 36 The significant improvement of diastolic function, as well as some measures

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ically failing heart there is a lower SOICR threshold with increas

e

scue by SERCA2a gene therapy, with lower levels of RyR2-281

ically failing heart there is a lower SOICR threshold with increas

and opening, greater leak, and hence lower SR Ca2+ load. These

scue by SERCA2a gene therapy, with lower levels of RyR2-281

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of systolic function, would argue for a degree of functional recovery. The increased

SERCA2a levels in the remote myocardium would be consistent with the hypothesis that

reduction of arrhythmias is part of a global improvement, albeit produced by the focal

delivery (cohort 1).

Several of lines of evidence exist from this study to suggest it is not purely the indirect

benefits of reverse remodelling. Firstly in the model used (chronic post infarction heart

failure) the persistent presence of a large infarct (39-44% of the left ventricle (see table S1))

limits potential for full recovery of systolic function in either treated cohort. Secondly we

found no evidence of an acute proarrhythmic effect early in the SERCA2a treated hearts

when assessing spontaneous arrhythmias during the first six days after Ad.SERCA2a

injection (Figure S2). Indeed the in vivo antiarrhythmic effect appeared during the first 48

hours after transgene delivery in the Ad.SERCA2a treated cohort, at a time when significant

structural reverse remodelling is unlikely to have occurred.

SERCA2a gene transfer initiates reverse remodelling in an energetically favourable manner

(Figure 2E and ref.2), and this may further accelerate the progression from an electrically

unstable substrate to one with higher thresholds for arrhythmia inducibility and propagation.

Even if an acute proarrhythmic effect were present (and we have shown evidence against

this), then conceivably it could become balanced by the benefits of reverse remodelling of the

failing myocardium.

It is also plausible that the slower kinetics for restoration of SERCA2a activity using the viral

gene therapy approach may allow molecular reverse remodelling of SR-cytoplasmic Ca2+

cycling and SR leak to be generated in a safer manner, compared with an acute activation of

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gene delivery in the Ad.SERCA2a treated cohort, at a time when

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S2). Indeed the in vivo antiarrhythmic effect appeared during th

gene delivery in the Ad.SERCA2a treated cohort, at a time when

e remodelling is unlikely to have occurred.

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SERCA2a activity in the failing heart to immediate high levels using a pharmacological

approach. However again we have no evidence to support this concern, and no purely

selective SERCA2a activators are currently available to test this hypothesis.

Reduced Susceptibility to Reentry Arrhythmias

Several lines of evidence suggest that repolarisation was normalised and vulnerability to

reentry arrhythmias were reduced in the failing rat ventricle after SERCA2a gene transfer,

which may contribute to the antiarrhythmic effect. We have previously shown that SERCA2a

expression shortens action potential duration in isolated cardiomyocytes.18 In these studies

SERCA2a gene transfer reduced the QT interval, which was prolonged in this HF model.

Restoring SERCA2a protein levels and activity in the failing heart resulted in reduced

susceptibility to PES-induced reentry arrhythmias, and a narrowing of the time window of

vulnerability to premature electrical extrastimuli, demonstrated by both shortening of the S2

interval for VT inducibility and reduction of QT prolongation. Improving cardiomyocyte

Ca2+ cycling by SERCA2a gene therapy may therefore stabilise electrical heterogeneities in

the failing myocardium, an influence also observed after overexpression in the normal

heart.37

Failing myocardial substrate is critical for beneficial effects of SERCA2a gene therapy

It is interesting to contrast the findings of this study with those from SERCA2a

overexpression studies in normal myocytes, which in some settings have demonstrated the

potential for adverse effects with respect to excessive buffering 38 or proarrhythmia.6 The

context is critical. In these studies supraphysiological SERCA2a levels were introduced on a

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A2a protein levels and activity in the failing heart resulted in red

PES-induced reentry arrhythmias, and a narrowing of the time w

premature electrical extrastimuli, demonstrated by both shortenin

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background of normal myocyte physiology, and excessive SR-cytoplasmic Ca2+ cycling in

normal myocytes has detrimental effects, as observed in other models.39, 40 In contrast, this

paper highlights the beneficial effects of rescuing the failing myocyte, where basal SERCA2a

levels are low and contribute to both the mechanical dysfunction and arrhythmic substrate.

The results of this study highlight that in this context (heart failure), restoring SERCA2a to

normal levels via gene transfer stabilizes the SR Ca2+ physiology and has a potent

antiarrhythmic effect.

A limitation of this study is that rodent myocardial Ca2+ physiology differs from human, and

is more SERCA2a dependent. However the majority of the findings concerning SR Ca2+

load-leak, which gave rise to the potential concerns regarding SERCA2a gene therapy in the

‘leaky’ failing heart addressed in this paper, are derived from studies in rodent hearts or

isolated rat cardiomyocytes. The lack of increased leak or proarrhythmic effect in this

sensitive model which shows high susceptibility to Ca2+-dependent arrhythmias is

encouraging and reassuring, whilst accepting that only results from randomised controlled,

double blinded trials will answer the question regarding arrhythmogenesis in the human

heart. To date the twelve month follow up of 39 patients with chronic heart failure receiving

AAV1.SERCA2a gene therapy has been presented, and no proarrhythmic concerns have been

reported (AHA Scientific Sessions 2010).41 This would support our findings that SERCA2a

gene therapy can impart the benefits of a positive inotrope and induce reverse remodelling

while avoiding a proarrhythmic effect.

Conclusions

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eart addressed in this paper, are derived from studies in rodent e

omyocytes. The lack of increased leak or proarrhythmic effect n

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omyocytes. The lack of increased leak or proarrhythmic effect in

which shows high susceptibility to Ca2+-dependent arrhythmias i

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In summary, our study demonstrates significant antiarrhythmic effects of SERCA2a gene

transfer in the rat post myocardial infarction model of heart failure. Isolated ventricular

myocytes from the untreated failing hearts demonstrated increased spontaneous SR Ca2+ leak

and ISO-induced triggered activity in vitro, and animals with heart failure had increased

spontaneous and catecholamine-induced arrhythmias in vivo. Following SERCA2a gene

transfer SR Ca2+ levels were restored, RyR phosphorylation at serine 2815 was normalised,

spontaneous Ca2+ sparks were smaller and decayed faster, and total SR leak was reduced,

allowing the beneficial positive inotropic and lusitropic effects of SERCA2a gene therapy to

occur without an associated proarrhythmic tendency. This suggests that SERCA2a gene

therapy represents a novel therapeutic strategy with positive inotropic, lusitropic and

antiarrhythmic benefits, as opposed to the proarrhythmic effects observed with other positive

inotropes (e.g. AR agonists and phosphodiesterase inhibitors). These antiarrhythmic effects

of SERCA2a gene therapy appear to be the combination of both the indirect benefits of

electrical reverse remodelling in the recovering ventricle and direct effect of restored

SERCA2a protein levels upon intracellular calcium homeostasis, allowing the positive

inotropic benefits to be obtained without a proarrhythmic cost. In contrast to the previous a

priori concern, SERCA2a gene transfer does not predispose to arrhythmias and may even

represent a novel antiarrhythmic strategy in heart failure.

Funding Sources: ARL was supported by a UK Medical Research Council Clinical Research

Training Fellowship. This work was also in part funded by the Fondation Leducq. The

telemetry system was funded by the British Heart Foundation (BHF RG/05/009).

Conflict of Interest Disclosures:RJH is the scientific founder of Celladon Inc which is

developing AAV1.SERCA gene therapy for therapeutic purposes.

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e remodelling in the recovering ventricle and direct effect of resto

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2. del Monte F, Williams E, Lebeche D, Schmidt U, Rosenzweig A, Gwathmey JK, Lewandowski ED, Hajjar RJ. Improvement in survival and cardiac metabolism after gene transfer of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase in a rat model of heart failure. Circulation 2001;104:1424-9.

3. Kawase Y, Ly HQ, Prunier F, Lebeche D, Shi Y, Jin H, Hadri L, Yoneyama R, Hoshino K, Takewa Y, Sakata S, Peluso R, Zsebo K, Gwathmey JK, Tardif JC, Tanguay JF, Hajjar RJ. Reversal of Cardiac Dysfunction After Long-Term Expression of SERCA2a by Gene Transfer in a Pre-Clinical Model of Heart Failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;51:1112-9.

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10. Satoh H, Blatter LA, Bers DM. Effects of [Ca2+]i, SR Ca2+ load, and rest on Ca2+ spark frequency in ventricular myocytes. Am J Physiol 1997;272:H657-H668.

r RJ,, Kayyyyyyye DMMMMMMM.... . .. Rmmyoyoooooocacacacacacacardrdrdrdrdrdrdiaiaiaiaiaiaial l l l l l l fufufuuuufunnncncncnncne TTheheheheheheher r r rrrr 2020202020202008080808080808;1;1;1;1;1;1;15:555

J, Zsebo K, Deckelbaum L, Thompson C, Rudy J, Yaroshi sY, Wagner K, Borow K, Jaski B, London B, Greenberg B, P lng R, Mancini D, Jessup M. Design of a Phase 1/2 Trial of Iration of AAV1/SERCA2a in Patients With Heart Failure. J Ca3

E b B P i F A J Si id WS Vi i B

J, Zsebo K, Deckelbaum L, Thompson C, Rudy J, YaroshinsY, Wagner K, Borow K, Jaski B, London B, Greenberg B, Paulng R, Mancini D, Jessup M. Design of a Phase 1/2 Trial of Iration of AAV1/SERCA2a in Patients With Heart Failure. J Ca355-67.

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17. Shannon TR, Ginsburg KS, Bers DM. Quantitative assessment of the SR Ca2+ leak-load relationship. Circ Res 2002;91:594-600.

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atta EEEEEEEG,G,G,G,G,G,G, R RRRRRRioioiooooos s ss s ss EEde Distribution of Calcium Sparks in Confocal Images: TheoryA

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de Distribution of Calcium Sparks in Confocal Images: TheoryAutomatic Detection Method. Biophy J 1999;76:606-17.

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24. Gomez AM, Schuster I, Fauconnier J, Prestle J, Hasenfuss G, Richard S. FKBP12.6 overexpression decreases Ca2+ spark amplitude but enhances [Ca2+]i transient in rat cardiac myocytes. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2004;287:H1987-H1993.

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YYYYYYY, R R R R R R Resesesesesesesprprprprprprpresesesesesesess s s s s s s JLJLJLJLJLJLJL,, , , ,, , M, WeWeWeWeWeWeWehrhrhrhrhrhrh enenenenenenens s s s s s s XHXHXXXXX

Phosphorylation by Calcium/Calmodulin-Dependent Proteis Ho

, Khoo MS, Wu Y, Yang Y, Grueter CE, Ni G, Price EE, sim S, Song LS, Madu EC, Shah AN, Vishnivetskaya TA, A

i i l h di N M d 2005 11 40

Phosphorylation by Calcium/Calmodulin-Dependent Proteis Life-Threatening Ventricular Arrhythmias in Mice With Hon 2010;122:2669-79.

, Khoo MS, Wu Y, Yang Y, Grueter CE, Ni G, Price EE, sim S, Song LS, Madu EC, Shah AN, Vishnivetskaya TA, A

VV, Salama G, Lederer WJ, Colbran RJ, Anderson ME. Calmi i l h di N M d 2005 11 40 by guest on A

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37. Cutler MJ, Wan X, Laurita KR, Hajjar RJ, Rosenbaum DS. Targeted SERCA2a gene expression identifies molecular mechanism and therapeutic target for arrhythmogenic cardiac alternans. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2009;2:686-94.

38. Teucher N, Prestle J, Seidler T, Currie S, Elliott EB, Reynolds DF, Schott P, Wagner S, Kogler H, Inesi G, Bers DM, Hasenfuss G, Smith GL. Excessive sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase expression causes increased sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ uptake but decreases myocyte shortening. Circulation 2004;110:3553-9.

39. Yuan Q, Fan GC, Dong M, Altschafl B, Diwan A, Ren X, Hahn HH, Zhao W, Waggoner JR, Jones LR, Jones WK, Bers DM, Dorn GW, Wang HS, Valdivia HH, Chu G, Kranias EG. Sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium overloading in junctin deficiency enhances cardiac contractility but increases ventricular automaticity. Circulation 2007;115:300-9.

40. Chopra N, Kannankeril PJ, Yang T, Hlaing T, Holinstat I, Ettensohn K, Pfeifer K, Akin B, Jones LR, Franzini-Armstrong C, Knollmann BC. Modest Reductions of Cardiac Calsequestrin Increase Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca2+ Leak Independent of Luminal Ca2+ and Trigger Ventricular Arrhythmias in Mice. Circ Res 2007;101:617-26.

41. Mancini D, CUPID T, I. Abstract 19470: Sustained Improvement in Clinical Outcomes with MYDICAR(R) Compared to Optimal Therapy 1-year after Initial Gene Therapy in Patients with Advanced Heart Failure-The CUPID Trial. Circulation 2010;122:A19470.

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Kranias EG. Sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium overloadingy enhances cardiac contractility but increases ventricular o

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Kranias EG. Sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium overloadingy enhances cardiac contractility but increases ventricular on 2007;115:300-9.

N, Kannankeril PJ, Yang T, Hlaing T, Holinstat I, Ettensohn KJones LR, Franzini-Armstrong C, Knollmann BC. Modest R

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Figure Legends:

Figure 1. Study protocols. Schematic timelines (weeks (+/- days)) summarising the protocols

for the two study cohorts evaluating the influence of SERCA2a gene therapy upon

arrhythmia generation in a post infarction chronic heart failure model. Cohort 1 – whole heart

in vivo and ex vivo studies with Ad.SERCA2a.GFP; Cohort 2 – in vitro cellular and

subcellular studies with AAV9.SERCA2a.

Figure 2. Restoration of SERCA2a protein levels after either Ad.SERCA2a or

AAV9.SERCA2a gene transfer, with associated improvements in left ventricular function

assessed by pressure-volume (PV) analysis in vivo. A. Post infarction heart failure model and

SERCA2a gene transfer: (a) Midventricular 10 m section from a chronically infarcted rat

heart after staining with haematoxylin and eosin. Scale bar 2mm. (b) A 2mm thick transverse

apical section under fluorescence (488nm) microscopy demonstrating GFP expression in two

Ad.SERCA2a.GFP injected regions. Scale bar 1mm. B and C. Western blots of SERCA2a

and calsequestrin (CSQ) protein in the fluorescent left ventricular myocardium from

Ad.SERCA2a gene injected hearts (B), or myocardium from AAV9.SERCA2a injected HF

rats (C). D-G. PV measurement of left ventricular Emax (D), energetic efficiency (E), end

diastolic PV relationship (EDPVR) (F) and end diastolic pressure (LVEDP) (G). AMC n=6,

HF n=8, HF+Ad.SERCA2a (HF+Ad.S) n=5, HF+AAV9SERCA2a (HF+AAV9.S) n=6.

*p<0.05, **p<0.01 and ***p<0.001 vs HF.

Figure 3. Reduction of spontaneous and catecholamine-provoked ventricular arrhythmias in

failing hearts in vivo after SERCA2a gene transfer. A and B. Spontaneous ventricular

arrhythmias during a 24 hour study period. HF rats showed significantly increased

spontaneous ventricular arrhythmic events compared with non-failing controls (SHAM MI +

GFP). SERCA2a gene transfer significantly reduced the total number of spontaneous

ventricular arrhythmias (predominantly ventricular ectopy) (A) and complex ventricular

arrhythmias (couplets, triplets and ventricular tachycardia) (B) compared to both untreated

HF and HF+GFP cases. C and D. Isoproterenol-induced ventricular arrhythmias during the

sixty minute recording period post ISO injection. SERCA2a gene transfer reduced the total

number of ISO-induced ventricular arrhythmias (C), and the proportion of cases (%) with

ISO-induced ventricular tachycardia (VT) defined as either 4+ or 3+ consecutive ventricular

cycles (D).

mmmm. . . . . . . (b(b(b(b(b(b(b) ) ) ) ) ) ) A A A A A A A 2m2m2m2m2m2m2mm m m m m m m thththththththicicicicicicic

ratingngngngngngng G G G G G GGFPFPFPFPFPFPFP e e e eeeexpxpxpxpxpxpxprer

FP injected regions. Scale bar 1mm. B and C. Western blots of S

n (CSQ) protein in the fluorescent left ventricular myocardium fr

ene injected hearts (B), or myocardium from AAV9.SERCA2a in

V y

tionship (EDPVR) (F) and end diastolic pressure (LVEDP) (G)

FP injected regions. Scale bar 1mm. B and C. Western blots of S

n (CSQ) protein in the fluorescent left ventricular myocardium fr

ene injected hearts (B), or myocardium from AAV9.SERCA2a in

V measurement of left ventricular Emax (D), energetic efficiency

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*p<0.05, **p<0.01 and ***p<0.001.

Figure 4. Improvement in cytoplasmic Ca2+ transients, myocyte relaxation kinetics, SR Ca2+

content and basal cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels in failing cardiomyocytes following in vivo

AAV9.SERCA2a gene transfer. A. Cytoplasmic Ca2+ transients (AMC (blue), HF (black),

HF+SERCA2a (red)) measured from baseline corrected change in emitted fluorescence in

fluo4-loaded myocytes stimulated at 0.5Hz (a), with overlain amplitude corrected traces

demonstrating difference in Ca2+ transient decay kinetics (b), and quantitative comparison of

time (ms) to 50% reduction from peak amplitude (R50) in myocytes paced at 0.5Hz (c). B.

SR Ca2+ content in failing myocytes following SERCA2a gene therapy. Representative

examples of traces of emitted fluorescence following application of caffeine to determine SR

Ca2+ content, and quantitative measurement of SR Ca2+. Number of myocytes (n) studied:

AMC n=9, HF n=12, HF+SERCA n=15. *p<0.05 *** p<0.001.

Figure 5. Spontaneous SR Ca2+ release events (sparks) in failing myocytes after SERCA2a

gene transfer. A. Representative confocal line scan images demonstrating spontaneous Ca2+

sparks from AMC (upper), HF (middle), and HF+SERCA2a gene transfer (lower)

cardiomyocytes. The white inset region is expanded to generate a three dimensional spark

representation (shown right), demonstrating the differences in spark morphology after

SERCA2a gene transfer. B. Mean spark frequency (number of sparks100 m-1s-1). C. Mean

spark mass. D. Spark-mediated SR Ca2+ leak (spark mass x frequency). E-F. Spark frequency

(E) and spark-mediated SR Ca2+ leak (F) corrected for matched SR Ca2+ load (mean per

heart). Number of sparks/cells/hearts studied: AMC=247/19/7, HF=853/30/11,

HF+SERCA=445/10/5.

*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.

Figure 6. SERCA2a gene transfer reduces SR Ca2+ leak and normalises the SR Load-Leak

relationship in failing cardiomyocytes. A-B. Measurement of tetracaine-dependent SR Ca2+

leak (using method from Shannon et al17). A. Representative examples of Ca2+ transients with

paired basal resting levels pre (above) and post (below) 1mM tetracaine (both recorded in

0Na+ 0 Ca2+). B(i). SR Ca2+ leak. B(ii). SR Ca2+ load. B(iii). SR Ca2+ leak per unit load

(AMC n=16, HF n=24, HF+S n=13). *p<0.05, ** p<0.01, ***p<0.001.

a

a

C r

The white inset region is expanded to generate a three dimensio

hown right) demonstrating the differences in spark morphology

aneous SR Ca2+ release events (sparks) in failing myocytes after

Representative confocal line scan images demonstrating sponta

C (upper), HF (middle), and HF+SERCA2a gene transfer (lower

The white inset region is expanded to generate a three dimensio

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Figure 7. Protein immunoblotting for SERCA2a, RyR, PLB and CSQ from cohort 2, with

levels of PKA- and CaMKII-mediated phosphorylation of RyR and PLB, and quantitative

comparison after correction for total RyR and PLB respectively (AMC n=4 HF n=5 HF+S

n=5). *p<0.05, ** p<0.01.

Figure 8. Reduction of catecholamine-induced triggered activity in failing cardiomyocytes

after SERCA2a gene transfer. A-C. Representative tracings demonstrating contraction

profiles of freshly isolated cells field stimulated at 0.5Hz at baseline perfusion with normal

Tyrode’s solution (NT), and after perfusion with 1 nmol/L and 100 nmol/L Isoproterenol

(ISO). A. Age matched controls. B. Failing cardiomyocytes. C. Failing cardiomyocytes four-

six weeks post AAV9.SERCA2a gene transfer. D. Proportion of cardiomyocytes from AMC,

HF and HF + AAV9.SERCA2a rat hearts demonstrating Ca2+-mediated delayed

aftercontractions at baseline, and after treatment with ISO. Number of myocytes studied:

AMC=33, HF=33, HF+SERCA=14. Two way ANOVA p<0.05.

mmbebebebebebeber r r r rr r ofofofofofofof m m m m mmmyoyoyoyoyoyoyocycycycycycycytetetetetetetes s sssss

.

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Peters, Philip A. Poole-Wilson, Ken T. Macleod and Sian E. HardingS. Dubb, Edwin Garcia, Peter O'Gara, Lifan Liang, Erik Kohlbrenner, Roger J. Hajjar, Nicholas S.

Alexander R. Lyon, Mark L. Bannister, Tom Collins, Emma Pearce, Amir H. Sepehripour, Sukhpreeta Model of Chronic Heart Failure

SERCA2a Gene Transfer Decreases SR Calcium Leak and Reduces Ventricular Arrhythmias in

Print ISSN: 1941-3149. Online ISSN: 1941-3084 Copyright © 2011 American Heart Association, Inc. All rights reserved.

Dallas, TX 75231is published by the American Heart Association, 7272 Greenville Avenue,Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology

published online March 15, 2011;Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 

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The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is located on the

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1

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

SUPPLEMENTAL METHODS

All experiments were carried out in accordance with the United Kingdom Home Office

Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, which conforms to the Guide for the Care

and Use of Laboratory Animals published by the US National Institutes of Health

(NIH publication No. 85-23, revised 1996).

Viral Vectors

Adenoviral Vectors

Adenoviral vectors were generated as previously described by our group.1, 2 The

viruses were defrosted from stocks stored at -80oC, suspended in sterile, filtered PBS,

and diluted to a concentration of 3.75109 dnase resistant particles (drp)

(Ad.SERCA2a.GFP) and 4.5109 drp (Ad.GFP) per 50μL. Viral solutions were

warmed to 37 oC within 15 mins of delivery.

Adeno-Associated Viral Vectors

AAV9.SERCA2a vectors were produced using the two-plasmids protocol described

by Zolotukhin et al,3 with the following modifications. 293-T cells (ATCC, Manassas,

VA) were grown in triple flasks for 24 h (DMEM, 10% FBS) prior to adding the

calcium phosphate precipitate. The human isoform of SERCA2a was introduced

under the control of a CMV promoter in the plasmid. After 72 hours, the virus was

purified from benzonase-treated cell crude lysates over an iodixanol density gradient

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2

(Optiprep, Greiner Bio-One Inc., Longwood, FL), followed by concentration and

formulation into lactated Ringer’s solution (Baxter Healthcare Corporation, Deerfield,

IL) using a Vivaspin 20 Centrifugal concentrators 50K MWCO, and stored at –80oC.

In vivo Arrhythmia Analysis (Cohort 1)

HF and Sham ligated rats in cohort 1 received implantable ECG telemetry

transmitters (CA-F40 Data Sciences International, Minneapolis, MN) for in vivo

arrhythmia studies. Animals underwent a baseline (PREGENE) arrhythmia

assessment with continuous 24 hour ECG recording for spontaneous ventricular

arrhythmias, followed by an in vivo intraperitoneal injection of 0.5mg/kg isoproterenol

(ISO) for arrhythmia provocation.

Sixteen weeks post infarction, animals underwent a second left thoracotomy for gene

delivery. Three 50μL intramyocardial injections of Ad.SERCA.GFP or Ad.GFP were

delivered to the failing left ventricle (total dose ~1010 dnase resistant particles per

heart). Two injections were targeted to the apical and lateral infarct borderzone, and

one to the mid posterior left ventricular wall. SHAM cases received three location-

matched Ad.GFP injections. Six days post gene delivery, animals underwent repeat

24 hour ECG recording and ISO challenge in vivo (POSTGENE). This allows

completion of the in vivo and ex vivo studies during the 6-8 day time window post

gene delivery when peak gene expression and physiological sequelae of transgene

expression are present, and without the confounding effects of the anti-adenoviral

immune response.4 A subgroup of animals in the HF+SERCA2a and HF+GFP

cohorts had the complete 7 day recording after gene injection, allowing quantification

of daily spontaneous arrhythmia burden.

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Upon completion of the ex vivo study, planimetric determination of infarct size was

performed and SERCA2a protein levels were measured in fluorescent (transfected)

and non-fluorescent (untransfected) myocardium samples from each heart by

Western blotting.

PREGENE and POSTGENE in vivo ECG recordings were acquired using Dataquest

ART 3.1 software (Data Sciences International, Minneapolis, MN), and arrhythmia

analysis was performed using ECG-Auto 2.4 software (EMKA, France). Ventricular

arrhythmias were categorised as initiating events (total ventricular arrhythmias (VAs))

and complex (sustained) arrhythmias with more sustained ventricular electrical

activity (couplets, triplets, non-sustained (<30s) and sustained (>30s) VT and VF).

The majority (>95%) of total ventricular arrhythmias were ventricular ectopy which

displayed a Gaussian distribution after logarithmic transformation. Log total and log

sustained arrhythmias were compared between study arms.

Ex vivo Ventricular Arrhythmia Threshold Studies (Cohort 1)

Eight days post myocardial gene injection, and a minimum of 24 hours post in vivo

ISO challenge, animals were reanaesthetised, hearts were rapidly explanted and

mounted upon the constant-pressure Langendorff apparatus. Hearts were perfused

with modified Krebs-Henseleit solution: NaCl 118.5mM, KCl 5.9mM, NaHCO3 25mM,

MgSO4 1.2mM, NaH2PO4 1.38mM, Glucose 11mM, buffered with 95%O2/5%CO2,

and delivered at 36-37oC, pH 7.4 and at a constant pressure of 76-78mmHg (110-

110cm H2O) . All solutions were filtered (5μm pore size) before use.

A silver unipolar sensing electrode was inserted in the right ventricular myocardium,

and the earth electrode attached to the aortic cannula. The electrodes were

connected to a Bioamplifier and Powerlab (AD Instruments, Sydney, Australia). The

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ECG signal was amplified, filtered between 2 and 400Hz, with data acquired at 1000

samples per second, and displayed on a local computer using CHART 5.5 software

(AD Instruments, Sydney, Australia).

Paired platinum stimulating electrodes 2mm apart were placed on the posterobasal

epicardial surface of the right ventricle and interventricular septum after insertion of

the silver sensing electrode into the right ventricle. After five minutes stabilisation in

spontaneous sinus rhythm, cardiac pacing commenced, with a further ten minutes

stabilisation during pacing prior to PES. Pacing delivered 0.2ms biphasic square-

wave stimuli from a custom-made high voltage bipolar stimulator at twice the

excitation threshold (~0.2-0.4mV) for 10 min at 150ms basic cycle length (BCL).

Perfused hearts with continuous ECG monitoring were subjected to arrhythmia

provocation using programmed electrical stimulation (S1S2 protocol) to assess for

susceptibility to reentry arrhythmias. PES protocols consisted of a drive train of

nineteen paced S1 beats at 150ms BCL, followed by a premature S2 extrastimulus

every twentieth paced beat. The S2 interval started at 90ms, and was successively

shortened by 2ms until ventricular refractoriness or sustained ventricular arrhythmia

was reached.

Protein Quantification

LV samples were pulverised in a liquid nitrogen cooled percussion mortar and

homogenized in a buffer containing 300mM sucrose, 20mM PIPES pH 7.4, 1mM NaF,

1 mM Na3VO4 and protease inhibitors (Sigma P8340). The homogenate was

centrifuged at 11000 x g and the supernatant retained. Protein quantification was

measured using the BioRad quantification assay (BioRad Laboratories, CA) with

absorbance photospectrometry. For SDS-PAGE analysis, lysates were diluted in

Laemmeli buffer and electrophoresed on acrylamide gels (50mV for 30 min, then

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140mV for 60 min), and the separated proteins transferred onto activated

nitrocellulose or PDVF membranes. Membranes were incubated for 60 min at room

temperature with primary antibodies to cardiac SERCA2a 1:2000 (MA 3-919 Affinity

Bioreagents, CO), cardiac calsequestrin 1:2000 (PA 1-913 Affinity Bioreagents, CO)

and Green Fluorescent Protein 1:2000 (29779 AnaSpec Inc, CA), and blocked with

TBS-T and 5% skimmed milk. The 90 minute incubation in the secondary antibodies

conjugated with horse radish peroxidase (anti-mouse Fab for SERCA2a and

calsequestrin, anti-rabbit Fab for GFP). For GAPDH measurement blots were striped

(2% SDS, 50mM Tris-Cl pH 6.8) 30 minutes at 50oC and incubated with a GAPDH

antibodies (SC32233 Santa Cruz Biotechnology, CA) for signal normalization.

RyR and PLB levels and phosporylation status were measured from purified

membrane preparations from hearts from Cohort 2. LV samples were pulverised in a

liquid nitrogen cooled percussion mortar and homogenized in a buffer containing

300mM sucrose, 20mM PIPES pH 7.4, 1mM NaF, 1 mM Na3VO4 and protease

inhibitors (Sigma P8340). The homogenate was centrifuged at 6500 x g, the

supernatant retained and the pellet resuspended and homogenised a further two

times. The pooled supernatants were centrifuged at 100000 x g, and the membrane

pellet resuspended in a solution containing 400mM sucrose, 10mM HEPES pH 7.2,

1mM NaF, 1 mM Na3VO4 and protease inhibitors.

Proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE and transferred to PVDF membranes before

blocking with 5% milk. Primary antibodies used were as follows: RyR2 (ARP 106/1)

was from Alan Williams; p-RyR2 (Ser2815) was from Hector Valdivia; p-

RyR2(Ser2809), PLB(A1), p-PLB(Ser16) and p-PLB(Thr17) were from Badrilla Ltd

(Leeds, UK); cardiac calsequestrin was from Affinity BioReagents (CO). HRP-

conjugated secondary antibodies were from Dako (Glostrup, Denmark) or Santa Cruz

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(CA). Band densities were quantified on a Gene Genius bio-imaging system

(Syngene) using ECL detection reagents (GE Healthcare).

Pressure-Volume Analysis Protocol (Cohorts 1+2)

Pressure-volume analysis was performed using the 2.0F Mikro-Tip® pressure-volume

catheter (SPR 838 Millar Instruments, Houston) via the apical approach following

upper midline laparotomy and diaphragm myotomy. Animals were anaesthetised

(Isoflurane 1.5%), ventilated (tidal volume 1.5-2.0 ml, ventilation rate 90 cycles/min)

and assessment of left ventricular function was performed. After stable steady state

recording, evaluation of dynamic load-independent contractility was assessed using

transient inferior vena cava (IVC) occlusion. Parallel conductance was measured

during 0.1ml hypertonic saline injection. Data analysis was performed using PVAN

3.5 software (Millar Instruments, Houston, TX). Infarcted failing rats without gene

transfer (HF) and SHAM or AMC served as controls. Efficiency was calculated as

stroke work area (SWA) / stroke work area (SWA) x pressure volume area (PVA)

where PVA = SWA + potential energy area. Upon completion of the PV study,

HF+Ad.SERCA hearts were perfusion fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for

histological analysis.

Isolated Cardiomyocyte Aftercontraction Provocation Studies (Cohort 2)

Simultaneous contraction and Ca2+ transient measurements were performed on

freshly isolated cardiomyocytes after loading with the Ca2+-sensitive fluorescent dye,

indo-1 (Invitrogen, Paisley, UK). HF+SERCA hearts were rapidly excised and

cardiomyocytes enzymatically isolated by Langendorff perfusion method as

previously described.5 Freshly isolated cardiomyocytes were loaded at room

temperature with 10 µM of the acetoxymethyl ester (AM) form of the Ca2+-sensitive

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fluorescent dye, indo-1 (Invitrogen, Paisley, UK) for 25 min. Once loaded, cells were

not used for at least another 30 min to allow the intracellular indo-1-AM to be de-

esterified.

Thirty minutes later myocytes were transferred to the recording chamber superfused

with Tyrode’s solution (in mmol/L: NaCl 140, CaCL2 2, KCL 6, MgCl 1, HEPES 10

and glucose 10) on mouse laminin (Sigma Aldrich, UK) coated plates. Experiments

were performed at 37oC with field stimulation at 0.5Hz at a pulse length of 2ms.

Contraction was monitored by video edge detection and concomitant cytoplasmic

calcium transients were recorded with excitation of indo-1AM as previously

described.1, 6 Following stabilisation and baseline recording, the incidence of Ca2+-

mediated DACs was recorded at baseline and after perfusion with 1 nmol/L ISO and

100 nmol/L ISO, with drug washout between doses.

Cardiomyocyte Intracellular Ca2+ Studies (Cohort 2)

Spark studies were performed as previously described by our group.7 Aliquots of

cells were incubated with Fluo-4 AM (10 µM) for 15-20 min. Supernatant was then

discarded and substituted with Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s Medium (Gibco BRL, Life

Technologies, Paisley, UK). The cells were not used in experiments for at least 30

min to allow de-esterification of the intracellular indicator. The experimental chamber

was mounted on the stage of a Nikon TE300 microscope with Bio-Rad Radiance

2000 confocal attachment and myocytes observed through a Nikon Plan-Fluor x 40

oil-immersion lens (N.A. = 1.3). Fluo-4 was excited using the 488 nm line of an argon

laser and the emitted fluorescence collected through a 520 nm filter.

Ten thousand line scans were collected (512 pixels wide scanned at 1.3 ms intervals)

for analysis with both ImageJ (Scioncorp, Frederick, MD) and LaserPix software (Bio-

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Rad, Hemel Hempstead, UK). Detection criteria for Ca2+ sparks were set at 3.8 x S.D.

and automated counting of sparks was performed using the Sparkmaster plug-in for

ImageJ.8 This is based on the standard algorithm of Ca2+ spark analysis developed

by Cheng et al.9

SR Ca2+ content was assessed by measuring the sizes of the Ca2+ transients

produced by rapid application of 10mM caffeine to the normal superfusate. Prior to

the caffeine exposure, myocytes were subjected to a loading protocol consisting of a

train of normal stimuli applied at 0.5 Hz. Spark frequency was corrected for SR load

from paired cells originating from the same heart.

Total SR leak was measured using the tetracaine-dependent SR leak using the

protocol described by Shannon et al.10 Cardiomyocytes were field stimulated at 1 Hz

for a minimum of three minutes to achieve a steady state SR load. Stimulation was

then stopped and the solution switched from NT to a 0Na+0Ca2+ solution (Li

replacement and 1mmol/L EGTA) ± tetracaine (1mmol/L) for 30s. 0Na+0Ca2+ was

used to prevent the majority of the movement of Ca2+ across the sarcolemma as it

inhibits the function of the NCX. Changes in cytosolic Ca2+ that occur in 0Na+0Ca2+

reflect movement of Ca2+ between the SR and the cytosol. SR load measured by

applying 20mmol/L caffeine in 0Na+0Ca2+ for ~3s at the end of the ± tetracaine step.

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SUPPLEMENTAL RESULTS

Data Supplement Figure S1: Restoration of myocardial SERCA2a protein levels in

the failing heart following three focal myocardial injections of Ad.SERCA2a.GFP.

A. Western blots comparing SERCA2a levels (corrected for calsequestrin (CSQ)) in

the fluorescent left ventricular myocardium from gene injected hearts, with

quantitative comparison of SERCA2a protein levels in the injected (fluorescent (FL))

and remote (non-fluorescent (NFL)) myocardial regions. SERCA2a protein levels

were increased in both injected and remote ventricular myocardium following

SERCA2a transduction of failing hearts. B. CSQ levels are unchanged across study

arms, serving as an appropriate SR loading control protein. N=6 per study arm,

*p<0.05.

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Data Supplement Figure S2: Spontaneous ventricular arrhythmia generation for each 24 hour time phase for the first six days after gene injection, corrected for baseline in vivo arrhythmia burden pre injection. Injection was performed between 0900 and 1400 on day 0, and the first complete 24 hour time bin was measured from 0700 on day 1 post op, spanning 24 hours to 0700 on day 2. HF n=6, HF+SERCA2a n=4. Two way ANOVA ***p<0.0001.

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Data Supplement Figure S3: In vivo Isoproterenol-Induced Heart Rate Changes.

ISO-induced a sinus rate increase which remained above the upper limit of

spontaneous physiological heart rate (HR) in vivo (450 beats per minute - horizontal

dotted line), for the 60 minute analysis window. There was no significant difference in

in vivo ISO-induced heart rate between study arms.

HF + SERCA

HF + GFP

SHAM MI

-25 0 25 50 75 100 125300

400

500

Heart Rate

(bpm)

Time post ISO injection (mins)

HF + SERCA

HF + GFP

SHAM MI

-25 0 25 50 75 100 125300

400

500

Heart Rate

(bpm)

Time post ISO injection (mins)

HF + SERCA

HF + GFP

SHAM MI

HF + SERCA

HF + GFP

SHAM MI

-25 0 25 50 75 100 125300

400

500

Heart Rate

(bpm)

-25 0 25 50 75 100 125300

400

500

Heart Rate

(bpm)

Time post ISO injection (mins)

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Data Supplement Table S1.

Biometric Data, Infarct Size and Ex vivo Coronary Flow Rate in Study Animals from

Cohort 1.

SHAM/AMC HF +/-

Ad.GFP

HF +

Ad.SERCA2a

HF +

AAV9.SERCA2a

HW (g) 1.70.0 2.40.1** 2.10.1# 1.90.1

##

HW:BW Ratio

(g/kg)

4.20.2 5.90.3* 5.30.3#

4.30.3##

Infarct Size

(%LV)

N/A 443 394 -

Ex vivo CFR

(ml/min/g LV

tissue)

(paced)

11.80.3 9.10.3* 10.90.8# -

CFR = Coronary Flow Rate

*p<0.05, **p<0.01 vs AMC/SHAM MI

# p<0.05, ## p<0.01 vs HF

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Reference List

1. Davia K, Bernobich E, Ranu HK, del Monte F, Terracciano CM, MacLeod KT, Adamson DL, Chaudhri B, Hajjar RJ, Harding SE. SERCA2A overexpression decreases the incidence of aftercontractions in adult rabbit ventricular myocytes. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2001;33:1005-15.

2. del Monte F, Harding SE, Schmidt U, Matsui T, Kang ZB, Dec GW, Gwathmey JK, Rosenzweig A, Hajjar RJ. Restoration of contractile function in isolated cardiomyocytes from failing human hearts by gene transfer of SERCA2a. Circulation 1999;100:2308-11.

3. Zolotukhin S, Byrne BJ, Mason E, Zolotukhin I, Potter M, Chesnut K, Summerford C, Samulski RJ, Muzyczka N. Recombinant adeno-associated virus purification using novel methods improves infectious titer and yield. Gene Ther 1999;6:973-85.

4. Wright MJ, Wightman LML, Lilley C, de Alwis M, Hart SL, Miller A, Coffin RS, Thrasher A, Latchman DS, Marber MS. In vivo myocardial gene transfer: Optimization, evaluation and direct comparison of gene transfer vectors. Basic Res Cardiol 2001;96:227-36.

5. Harding SE, Vescovo G, Kirby M, Jones SM, Gurden J, Poole-Wilson PA. Contractile responses of isolated rat and rabbit myocytes to isoproterenol and calcium. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1988;20:635-47.

6. Terracciano CM, MacLeod KT. Effects of lactate on the relative contribution of Ca2+ extrusion mechanisms to relaxation in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes. Journal of Physiology (London) 1997;500:557-70.

7. Lyon AR, MacLeod KT, Zhang Y, Garcia E, Kanda GK, Lab MJ, Korchev YE, Harding SE, Gorelik J. Loss of T-tubules and other changes to surface topography in ventricular myocytes from failing human and rat heart. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009;106:6854-9.

8. Picht E, Zima AV, Blatter LA, Bers DM. SparkMaster - Automated Calcium Spark Analysis with ImageJ. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2007;293:1073-81.

9. Cheng H, Song LS, Shirokova N, Gonzalez A, Lakatta EG, Rios E, Stern MD. Amplitude Distribution of Calcium Sparks in Confocal Images: Theory and Studies with an Automatic Detection Method. Biophy J 1999;76:606-17.

10. Shannon TR, Ginsburg KS, Bers DM. Quantitative assessment of the SR Ca2+ leak-load relationship. Circ Res 2002;91:594-600.

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Le transfert du gène de la SERCA2a diminue la fuite calciquedu réticulum sarcoplasmique et réduit l’incidence des

troubles du rythme ventriculaires dans un modèled’insuffisance cardiaque chronique

Alexander R. Lyon, MD, PhD ; Mark L. Bannister, PhD ; Tom Collins, PhD ; Emma Pearce, BSc ;Amir H. Sepehripour, MD ; Sukhpreet S. Dubb, MD ; Edwin Garcia, MD, PhD ; Peter O’Gara, BSc ;

Lifan Liang, MD ; Erik Kohlbrenner, BSc ; Roger J. Hajjar, MD ; Nicholas S. Peters, MD, FRCP ;Philip A. Poole-Wilson, MD, FRCP† ; Ken T. Macleod, PhD* ; Sian E. Harding, PhD*

Contexte—La thérapie génique fondée sur le transfert du gène codant pour la calcium ATPase 2a du réticulum sarco-plasmique (SERCA2a) améliore la fonction mécanique dans l’insuffisance cardiaque et est en cours d’évaluation dans unessai clinique. Le point clé qu’il importe de déterminer est celui de savoir si une telle thérapie génique est de nature àaugmenter les fuites de calcium (Ca2+) à partir du réticulum sarcoplasmique (RS), l’activité cellulaire déclenchée etl’incidence des troubles du rythme ventriculaires chez les patients insuffisants cardiaques ainsi traités.

Méthodes et résultats—Nous avons évalué l’influence exercée par le transfert du gène de la SERCA2a sur la susceptibilitéaux troubles du rythme ventriculaire dans un modèle d’insuffisance cardiaque chronique chez le rat. Les études partélémétrie ECG ont montré que cette approche a un important effet antiarythmique in vivo, car elle réduit l’incidenceaussi bien des arythmies spontanées que de celles induites par les catécholamines. Cette thérapie génique a égalementdiminué la propension aux troubles du rythme par phénomène de réentrée dans les études de stimulation électriqueprogrammée ex vivo. L’homéostasie intracellulaire des ions Ca2+ et les caractéristiques des fuites calciques survenantspontanément à partir du RS ont été étudiées in vivo au niveau de cardiomyocytes défaillants après transfection du gènede la SERCA2a au moyen d’un nouveau vecteur adénoviral AAV9. Ce traitement a diminué les fuites calciquesréticulaires et aboli l’augmentation de la masse des étincelles calciques observé au sein des myocytes insuffisants,cela malgré la normalisation de la charge en ions Ca2+ du RS. Le transfert du gène de la SERCA2a a réduit laphosphorylation des récepteurs à la ryanodine, ce qui, en rétablissant le seuil normal d’effusion calcique à partir du RS, adiminué l’activité déclenchée in vitro. L’action antiarythmique de ce transfert semble découler à la fois d’effets indirectsliés au remodelage inverse et d’effets directs imputables au gène de la SERCA2a.

Conclusions—Le transfert du gène codant pour la SERCA2a stabilise la charge calcique du RS, diminue la phosphorylationdes récepteurs à la ryanodine et les fuites calciques réticulaires ; il réduit l’activité cellulaire déclenchée in vitro ainsi queles troubles du rythme ventriculaires spontanés et induits par les catécholamines in vivo au niveau du cœur insuffisant.Cette thérapie génique ne prédispose donc pas aux troubles du rythme et pourrait constituer une nouvelle stratégieantiarythmique dans l’insuffisance cardiaque. (Traduit de l’anglais : SERCA2a Gene Transfer Decreases SarcoplasmicReticulum Calcium Leak and Reduces Ventricular Arrhythmias in a Model of Chronic Heart Failure. Circ ArrhythmElectrophysiol. 2011;4:362–372.)

Mots clés : troubles du rythme cardiaque � thérapie génique � calcium � insuffisance cardiaque � SERCA2a

La thérapie génique fondée sur le transfert du gène codantpour la calcium ATPase 2a du réticulum sarcoplasmique

(SERCA2a) restaure les fonctions mécanique, contractileet énergétique des cardiomyocytes défaillants chez l’Homme1

et dans les modèles animaux d’insuffisance cardiaque (IC).2–4

Ces effets bénéfiques constituent le fondement scientifiqued’un essai clinique de thérapie génique par transfectiondu gène de la SERCA2a chez des patients atteints d’IC

Reçu le 25 avril 2010 ; accepté le 18 février 2011.National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, Londres, Royaume-Uni (A.R.L., M.L.B., T.C., E.P., A.H.S., S.S.D., E.G., P.O.’G., N.S.P., P.A.P.-W.,

K.T.M., S.E.H.) ; et Centre de Recherche Cardiovasculaire, Faculté de Médecine du Mont Sinaï, New York, Etats-Unis (L.L., E.K., R.J.H.).*Les Drs Macleod et Harding ont contribué à parts égales cette étude.†Décédé.Le supplément de données uniquement disponible en ligne peut être consulté sur le site : http://circep.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/CIRCEP.110.961615/DC1.Correspondance : Alexander R. Lyon, MD, Department of Cardiac Medicine, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, Flowers Bldg,

4th Floor, London SW7 6AZ, Royaume-Uni. E-mail : [email protected]© 2012 American Heart Association, Inc.

Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol est disponible sur le site http://circep.ahajournals.org

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chronique,5 affection qui, de par sa prévalence croissante,revêt un caractère épidémique et qui demeure responsabled’une morbidité et d’une mortalité élevées en dépit dutraitement conventionnel actuel.

L’une des craintes que suscite ce transfert du gène de laSERCA2a au sein d’un myocarde défaillant est qu’il tendeà augmenter le risque de troubles du rythme cardiaque endépit de l’amélioration des fonctions inotrope et lusitrope.Toutefois, les études menées pour évaluer l’expression dela SERCA2a et l’arythmogenèse et ayant suggéré cetteéventualité ont été réalisées sur des cœurs normaux et nondans un contexte de défaillance myocardique.6,7 Le réticulumsarcoplasmique (RS) des cardiomyocytes ventriculairesinsuffisants se caractérise par une augmentation de lalibération diastolique spontanée de calcium (Ca2+), fréquem-ment quantifiée sous forme d’étincelles calciques dans lescellules isolés, qui traduit une probabilité accrue d’ouverturedes récepteurs à la ryanodine (RyR2).8,9 Dans la mesure oùla concentration réticulaire en ions Ca2+ commande larégulation des RyR210,11 et procure l’énergie électrochimiquenécessaire aux efflux calciques,12 le fait de l’augmenter enrestaurant la fonction de la SERCA2a peut, en théorie,accroître les fuites spontanées de Ca2+ et provoquer destroubles du rythme. Cela serait particulièrement dommage-able compte tenu de l’augmentation du tonus sympathiqueobservé chez les patients insuffisants cardiaques, car l’activa-tion des récepteurs β1-adrénergiques augmente le transfert desions Ca2+ vers le RS par la SERCA2a et peut majorer le risquede fuite diastolique par l’intermédiaire des RyR2.9 Dans lespremiers essais cliniques de thérapie génique fondée sur legène de la SERCA2a, les patients devaient impérativementêtre équipés d’un défibrillateur automatique implantableou d’un dispositif d’assistance ventriculaire gauche afinde prévenir les arythmies malignes. Cependant, dansl’hypothèse où ce type de thérapie génique serait étendu àtous les patients insuffisants cardiaques, de telles mesures de

prévention des troubles du rythme seraient-elles vraimentnécessaires ?

Dans cette étude, nous avons tenté d’évaluer le bien-fondéde ces inquiétudes exprimées concernant les risques de fuitescalciques réticulaires et d’induction de troubles du rythmeliés au transfert du gène de la SERCA2a dans un myocardedéfaillant. Nous avons étudié la survenue d’arythmiesspontanées et induites par les catécholamines in vivo avant etaprès transfert hétérogène du gène de la SERCA2a, dans unmodèle d’IC chronique, en ayant pour cela recours à latélémétrie ECG et ex vivo en utilisant des techniques deprovocation destinés à induire des arythmies par réentrée. Cesexpériences ayant révélé que le transfert du gène de laSERCA2a exerce un important effet antiarythmique,nous avons alors entrepris de rechercher les mécanismespotentiellement à l’origine de cet effet. En utilisant unnouveau vecteur adénoviral, AAV9.SERCA2a, qui fait preuved’une efficience de transfection plus homogène (de l’ordre de90 %) 4 semaines après son injection veineuse systémique13 etn’a pas les effets confondants de la protéine fluorescente verte(GFP), nous avons étudié les modifications engendrées parle transfert in vivo du gène de la SERCA2a dans des cardio-myocytes défaillants fraîchement isolés en termes de chargeen ions Ca2+ du RS et de fuites calciques spontanées à partirde celui-ci.

MéthodesUne description plus détaillée des méthodes figure dans le supplémentde données uniquement disponible en ligne.

Protocoles de l’étudeDeux cohortes d’IC traitée par transfert du gène de la SERCA2a ontété constituées en utilisant un modèle précédemment décrit d’ICchronique post-infarctus chez le rat (Figure 1).14 Comme animauxtémoins non insuffisants cardiaques, nous avons employé des ratsayant fait l’objet d’une ligature factice d’artère coronaire (TLF) ounon opérés et appariés pour l’âge (TAA).

Figure 1. Protocoles de l’étude.Déroulement chronologique (semaines[± jours]) des protocoles respectivementmis en œuvre dans chacune des deuxcohortes de l’étude pour évaluerl’influence exercée par le transfert dugène codant pour la calcium ATPase 2a(SERCA2a) du réticulumsarcoplasmique sur la survenue detroubles du rythme dans un modèled’insuffisance cardiaque chroniqueaprès infarctus. Cohorte 1 : études detransfert d’Ad.SERCA2a.GFP sur cœurentier in vivo et ex vivo ; cohorte 2 :études cellulaires et infracellulairesde transfert d’AAV9.SERCA2a in vitro.Sem. : semaines.

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Cohorte 1 : protocole d’étude des arythmies in vivoet ex vivoL’évaluation in vivo des arythmies a été pratiquée après implantationd’un dispositif de télémétrie couplé à l’enregistrement continude l’ECG sur 24 heures afin de dépister les troubles du rythmeventriculaires spontanés, cela ayant été suivi de l’injection intra-péritonéale in vivo de 0,5 mg/kg d’isoprotérénol (ISO) en vue deprovoquer des arythmies. Les enregistrements ont été réalisés chezdes animaux insuffisants cardiaques avant (PRE-TRANSFERT) et6 jours après avoir pratiqué trois injections intramyocardiques de50 µl d’Ad.SERCA2a.GFP ou d’Ad.GFP (POST-TRANSFERT).Les TLF ont fait l’objet de trois injections d’Ad.GFP effectuées auniveau des mêmes sites. Vingt-quatre heures plus tard, des cœursperfusés selon la technique de Langendorff ont été soumis à desstimulations électriques programmées (SEP) afin d’étudier leursusceptibilité aux arythmies par phénomène de réentrée. Dans unsous-groupe, la fonction ventriculaire gauche a été évaluée unesemaine après les injections d’Ad.SERCA2a en ayant recours à uneanalyse de la relation pression-volume (PV).14

Cohorte 2 : protocole de transfert del’AAV9.SERCA chez le rat insuffisant cardiaqueavec études sur des cardiomyocytes isolésSeize rats insuffisants cardiaques ont reçu une injection de 300 µld’AAV9.SERCA2a (2.1011 drp) au niveau de la veine caudale16 semaines au moins après induction d’un infarctus myocardique.Quatre à 6 semaines plus tard, les cœurs de ces animaux ontété prélevés en vue d’études sur cardiomyocytes isolés (n = 12) oud’analyses par immunotransfert (n = 4). Une analyse in vivo dela relation PV a été effectuée sur un sous-groupe (n = 6) avant desacrifier les animaux. Des rats insuffisants cardiaques n’ayant faitl’objet d’aucun transfert de gène et des animaux non opérés appariéspour l’âge ont été utilisés comme témoins.

Etudes de provocation de post-potentiels auniveau de cardiomyocytes isolésL’incidence des post-potentiels tardifs médiés par les ions Ca2+ a étéétudiée sur des cardiomyocytes fraîchement isolés, à l’état basal etaprès perfusion d’ISO aux doses de 1 et 100 nmol/l, une fenêtrethérapeutique ayant été observée entre les deux doses.

Etincelles calciques, charge en calcium du RSet fuites calciquesNous avons procédé à une quantification des étincelles selonl’approche précédemment décrite par notre équipe,14 en fondant notreanalyse sur l’algorithme standard élaboré par Cheng et al.15 La massedes étincelles a été calculée en utilisant l’équation ci-après : amplitudedes étincelles × 1,206 × pleine largeur à amplitude semi-maximale,3

comme précédemment décrit.16 La fuite calcique intervenue au niveaudu RS d’un cardiomyocyte donné du fait de ces étincelles a été définiecomme étant le produit de la masse par la fréquence de ces dernières.Nous avons quantifié l’efflux calcique total en mesurant la fuite d’ionsCa2+médiée par la tétracaïne selon le protocole décrit par Shannon etal,17 puis nous avons calculé la charge calcique réticulaire sensible à lacaféine en effectuant des mesures en série afin de calculer le rapportfuite/charge pour chacun des myocytes.

Phosphorylation des récepteurs à la ryanodineet du phospholambanDes analyses par immunotransfert ont été pratiquées pour mesurer laphosphorylation des RyR2 et du phospholamban (PLB) au niveaudes sites cibles respectifs de la protéine kinase A (PKA) (RyR2809,PLB-Ser16) et de la protéine kinase calmoduline-dépendante de typeII (CaMKII) (RyR2815, PLB-Thr17).

Analyse statistiqueLes résultats ont été comparés en ayant recours à une ANOVAunidirectionnelle suivie d’un test de Tukey post hoc (donnéesquantitatives relatives aux troubles du rythme et variables en rapportavec l’IC), à un test de Kruskal-Wallis suivi d’un test de Dunn posthoc (paramètres en rapport avec les étincelles calciques), à un test t deStudent apparié (arythmies in vivo avant et après transfert génique)et à un test exact de Fisher (incidence des troubles du rythme). Lasignificativité statistique a été définie par une valeur de probabilitéinférieure à 0,05.

RésultatsTaux de SERCA2a après transfert du gène codantpour cette protéineDans la cohorte 1, sept jours après les injections, unefluorescence localisée de la GFP a été mise en évidence danstous les cœurs au niveau des sites où avaient été pratiqué untransfert intramyocardique du gène Ad.SERCA2a.GFP oudu seul vecteur Ad.GFP (Figure 2A). Le transfert du gèneAd.SERCA2a a été suivi d’une élévation significative des tauxde SERCA2a tant au niveau des sites d’injection que des zonesnon traitées plus éloignées par rapport à ceux mesurés dansles zones fluorescentes et non fluorescentes des cœurs derats insuffisants cardiaques ayant uniquement reçu la GFP(p = 0,01) (Figure 2B et Figure S1 du supplément de donnéesuniquement disponible en ligne). Le transfert intraveineux dugène AAV9.SERCA2a a également eu pour effet d’augmenterles taux intramyocardiques de SERCA2a chez les ratsinsuffisants cardiaques de la cohorte 2 dans les 4 à 6 semainesayant suivi l’injection (Figure 2C).

Fonction ventriculaire gauche in vivo(cohortes 1 et 2)L’analyse de la relation PV a montré que le transfertd’un gène Ad.SERCA2a.GFP ou AAV9.SERCA2a avaitsignificativement amélioré les paramètres de fonctionsystolo-diastolique et d’efficience énergétique du myocardecomparativement aux valeurs mesurées chez les rats insuf-fisants cardiaques non traités, ce qui a confirmé les donnéesde précédents travaux qui attribuaient au transfert du gène dela SERCA2a des effets inotrope et lusitrope positifs dans lesmodèles d’IC (Figure 2D à 2G).2–4

Analyses des troubles du rythme : cohorte 1Troubles du rythme in vivo

Troubles du rythme ventriculaires spontanésCe modèle d’IC se caractérise par la fréquence élevée destroubles du rythme ventriculaires spontanés (nombre moyen :4 269 épisodes par cœur et par jour ; n = 16), ces derniers étantmajoritairement à type d’extrasystoles (ES) ventriculairesisolées (nombre moyen : 4 025 par cœur et par jour, soit94 % de l’ensemble des troubles du rythme ventriculaires)(Figure 3A et 3B). Le transfert hétérogène d’Ad.SERCA2a asignificativement réduit le nombre total des troubles durythme ventriculaires spontanés (Figure 3A) et le nombredes arythmies ventriculaires complexes (Figure 3B), com-parativement à ceux notés avant le transfert génique et chezles rats insuffisants cardiaques ayant uniquement reçu la GFP.Avant les transferts géniques, il n’existait aucune différence

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Figure 2. Restauration des taux de calciumATPase 2a du réticulum sarcoplasmique(SERCA2a) après transfert génique par vecteurAd.SERCA2a ou AAV9.SERCA2a, avec mise enévidence de l’amélioration de la fonctionventriculaire gauche ainsi induite par analyse dela relation pression-volume (PV) in vivo. A, Modèled’insuffisance cardiaque (IC) post-infarctus ettransfert du gène codant pour la SERCA2a : A,Coupe médio-ventriculaire de 10 µm d’un cœur derat soumis à un infarctus chronique après colorationà l’hématoxyline-éosine. Barre d’échelle : 2 mm. B,Coupe apicale transversale de 2 mm d’épaisseuren microscopie à fluorescence (488 nm),objectivant l’expression de GFP dans deux régionstransfectées avec l’Ad.SERCA2a.GFP. Barred’échelle : 1 mm. B et C, Immunotransferts de laSERCA2a et de la calséquestrine (CSQ) auniveau du myocarde ventriculaire gauchefluorescent de cœurs dans lesquels a été injectéle gène Ad.SERCA2a (B) ou du myocarde de ratsinsuffisants cardiaques auxquels a été injectél’AAV9.SERCA2a (C). D à G, Mesures par analysede la relation PV de l’Emax ventriculaire gauche(D), de l’efficience énergétique (E), de la relationPV télédiastolique (RPVTD) (F) et de la pressiontélédiastolique (PTDVG) (G). Témoins appariéspour l’âge (TAA) non opérés : n = 6 ; IC : n = 8 ;IC + Ad.SERCA2a (IC + Ad.S) : n = 5 ; IC +AAV9SERCA2a (IC + AAV9.S) : n = 6. *p <0,05,**p <0,01 et ***p <0,001 versus IC.

d’incidence des troubles du rythme ventriculaires entre les ratsayant reçu le gène Ad.SERCA2a et les témoins ayant faitl’objet d’injections d’Ad.GFP. L’analyse quotidienne destroubles du rythme réalisée dans un sous-groupe d’animauxinsuffisants cardiaques après administration de la thérapiegénique a montré que l’incidence des troubles du rythme avaitdiminué à la suite du déclenchement de l’expression trans-génique de SERCA2a tel que prévu, celui-ci n’ayant manifestéaucun effet facilitateur précoce à l’égard des troubles durythme ventriculaires spontanés (Figure S2 du supplémentde données uniquement disponibles en ligne). Les arythmiesventriculaires malignes spontanées (tachycardies ventri-culaires [TV] soutenues de plus de 30 secondes et fibrillationsventriculaires [FV] réversibles ou fatales) ont été rarespuisqu’elles n’ont été observées que chez 2 rats insuffisantscardiaques sur 16 avant transfert génique, chez 2 des 8animaux ayant ensuite uniquement reçu la GFP et chez unseul des 8 rats ayant reçu le gène de la SERCA2a, aucun desanimaux témoins du groupe d’infarctus du myocarde (IDM)simulé n’ayant, par ailleurs, présenté de tel événement.Comme dans les études in vitro menées pour évaluer la duréedes potentiels d’action dans un contexte de surexpression dela SERCA2a,18 la transduction hétérogène du gène decette protéine a significativement raccourci le QT90 (ms)anormalement allongé dans ce modèle d’IC in vivo : IDM

simulé + GFP, 60 ± 2 ; IC + GFP, 89 ± 2 ; et IC + SERCA,77 ± 2 (p = 0,005 par rapport au groupe IC + GFP).

Troubles du rythme ventriculaires induits parl’isoprotérénolLe protocole d’injection d’ISO in vivo (0,5 mg/kg), quia entraîné des augmentations similaires de la fréquencecardiaque dans les trois groupes de l’étude (Figure S3 dusupplément de données uniquement disponibles en ligne),a été à l’origine d’une incidence élevée de troubles du rythmemalins dans le modèle d’IC. Ce traitement a induit une FVfatale chez 4 des 20 rats insuffisants cardiaques, deux autresayant développé une FV réversible (avant transfert génique).Des TV induites par l’ISO ont été observées chez 11 des 16animaux ayant survécu. Le transfert hétérogène de gène de laSERCA2a a significativement diminué le nombre total detroubles du rythme ventriculaires induits par l’ISO durant les60 minutes ayant suivi son injection (Figure 3C). Elémentintéressant à souligner, le transfert du gène de la SERCA2a atotalement aboli les TV et FV provoquées par l’ISO chez lesrats insuffisants cardiaques, alors que l’injection de cettecatécholamine a induit des TV chez 15 (75 %) des 20 animauxde ce groupe (avant transfert génique) et chez 5 (63 %) des 8rats insuffisants cardiaques ayant uniquement reçu la GFP,mais n’a provoqué aucun épisode de ce type chez les animaux

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Figure 3. Réduction de l’incidence des troubles durythme ventriculaires (TRV) spontanés etprovoqués par l’injection d’une catécholamine dansun modèle d’insuffisance cardiaque in vivo aprèstransfert du gène codant pour la calcium ATPase 2adu réticulum sarcoplasmique (SERCA2a). A et B,Troubles du rythme ventriculaires spontanéssurvenus sur une période d’étude de 24 h.L’incidence de ces événements s’est révéléesignificativement plus élevée chez les ratsinsuffisants cardiaques (IC) que chez les animauxtémoins non IC (simulation d’un infarctus dumyocarde par ligature factice d’artère coronaire[IDM simulé + GFP]). Le transfert du gène de laSERCA2a a significativement diminué le nombretotal de troubles du rythme ventriculaires spontanés(principalement du fait de la réduction desextrasystoles ventriculaires) (A) ainsi que celui destroubles du rythme ventriculaires complexes(doublets, triplets et tachycardie ventriculaire) (B)comparativement aux taux enregistrés chez lesrats IC non traités et chez ceux ayant uniquementreçu la GFP. C et D, Troubles du rythmeventriculaires induits par l’isoprotérénol (ISO) aucours de la période d’enregistrement de 60 minutesayant suivi l’injection de cette catécholamine. Letransfert du gène de la SERCA2a a diminué lenombre total des troubles du rythme ventriculairesinduits par l’ISO (C) ainsi que le pourcentaged’épisodes de tachycardie ventriculaire (TV)provoqués par l’ISO et définis par la survenue de4+ ou 3+ cycles ventriculaires consécutifs (D).*p <0,05, **p <0,01 et ***p <0,001.

du groupe d’IDM simulé auxquels il avait été seulementinjecté de la GFP (Figure 3D).

Troubles du rythme ventriculaires induits parstimulations électriques programmées ex vivoLe transfert du gène de la SERCA2a au sein de cœurs insuf-fisants a eu un effet antiarythmique, car il a significativementdiminué l’incidence des TV induites par SEP (37 ± 16 %versus 86 ± 14 % ; p = 0,04) ainsi que le seuil S2 (ms) dedéclenchement des TV (62 ± 3 ms versus 73 ± 3 ms ; p = 0,04)par rapport à l’injection de la seule GFP.

Analyses des troubles du rythme : cohorte 2Etudes sur cardiomyocytes isolésLes cardiomyocytes isolés à partir de tissus myocardiquesinfarcis présentaient un phénotype d’insuffisance cardiaquetypique, avec ralentissement des courants calciques transi-toires décroissants (Figure 4A), diminution de la chargeréticulaire en ions Ca2+ (Figure 4B) et augmentation de lafréquence des étincelles calciques (Figure 5). Comme indiquéplus haut, le transfert du gène AAV9.SERCA2a a augmenté letaux intramyocardique de SERCA2a chez les rats insuffisantscardiaques (Figure 2C), ce qui a eu pour effet de ramener lacharge calcique du RS et la durée des courants calciquestransitoires décroissants à des valeurs normales (Figure 4Aet 4B).

Etincelles calciquesLa fréquence des étincelles calciques et le rapport étincelles/charge calcique du RS étaient plus élevés dans les cardio-myocytes de rats insuffisants cardiaques, mais n’ont pasaugmenté après transfert du gène de la SERCA2a (Figure 5B

et 5E), ce qui tend à indiquer que l’augmentation de la chargeréticulaire en ions Ca2+ induit par ce traitement n’a pasaugmenté la fréquence d’ouverture des RyR2 au sein de cescellules dont le RS était initialement déjà sujet aux fuites. Lamasse d’étincelles calciques, qui est le reflet de la quantité decalcium libérée à chaque étincelle, était significativementaugmentée dans les cardiomyocytes insuffisants, mais letransfert du gène de la SERCA2a l’a ramenée à un niveaunormal (Figure 5C). Cette thérapie génique a égalementdiminué l’efflux total d’ions Ca2+ hors du RS provoqué par cesétincelles, exprimé par le produit de la masse d’étincelles parleur fréquence (Figure 5D). Il y a lieu de souligner que letransfert du gène de la SERCA2a a été suivi d’une diminutionsignificative des fuites calciques médiées par les étincelles(Figure 5F).

Efflux calcique réticulaire totalCertaines données récentes suggèrent que la fuite d’ions Ca2+

à partir du RS pourrait également découler de mécanismesautres que les étincelles calciques.19 Pour intégrer cetteéventualité, dans les cardiomyocytes isolés provenant d’uneautre cohorte de rats, nous avons mesuré l’efflux « total »de Ca2+ après perfusion de tétracaïne de manière à inhiberl’ouverture des RyR2 (Figure 6). Au sein des cardio-myocytes issus de rats insuffisants cardiaques, la fuite calciqueréticulaire médiée par la tétracaïne a augmenté, mais a étéramenée à un niveau normal par le transfert du gène de laSERCA2a (Figure 6Bi). Dans ce même groupe de cardio-myocytes insuffisants, la charge calcique du RS, qui étaitinitialement diminuée, a été normalisée par le transfertgénique (Figure 6Bii ; observation à confronter à celle illustréepar la Figure 4B). Comme cela avait été noté pour les fuites

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Figure 4. Améliorations des courants calciques transitoires cytoplasmiques, de la cinétique de relaxation des myocytes, de la charge duréticulum sarcoplasmique (RS) en ions Ca2+ et du taux basal de Ca2+ intracytoplasmique observées au niveau de cardiomyocytes défaillantsaprès transfert in vivo du gène AAV9.SERCA2a (calcium ATPase 2a du réticulum sarcoplasmique). A, Courants calciques transitoirescytoplasmiques (témoins non opérés appariés pour l’âge [TAA] en bleu ; rats insuffisants cardiaques [IC] en noir ; IC + SERCA2a en rouge)mesurés en calculant la différence de fluorescence émise, corrigée en fonction de sa valeur basale, par des myocytes chargés en fluo4 etsoumis à une stimulation de 0,5 Hz (a) ; traces corrigées en fonction de l’amplitude objectivant la différence de cinétique des courantscalciques transitoires décroissants (b) ; comparaison quantitative du délai (ms) de diminution de 50 % du pic d’amplitude (R50) au niveaude myocytes soumis à une stimulation de 0,5 Hz (c). B, Charge en ions Ca2+ du RS de cardiomyocytes insuffisants après transfert du gènede la SERCA2a. Exemples représentatifs des traces de fluorescence émise après exposition à la caféine en vue de déterminer la chargecalcique du RS et d’effectuer la mesure quantitative des ions Ca2+. Nombre (n) de myocytes étudiés : TAA, n = 9 ; IC, n = 12 ; IC + SERCA,n = 15. *p <0,05, ***p <0,001.

calciques médiées par les étincelles, après correction enfonction de la charge réticulaire en ions Ca2+, l’analyse del’efflux calcique total a montré que cette thérapie géniquede sauvetage avait normalisé le rapport charge/fuiteréticulaires (Figure 6Biii). Ces observations ont confirméque, dans l’IC, le seuil de fuite des ions Ca2+ à partir duRS est abaissé (comme le suggéraient de précédentes études),le transfert du gène de la SERCA2a ayant pour effet de leramener à son niveau normal.

Phosphorylation des RyR2Pour explorer les mécanismes potentiels à l’origine de la nor-malisation du seuil de libération des ions Ca2+ à partir du RSpar l’intermédiaire des RyR2, nous avons étudié le profil dephosphorylation de ces récepteurs. Nous avons ainsi constaté,après correction en fonction de la densité totale en RyR2, que,dans les cardiomyocytes insuffisants, la phosphorylation surla sérine 2815 (site de la CaMKII) était augmentée, mais aété ramenée à un niveau normal par le transfert du gènede la SERCA2a (Figure 7). La phosphorylation du phos-pholamban (PLB) au niveau de la Thr17 du site de laCaMKII était également majorée dans les cardiomyocytesinsuffisants. La SERCA2a a eu tendance à diminuer laphosphorylation du complexe PLB-Thr17, en particulier

au niveau de la fraction monomérique du PLB (p = 0,06comparativement au modèle de cardiomyocytes insuffisants).La phosphorylation des RyR2 et du PLB par la PKA, quiétait augmentée dans les cardiomyocytes insuffisants, estdemeurée inchangée après transfert du gène de la SERCA2a(Figure 7).

Activité déclenchée au sein des cardiomyocytesisolésEn accord avec la diminution des fuites calciques spontanéesà partir du RS et malgré l’augmentation de la charge de cedernier en ions Ca2+ et l’absence de variation de la fréquencedes étincelles, les cardiomyocytes émanant des rats insuffisantscardiaques traités par transfert du gène de la SERCA2a sontapparus plus stables in vitro, les post-potentiels tardifs médiéspar les ions Ca2+ qui ont été enregistrés à leur niveau ayant étésignificativement moins nombreux que chez les animauxtémoins insuffisants cardiaques tant dans les conditionsbasales qu’après provocation par l’ISO (Figure 8).

DiscussionPlusieurs études précliniques ont montré que la restaurationdu taux et de l’activité de la SERCA2a par thérapie géniqueaméliore la fonction du myocarde ventriculaire dans les

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Figure 5. Phénomènes spontanés delibération des ions Ca2+ (étincelles) àpartir du réticulum sarcoplasmique (RS)de cardiomyocytes défaillants aprèstransfert du gène de la SERCA2a. A,Enregistrements représentatifs enmicroscopie confocale à balayage laserobjectivant les étincelles calciquesspontanées au sein des cardiomyocytesde rats témoins non opérés appariéspour l’âge (TAA, tracé supérieur) et derats insuffisants cardiaques (IC) avant(tracé central) et après transfert du gènede la SERCA2a (tracé inférieur). Leszones délimitées par un cadre blancont été agrandies afin de fournir desreprésentations tridimensionnelles desétincelles (E) à droite des tracés, demanière à objectiver les différences demorphologie de ces dernières aprèstransfert du gène de la SERCA2a. B,Fréquence moyenne des étincelles(nombre pour 100 µm/s). C, Massemoyenne d’étincelles. D, Fuite d’ionsCa2+ à partir du RS provoquée par lesétincelles (masse x fréquence desétincelles). E et F, Fréquence desétincelles (E) et fuite calcique induite parces dernières (F) corrigées en fonctionde la charge calcique réticulairecorrespondante (moyenne par cœur).Nombres d’étincelles/cellules/cœursétudiés : TAA = 247/19/7, IC = 853/30/11et IC + SERCA = 445/10/5. *p <0,05,**p <0,01, ***p <0,001.

modèles d’IC.1–4 Le transfert du gène codant pour laSERCA2a est la première tentative de traitement spécifique-ment dirigée contre l’altération du cycle du Ca2+ dans l’IC àfaire l’objet d’un essai clinique.5 Certains ont toutefoisexprimé la crainte qu’un tel transfert génique n’augmente la

susceptibilité aux troubles du rythme ventriculaires enrompant l’équilibre entre charge calcique réticulaire et fuitesd’ions Ca2+ au profit de ces dernières.6 Dans l’IC, les cardio-myocytes ventriculaires sont davantage sujets aux fuitescalciques spontanées (étincelles) à partir du RS et ce, bien que

Figure 6. Le transfert du gène codant pourla calcium ATPase 2a du réticulumsarcoplasmique (SERCA2a) diminue lesfuites d’ions Ca2+ à partir de ce dernier etnormalise le rapport charge/fuite réticulairesau sein des cardiomyocytes insuffisants. Aet B, Mesure de la fuite calcique réticulairemédiée par la tétracaïne (selon la méthodede Shannon et al17). A, Exemplesreprésentatifs de courants calciquestransitoires avec comparaison des niveauxbasaux de repos avant (tracé supérieur) etaprès (tracé inférieur) exposition à 1 mmol/lde tétracaïne (exprimés dans les deux cassous la forme 0 Na+ 0 Ca2+). B (i), Fuitecalcique réticulaire ; B (ii), Charge calciquedu RS ; B (iii), Fuite calcique par unité decharge réticulaire (témoins non opérésappariés pour l’âge [TAA] : n = 16 ; IC :n = 24 ; IC + E : n = 13). *p <0,05, **p <0,01et ***p <0,001.

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Figure 7. Tracés d’immunotransfert desprotéines obtenus, dans la cohorte 2,pour la calcium ATPase 2a du réticulumsarcoplasmique (SERCA2a), lesrécepteurs à la ryanodine (RyR), lephospholamban (PLB) et lacalséquestrine (CSQ), avec mise enévidence des degrés de phosphorylationdes RyR et du PLB médiés par laprotéine kinase A (PKA) et par la protéinekinase calmoduline-dépendante de typeII (CaMKII) et comparaisonsquantitatives après correction en fonctiondes teneurs totales en RyR et en PLB(témoins non opérés appariés pour l’âge[TAA] : n = 4 ; rats insuffisants cardiaques[IC] : n = 5 ; IC + S : n = 5). *p <0,05,**p <0,01.

celui-ci présente un stock d’ions Ca2+ diminué ; on est doncfondé à craindre que recharger en calcium ce RS qui fuiten restaurant l’activité de la SERCA2a ne favorise la survenuede troubles du rythme en raison des liens mécanistes quiexistent entre la fuite d’ions Ca2+, l’activité déclenchée etl’arythmogenèse ventriculaire.20 De plus, le rétablissement

hétérogène du taux de SERCA2a au moyen des vecteurset des techniques de transfert actuellement disponibles estsusceptible d’augmenter la dispersion de la dépolarisation,propriété biophysique qui rend compte de la propagationcontinue du front d’onde dans le myocarde ventriculairedéfaillant.21

Figure 8. Réduction des activités déclenchées par les catécholamines au sein des cardiomyocytes émanant de rats insuffisants cardiaquesaprès transfert du gène de la calcium ATPase 2a du réticulum sarcoplasmique (SERCA2a). A à C, Tracés représentatifs montrant les profilsde contraction de cellules fraîchement isolées soumises à une stimulation de 0,5 Hz, lors de la perfusion initiale d’une solution de Tyrodenormale (STN) et après perfusion d’isoprotérénol (ISO) aux concentrations de 1 nmol/l et 100 nmol/l. A, Témoins appariés pour l’âge. B,Cardiomyocytes insuffisants. C, Cardiomyocytes insuffisants 4 à 6 semaines après transfert de gène AAV9.SERCA2a. D, Pourcentages decardiomyocytes émanant respectivement des rats témoins non opérés appariés pour l’âge [TAA], des rats insuffisants cardiaques [IC] et desanimaux IC traités par transfert du gène AAV9.SERCA2a au niveau desquels des post-potentiels tardifs médiés par les ions Ca2+ ont étéenregistrés à l’état basal et après exposition à l’ISO. Nombre de myocytes étudiés : TAA = 33, IC = 33 et IC + SERCA = 14. ANOVAbidirectionnelle : p <0,05.

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Cette étude a été menée pour déterminer dans quellemesure le transfert du gène de la SERCA2a était susceptiblede favoriser la survenue de troubles du rythme dans uncontexte d’insuffisance cardiaque et, plus particulièrement,de ceux induits par l’efflux d’ions Ca2+. Les principalesobservations découlant de ce travail sont que (1) cette thérapiegénique a significativement réduit l’incidence des troubles durythme ventriculaires aussi bien spontanés qu’induits parl’ISO in vivo, inhibant complètement la survenue de TV etde FV provoqué par cette catécholamine (Figure 3) ; (2) letransfert du gène de la SERCA2a a significativement diminuéle degré d’allongement des espaces QT ainsi que l’incidencedes TV induites par SEP, tout comme il a raccourci la duréedu cycle S2 à l’origine du déclenchement d’une TV,comparativement à ce qui a été observé au niveau des cœursinsuffisants ; (3) ce transfert génique a normalisé la cinétiquedes courants calciques décroissants transitoires et diminuél’incidence des post-potentiels tardifs médiés par les ions Ca2+

au sein des cardiomyocytes insuffisants après exposition àl’ISO (Figure 4 et 8) ; (4) le traitement n’a pas diminué (niaugmenté) la fréquence des étincelles calciques spontanées,mais a significativement réduit leur masse qui était augmentéedans le modèle d’IC étudié. Le transfert du gène codant pourla SERCA2a a diminué aussi bien les fuites réticulaires d’ionsCa2+ médiées par les étincelles que l’efflux calcique total, celamalgré la normalisation de la charge calcique du RS (Figure 5et 6) ; (5) la SERCA2a a normalisé la phosphorylationdes RyR2 au niveau des sites de la CaMKII, ce qui porte àpenser que la restauration du seuil normal d’efflux calciqueréticulaire résulte d’un remodelage moléculaire (Figure 7).

A quoi faut-il attribuer l’effet antiarythmique significatifexercé par le transfert du gène de la SERCA2a dans l’insuf-fisance cardiaque ? Plusieurs mécanismes directs et indirectssont possibles, dont il importe de noter qu’ils ne s’excluent pasles uns les autres.

Diminution des efflux d’ions Ca2+ à caractèrearythmogèneAugmentation par la SERCA2a de l’effet tampon s’exerçantsur les fuites calciquesLes résultats des études sur cellules isolées tendent à montrerque la SERCA2a exerce un effet antiarythmique direct surl’homéostasie intracellulaire du calcium. Le transfert du gènecodant pour cette protéine a diminué la fuite de calciumréticulaire comparativement à celle observée au sein descardiomyocytes insuffisants : connaissant l’influence aryth-mogène d’une telle fuite calcique,8,20 sa diminution ne peut êtreque bénéfique. Le fait de ramener le taux de SERCA2a à sonniveau normal peut influer directement sur la morphologiedes étincelles et sur l’arythmogénicité en limitant la diffusionspatiale des ions Ca2+ et en empêchant que leur taux nes’élève localement jusqu’à la valeur seuil qui commande ledéclenchement de leur libération interne auto-induite etla propagation des ondes calciques spontanées et despost-potentiels tardifs. Il a précédemment été rapporté quel’inhibition pharmacologique de l’activité de la SERCA2aprolonge la décroissance des étincelles calciques et augmentela constante spatiale de diffusion des ions Ca2+ une fois ceux-ci

libérés.22 Nous montrons que le transfert du gène de laSERCA2a au sein de cardiomyocytes défaillants a pour effetde diminuer la fréquence des post-dépolarisations tardivesspontanées, mais aussi et surtout de celles qui survien-nent dans un contexte d’activation des récepteurs bêta-adrénergiques. On peut penser que cela procède d’un blocageaccru des fuites d’ions Ca2+ répondant à la fois à un mécanismedirect, qui est l’augmentation d’activité de la SERCA2a, et àun déterminant indirect, représenté par la restauration de lacapacité de régulation des mouvements calciques des autressystèmes tampons cytoplasmiques, qui sont peut-être saturésdans l’insuffisance cardiaque. La modélisation de la libérationintracellulaire des ions Ca2+ et des ondes calciques dans lescardiomyocytes ventriculaires a démontré combien le tauxbasal de calcium intracytoplasmique et le pouvoir tamponinfluent puissamment sur la probabilité de propagation de cesondes.23 En résumé, l’effet tampon exercé par la restaurationdu taux de la SERCA2a et de son activité au sein des cardio-myocytes insuffisants à la suite du transfert du gène codantpour cette protéine conduit à stabiliser ces cellules, car ilréduit l’ampleur de la fuite calcique réticulaire et prévientla transformation de l’efflux résiduel d’ions Ca2+ en despost-potentiels tardifs arythmogènes.

Stabilisation de la régulation des récepteurs RyR2La stabilisation de la régulation des RyR2 constitue un autremécanisme antiarythmique. Le phénotype de fuite calciqueréticulaire mis en évidence dans ce modèle d’IC rappelle celuiobservé dans d’autres circonstances donnant lieu à uneaugmentation de la probabilité d’ouverture des RyR2, commecela a été décrit après exposition de cardiomyocytes normauxau FK50624 ou chez la souris surexprimant la CaMKII.25 Lesmutations de RyR2 ayant pour effet d’accroître la sensibilitéau calcium et la probabilité d’ouverture des récepteursaugmentent également la fréquence des étincelles calciques endépit de la diminution de la charge du RS en ions Ca2+.26 Il arécemment été publié que l’aldostérone, dont la concentrationest augmentée dans le sérum et le myocarde des patientsatteints d’IC chronique, contribue à accroître la fréquencedes étincelles, ce qui témoigne d’une augmentation de laprobabilité d’ouverture des RyR2 et des fuites calciquesréticulaires.27

La diminution de la sortie de calcium hors du RS observéeaprès transfert du gène de la SERCA2a dans les cardio-myocytes insuffisants pourrait traduire une stabilisation dela régulation des RyR2. On sait que la phosphorylation desRyR2 aux sites de la PKA et de la CaMKII, qui est augmentéeà ces deux niveaux dans ce modèle d’IC, accroît la probabilitéd’ouverture des récepteurs.8,9 La phosphorylation au niveaude la sérine 2815, site supposé de la CaMKII, a été ramenée àune valeur normale chez nos rats insuffisants cardiaquestraités par transfert du gène de la SERCA2a (Figure 7). Unerécente étude met en lumière le rôle important que joue laphosphorylation des RyR2 au niveau de ce site S2815 dela CaMKII dans la survenue de troubles du rythme chezla souris insuffisante cardiaque.28 Les souris transgéniqueschez lesquelles S2814 (le résidu murin analogue au S2815présent chez le rat) a été activé sur un mode constitutif parmanipulation mutagénétique (S2814D) ont développé une IC

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avec augmentation des fuites calciques réticulaires etdes troubles du rythme ventriculaires médiés par lescatécholamines. En revanche, l’ablation génétique de ce site dephosphorylation des RyR2 (S2814A) a prévenu la survenued’arythmies induites par les catécholamines dans un modèlede rétrécissement aortique.28

La phosphorylation analogue du phospholamban vaégalement de pair avec une diminution de l’activité fonction-nelle de la CaMKII au sein des cardiomyocytes insuffisantsaprès transfert du gène de la SERCA2a. L’activation de laCaMKII observée dans l’hypertrophie cardiaque ou l’IC peutrésulter de l’augmentation du taux basal des ions Ca2+, avecformation accrue de complexes entre la calmoduline et lecalcium, ou de l’augmentation du stress oxydatif par unphénomène d’activation indépendant du calcium.29,30 Letransfert du gène de la SERCA2a dans les cardiomyocytesdéfaillants diminue le taux basal d’ions Ca2+ et améliorele métabolisme énergétique myocardique, ce qui pourraitconstituer un témoin indirect de la réduction du stressoxydatif (Figure 2E), ces deux modifications ayant pour effetde diminuer l’activation de la CaMKII. Il est possible quela stabilisation des RyR2 se trouve encore renforcée par ladiminution de la concentration intracytoplasmique basale encalcium secondaire à l’amélioration de l’activité de laSERCA2a ainsi qu’à celle de la fonction mitochondrialelocale, cela entraînant localement un meilleur statutd’oxydo-réduction avec diminution de l’oxydation des RyR2par les espèces réactives de l’oxygène.31

Un des mécanismes invoqués pour expliquer l’augmentationde la fuite de calcium réticulaire dans les cardiomyocytesinsuffisants est que l’abaissement du seuil de concentrationintraluminale en ions Ca2+ déclenche l’ouverture spontanéedes RyR2, phénomène auquel a été donné le nom de« libération de calcium induite par le calcium » (LCIC).11,32

Lorsque nous avons étudié ce processus en termes defréquence des étincelles calciques, nous avons constaté que letransfert du gène de la SERCA2a n’avait aucunement modifiéle rapport de la fréquence d’étincelles à la charge du RS(Figure 5E), ce qui donne à penser que la restauration du tauxde calcium réticulaire engendrée par cette intervention nemodifie pas la probabilité d’ouverture des RyR2. Néanmoins,si l’on replace la diminution des fuites calciques réticulairesaussi bien médiées par les étincelles que totales dans lecontexte de normalisation de la charge du RS en ions Ca2+, ilapparaît probable que la régulation des RyR2 commandée parla concentration intraluminale en calcium a pu égalementêtre modifiée dans le sens d’une plus grande stabilité, le seuilde LCIC ayant été élevé à un niveau normal (Figures 5F et6Biii).32 Cette hypothèse est confortée par de précédentesétudes ayant montré que la diminution de la charge calciqueréticulaire va de pair avec une libération accrue d’ions Ca2+

par le RS.17 Nos observations suggèrent que, dans l’ICchronique, le seuil de LCIC serait abaissé du fait del’augmentation de la phosphorylation et de l’ouverture desRyR2, d’où une réduction de la charge réticulaire en calcium.Le transfert du gène de la SERCA2a normalise ces troubles enréduisant la phosphorylation des RyR2 au niveau de S2815ainsi que l’efflux calcique réticulaire, cette intervention étantparallèlement à même d’accroître la charge du RS en ions

Ca2+, comme cela a été observé dans cette étude ainsi que dansd’autres menées précédemment.1

Effets antiarythmiques indirects engendrés par leremodelage inverse du ventricule insuffisantLes expériences menées avec différents modèles animaux,dont le nôtre, ont montré que le transfert du gène de laSERCA2a a pour effet de restaurer la fonction mécaniqueventriculaire gauche.2–4 En agissant comme un « dispositifmoléculaire d’assistance ventriculaire gauche » l’améliorationde la fonction cardiaque induite par cette thérapie peutconcourir à réduire l’incidence des troubles du rythme parplusieurs mécanismes indirects potentiels. Ceux-ci com-prennent la réduction de la tension pariétale et des effetsnéfastes de la rétroaction mécano-électrique,33 la diminutiondes profils d’expression génique défavorables,34 l’améliorationde la fonction mitochondriale et celle du métabolisme éner-gétique cellulaire.35,36 L’importante amélioration de la fonc-tion diastolique, ainsi que de certains aspects de la fonctionsystolique, apparaît en faveur d’un degré plus ou moinsmarqué de récupération fonctionnelle. L’augmentation destaux de SERCA2a observée dans les territoires myocardiquesdistants tend à corroborer l’hypothèse selon laquelle laréduction de l’incidence des troubles du rythme ne seraitqu’une composante d’une amélioration globale, bien qu’elledécoule d’un transfert génique localisé (cohorte 1).

Notre étude met en lumière plusieurs séries d’élémentstendant à indiquer qu’il ne s’agit pas là uniquement des effetsbénéfiques indirects du remodelage inverse. Premièrement,dans le modèle utilisé (l’IC chronique post-infarctus), laprésence persistante d’un infarctus étendu (couvrant 39 à44 % du ventricule gauche, Tableau S1) limite la capacité derestauration de la fonction systolique dans l’une et l’autre descohortes traitées. Deuxièmement, lorsque nous avons évaluéla survenue d’arythmies spontanées au cours des 6 premiersjours ayant suivi l’injection d’Ad.SERCA2a, nous n’avons pasrelevé d’élément en faveur d’un effet arythmogène aiguprécoce de cette thérapie génique (Figure S2 du supplémentde données uniquement disponibles en ligne). De fait, dansla cohorte traitée par transfert d’Ad.SERCA2a, l’effetantiarythmique in vivo s’est manifesté dans les premières48 heures de cette intervention transgénique, délai au coursduquel il n’y avait que peu de chances qu’un remodelageinverse structural significatif ait le temps de se produire.

Le transfert du gène de la SERCA2a induit un remodelageinverse ayant un impact énergétique bénéfique (Figure 2E),2 cequi est susceptible d’accélérer encore davantage l’évolutiond’un substrat électriquement instable vers un autre caractérisépar des seuils plus élevés de déclenchement et de propagationdes troubles du rythme. Même dans l’éventualité où letransfert génique exercerait un effet arythmogène aigu (ce quiest infirmé par notre étude), celui-ci serait vraisemblablementcontrebalancé par les effets bénéfiques du remodelage inversedu myocarde insuffisant.

Il est également possible que, du fait de son caractère pluslent, la restauration de l’activité de la SERCA2a induite parune telle thérapie génique par vecteur viral contribue à uneplus grande innocuité du remodelage moléculaire inverse ducycle intracytoplasmique du calcium et de l’efflux calcique

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réticulaire comparativement à l’activation aiguë de laSERCA2a au sein du myocarde insuffisant par une approchepharmacologique ayant pour effet de porter immédiatementl’activité de cette enzyme à un niveau élevé. Cela étant, làencore, ce point n’est actuellement corroboré par aucunedonnée et il n’existe pas encore d’activateur spécifique dela SERCA2a susceptible d’être utilisé pour vérifier cettehypothèse.

Diminution de la susceptibilité aux arythmiespar réentréePlusieurs de nos observations tendent à indiquer que,dans notre modèle de rat insuffisant cardiaque, le transfertintraventriculaire du gène de la SERCA2a a normalisé larepolarisation et diminué la vulnérabilité à l’égard destroubles du rythme découlant d’un phénomène de réentrée, cequi a pu contribuer à l’effet antiarythmique de ce traitement.Nous avions précédemment montré que l’expression de laSERCA2a raccourcit la durée des potentiels d’action au seinde cardiomyocytes isolés.18 Dans ces études, le transfert dugène de la SERCA2a a réduit l’espace QT, qui était allongédans ce modèle d’IC. Le rétablissement de la concentration etde l’activité de la SERCA2a dans un tel cœur insuffisant arendu celui-ci moins sensible aux arythmies par réentréeinduites par SEP et a raccourci la période de vulnérabilitéà l’égard des extrastimuli électriques prématurés, cedont témoignent le raccourcissement de l’intervalle S2d’inductibilité d’une TV et la réduction de l’allongement del’espace QT. Il est donc possible que l’amélioration du cyclecardiomyocytaire des ions Ca2+ engendrée par le transfert dugène de la SERCA2a stabilise les phénomènes électriqueshétérogènes dont le myocarde est le siège dans l’IC, effet quiest également observé après surexpression de l’enzyme dansle cœur normal.37

Les effets bénéfiques du transfert du gène dela SERCA2a ne peuvent s’exercer que sur unsubstrat myocardique d’insuffisance cardiaqueIl est intéressant de confronter les résultats de ce travail à ceuxdes études menées pour évaluer les effets de la surexpressionde la SERCA2a dans les cardiomyocytes normaux et qui, danscertains cadres expérimentaux, ont montré que celle-cipouvait avoir des conséquences néfastes à type d’effet tamponexcessif38 ou d’augmentation de la susceptibilité aux troublesdu rythme.6 Le contexte a toutefois une importance majeure.Dans ces études, l’expression de la SERCA2a a été portée à unniveau supraphysiologique alors que les myocytes étaientphysiologiquement normaux ; or, dans un tel contexte,l’augmentation excessive du cycle intracytoplasmique ducalcium a des effets néfastes, comme cela a été observé dansd’autres modèles.39,40 Le présent travail montre, en revanche,que, lorsque les cardiomyocytes sont défaillants, l’interventionde sauvetage a des effets bénéfiques, car, dans un tel contexte,la concentration basale en SERCA2a est faible, ce quicontribue à la dysfonction mécanique et au substratarythmogène. Les résultats de notre étude montrent claire-ment que, dans un tel cadre (l’IC), la stratégie consistant àrestaurer le taux normal de SERCA2a par transfert du gène

codant pour cette protéine stabilise la physiologie des ionsCa2+ au sein du RS et a un puissant effet antiarythmique.

Une des limites de cette étude est que la physiologie desmouvements calciques intramyocardiques chez le rongeurdiffère de celle observée dans l’espèce humaine et présente uneplus grande dépendance à l’égard de la SERCA2a. Toutefois,la majorité des données sur l’efflux de calcium réticulaireayant conduit certains à s’interroger sur les possibles effetsnéfastes du transfert du gène de la SERCA2a au sein d’uncœur insuffisant sujet aux fuites calciques, ce qui est l’objet denotre travail, a été recueillie lors d’études menées sur descœurs ou des cardiomyocytes isolés de rat. Le fait que, dans cemodèle hautement prédisposé aux troubles du rythme médiéspar les ions Ca2+, il n’ait pas été objectivé d’augmentation desfuites ni d’effet arythmogène est à la fois encourageant etrassurant, cela conduisant, en outre, à reconnaître que seulsles résultats d’essais randomisés et contrôlés en doubleaveugle peuvent apporter la réponse à la question del’arythmogénicité de cette stratégie chez l’Homme. A ce jour,on dispose des données recueillies sur 12 mois de suivi chez39 patients atteints d’IC chronique qui ont fait l’objetd’une thérapie génique par transfert d’AAV1.SERCA2a, cesdonnées n’ayant fait apparaître aucun effet pro-arythmique(congrès scientifique de l’American Heart Association,2010).41 Cela tend à conforter nos observations selonlesquelles le transfert du gène de la SERCA2a peut exercer lamême influence bénéfique qu’un inotrope positif et induire unremodelage inverse sans avoir d’effet arythmogène.

ConclusionsEn résumé, notre étude démontre l’important effet anti-arythmique exercé par le transfert du gène de la SERCA2adans ce modèle d’IC post-infarctus chez le rat. Dans lesmyocytes ventriculaires isolés émanant de rats non traités,nous avons mis en évidence une augmentation des fuitesspontanées d’ions Ca2+ à partir du RS ainsi que de l’activitédéclenchée induite in vitro par l’ISO ; de plus, in vivo, cesanimaux se sont révélés davantage sujets aux troubles durythme tant spontanés qu’induits par les catécholamines.Après transfert du gène de la SERCA2a, la concentrationréticulaire en ions Ca2+ a été restaurée, la phosphorylation desRyR au site de la sérine 2815 s’est normalisée, les étincellescalciques spontanées ont diminué de taille et décliné plusrapidement et la fuite calcique réticulaire totale a diminué,de sorte que les effets inotrope et lusitrope positifs favorablesde cette thérapie génique ont pu s’exercer sans que celas’accompagne d’un risque arythmogène. Ces observationsconduisent à considérer que le transfert du gène de laSERCA2a pourrait constituer une nouvelle stratégiethérapeutique offrant le double bénéfice d’une actionantiarythmique et d’effets inotrope et lusitrope positifs, paropposition aux agents inotropes positifs ayant une tendancearythmogène (comme cela est, par exemple, le cas desagonistes des récepteurs bêta-adrénergiques et des inhibiteursde la phosphodiestérase). Les effets antiarythmiques dutransfert du gène de la SERCA2a semblent être la résultantede l’influence bénéfique indirecte du remodelage électriqueinverse s’opérant au sein du ventricule en phase derécupération et de l’effet direct exercé par la restauration

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du taux de SERCA2a sur l’homéostasie intracellulaire ducalcium, si bien que l’action inotrope positive bénéfiquen’est pas grevée par un quelconque effet proarythmique.Contrairement aux craintes précédemment exprimées, cetteforme de thérapie génique ne prédispose pas aux troublesdu rythme et pourrait même être mise à profit en tant quenouvelle stratégie antiarythmique dans l’IC.

Sources de financementLe Dr Lyon a bénéficié d’une bourse de recherche du MedicalResearch Council britannique. Ce travail a également été en partiefinancé par la Fondation Leducq. Le système de télémétrie a étéfinancé par la British Heart Foundation (BHF RG/05/009).

DéclarationsLe Dr Hajjar est le fondateur scientifique de la société Celladon Inc,qui développe l’utilisation du transfert du gène AAV1.SERCA à desfins thérapeutiques.

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2. del Monte F, Williams E, Lebeche D, Schmidt U, Rosenzweig A,Gwathmey JK, Lewandowski ED, Hajjar RJ. Improvement in survivaland cardiac metabolism after gene transfer of sarcoplasmic reticulumCa(2+)-ATPase in a rat model of heart failure. Circulation. 2001;104:1424–1429.

3. Kawase Y, Ly HQ, Prunier F, Lebeche D, Shi Y, Jin H, Hadri L,Yoneyama R, Hoshino K, Takewa Y, Sakata S, Peluso R, Zsebo K,Gwathmey JK, Tardif JC, Tanguay JF, Hajjar RJ. Reversal of cardiacdysfunction after long-term expression of SERCA2a by gene transferin a pre-clinical model of heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:1112–1119.

4. Byrne MJ, Power JM, Preovolos A, Mariani JA, Hajjar RJ, KayeDM. Recirculating cardiac delivery of AAV2/1SERCA2a improvesmyocardial function in an experimental model of heart failure in largeanimals. Gene Ther. 2008;15:1550–1557.

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PERSPECTIVE CLINIQUEDans l’insuffisance cardiaque, les fonctions systolique et diastolique sont fortement influencées par la diminution de la captation des ions calcium par leréticulum sarcoplasmique (RS) consécutive à la déplétion réticulaire en calcium ATPase 2a (SERCA2a). La thérapie génique fondée sur le transfert du gènecodant pour cette protéine est une nouvelle approche thérapeutique prometteuse qui exerce un double effet inotrope et lusitrope positif et qui, contrairementà d’autres traitements inotropes positifs, induit ces effets bénéfiques en ayant un impact favorable sur le métabolisme énergétique. Certains ont toutefoisexprimé la crainte que cette régulation positive de la SERCA2a ne favorise les troubles du rythme cardiaque comme cela est le cas des catécholaminesinotropes. Dans la présente étude, nous avons évalué l’effet proarythmique du transfert du gène de la SERCA2a dans un modèle d’insuffisance cardiaquechronique post-infarctus chez le rat. Les études télémétriques in vivo ont montré qu’une telle thérapie génique diminue l’incidence des troubles du rythmeventriculaires spontanés, mais aussi, ce qui est peut-être plus important encore, de ceux induits par les catécholamines. Les études de stimulations électriquesprogrammées ont mis en évidence une diminution de la susceptibilité aux tachycardies ventriculaires induites par S1-S2. Le transfert du gène de la SERCA2aa diminué les fuites calciques à partir du réservoir interne que constitue le RS, que celles-ci aient été évaluées en termes d’étincelles calciques « diastoliques »spontanées ou d’efflux calcique réticulaire total. La fuite de calcium hors du RS est une cause potentielle de post-dépolarisations tardives et de tachy-arythmies ventriculaires ; or, le transfert du gène de la SERCA2a a eu pour effet de diminuer l’activité déclenchée induite par une catécholamine au sein descardiomyocytes insuffisants. L’action antiarythmique mise en évidence pourrait résulter tout à la fois d’effets directs liés à la restauration du taux deSERCA2a et d’effets indirects découlant du remodelage inverse secondaire à l’amélioration de la fonction cardiaque. Dans ce modèle animal, le transfert dugène de la SERCA2a réalise une nouvelle forme de traitement de l’insuffisance cardiaque dans laquelle les effets inotrope et lusitrope positifs bénéfiques vontde pair avec une action antiarythmique.

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