simonson 2003 ed tech review

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EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY:

Review of the Field

by

Michael SimonsonProgram Professor

Instructional Technology and Distance EducationNova Southeastern University

North Miami Beach, [email protected]

2003


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ...................................................................................................................................i

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................1

Definitions......................................................................................................................2

THEORIES, RESEARCH, AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY.......................................3Introduction ...................................................................................................................3

Theory Bases -

Systems and Communication Theory .............................................................4

Theory Bases -

Behaviorism and Cognitive Theory.................................................................7

BACKGROUND - EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH........................................13

Introduction ...................................................................................................................13

Evaluation Research .....................................................................................................13

Media Comparison Studies ...........................................................................................14

Intra-Medium Studies...................................................................................................16

Aptitude Treatment Interaction Studies .....................................................................16

Alternative Research Designs ......................................................................................19

Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................................20RESEARCH REVIEWS

Introduction ...................................................................................................................21

Research on Audio .........................................................................................................21

Research on Still Pictures.............................................................................................25

Research on Films .........................................................................................................28

Research on Television..................................................................................................33

Research on Computer Based Learning (CBL) ...........................................................39

Research on Hypermedia..............................................................................................52

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND ATTITUDE CHANGE .............................................57

Introduction ...................................................................................................................57

Design Guidelines..........................................................................................................58

Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................................61

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONRESEARCH, THEORY, AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY .............................62

Introduction ...................................................................................................................62

Summary of the Research -

What it Tells Us................................................................................................62

Recommendations for Future Research.......................................................................63

REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................................64


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Research on Films

INTRODUCTION

Research on instructional film began around the time of World War I with the largest number of studies reported inthe mid 1950s. By the 1970s, the number of research studies dealing with the effects of film on learning haddeclined considerably; however, a number of studies that examined how individuals learn from film have beenconducted since then. This section will include an overview of three major film research reviews and, morespecifically, will review the research on film and its effects in imparting factual knowledge, the effects of film onhigher cognitive learning, and the effects of film as related to learning styles.

MAJOR FILM RESEARCH REVIEWS

There are three major reviews of the research on films: Hoban & Ormer's review of instructional film research1918-1950; U.S. Army World War II studies on the use of films for training; and the Reid and MacLennan review

(1967). Each of these studies has contributed significantly to the body of knowledge on the effects of film onlearning. The review of instructional film research 1918-1950 (Hoban & Ormer, 1950) is a comprehensivecompilation of the research studies conducted from 1918 to 1950. Their specific intention for reviewing theresearch on film was to establish an initial guide for accurately predicting the results of instructional film as well asimprove the production processes used to develop instructional films. The guidelines they recommend for the

production and utilization of instructional film will be reviewed in the conclusion of this section.

Reid and MacLennan (1967) reviewed approximately 110 studies on instructional film from 1950-1964. Theirreview of film and television entitled "Research in Instructional Television and Film" could be considered acontinuation of Hoban and Ormer's review. Reid and MacLennan also confirmed that instructional film researchexhibited the same general no significant difference pattern as that reported previously. Reid and MacLennan alsocontributed to the development of a number of research based production and utilization recommendations. Theseare listed at the conclusion of this section.

In World War II, films were used extensively by the Army and Navy for training and morale purposes (Hoban &Ormer, 1950). During this time, three series of research studies were conducted. Two of the series were concernedwith the effectiveness of films in bringing about specific learning outcomes and one of the series of studies focusedon the organizational factors that influenced the use of films in instructional situations. The Army World War IIstudies provided a research foundation for instructional film. The extensive studies were mostly media comparisonstudies. They summarized the effectiveness of films as delivery systems, and "set the stage for a second phase offilm research which discriminates to a greater degree the variables within films and their utilization whichcontribute to the effectiveness of motion pictures." (Hoban & Ormer, 1950, p. 2-5). In other words, the ArmyWorld War II film research studies alleviated the need for any further media comparison studies and provided afoundation for other research designs. Specific studies from the Army World War II research will be included inthe following section.

THE EFFECTS OF FILM ON LEARNING FACTUAL INFORMATION

The attainment of complex learning objectives is based partially on a knowledge of facts (Hoban & Ormer, 1950).The effects of film on the acquisition of factual knowledge has been examined by many researchers. In threedifferent studies reported in one paper (Hovland, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949; one of the Army World War IIresearch studies), researchers examined the effects of the "Why we fight" military films. Designed to increasesoldiers' knowledge about the events leading to World War II and the progress of the war, these films were found to


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significantly increase the factual knowledge possessed by military personal. More specifically, Hovland,Lumsdaine, and Sheffield found that the factual learning from the "Why we fight" films depended a great deal onthe educational level and intelligence of the audience.

Knowlton and Tilton (1929) conducted a study to examine the role of silent history films on the acquisition ofhistorical facts. In this study which lasted one semester, the Yale Chronicles of America Photoplays (a series of

plays recorded on film) were coupled with regular teaching materials and presented to an experimental group ofseventh graders. The control group (of seventh graders, also) was taught with the regular teaching materials only.Knowlton and Tilton reported that the scores from the group instructed through the use of films and regularinstruction exceeded the scores of those receiving regular instruction only.

In a follow up study, Wise (1939) also used the Yale Chronicles of America Photoplays in teaching history toeleventh grade students. Like the Knowlton and Tilton (1929) study, the experimental group was taught with thefilms and the regular instructional material, while the control group received instruction from regular instructionalmaterial only. Wise's findings confirmed those of Knowlton and Tilton. In order to test the groups, Wise used astandardized history test (Columbia Research Bureau's American History Test). Wise found that the group receivingregular instruction and film scored higher, and thus had learned more factual, general history knowledge, than thosereceiving instruction solely from regular instructional material.

The Knowlton and Tilton (1929) and Wise (1939) studies provided insight into the kinds of general knowledge that

may be acquired from films depicting factual information. Additionally, studies have been conducted that haveprovided insight into the kinds of specific knowledge that can be gained from the use of films. Wise (1949), in astudy of the enrichment effects of motion pictures when they were used in rural schools, found that for informationtests related directly to the content of the films used, the film groups scored significantly higher than the non-filmgroups. The same was found to be true in a similar study conducted by Scott (1949). In his study, Scott examinedthe learning that occurred in high school science and social studies classes when films were used. Scott found thatthe influence of films tended to be specific to the areas covered by the content of the films. In other words, thescores of the regular instruction and film group was significantly greater than those receiving regular instruction oncontent specific tests. However, the difference in scores between the two groups was significantly less whenstandardized tests were used as measures of achievement.

From these studies it can be concluded that:

Films can convey factual information. When the instructional objective is to impart factual information that can

be presented visually, films can be an effective medium.

The acquisition of facts varies depending on the audience. There are various learner characteristics that influencethe acquisition of factual information by each individual.

The contribution of films is specific. That is, the factual information gained through a film contributes more to aperson's specific knowledge than to his/her general knowledge.

THE EFFECTS OF FILM ON HIGHER COGNITIVE SKILLS

Hoban and Ormer (1950) stated that "the principle value of a knowledge of facts lies in the ability of an individualto apply, or use, the facts." (p. 3-1) Therefore, it is not enough to just teach factual information. One purpose ofeducation is to teach students higher order thinking skills such as hypothesis generating and problem-solving. The

effects of film in the acquisition of higher cognitive skills has been the focus of several research studies. Rulon(1933), in an effort to investigate the influence of films on "rote" and "eductive" learning, conducted a study usingninth graders in a general science class. In his study, rote learning was measured on tests by rote items or thoserequiring recognition of facts only. Eductive learning was measured by eductive items which required theapplication of concepts. Over the six week research period, the experimental group learned general science contentwith both textbook and films, and the control group was taught with just the general science textbook.

Rulon found that students taught by text and film scored higher on the eductive test items than did the text onlygroup. The text plus film group also scored higher on rote test items than did the text only group. There was agreater difference between the two groups' scores on the eductive test items than rote test items. Concerning that


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difference, however, Rulon stated that performance on eductive items can be predicted more accurately fromspecific learner characteristics, such as previous achievement in general science, than from scores on rote testitems.

In a study that examined the teaching of inquiry skills to children, Suchman (1961) exposed fifty intermediategrade school students to various science problems via filmed demonstrations. The students were then taughtinquiry, prediction, and projection skills by actually identifying objects in the filmed demonstrations, verifyingconditions and changes in the objects, and citing variables responsible for changes in the objects.

To evaluate learning after inquiry training, students were measured by the types and numbers of questions theyasked in problem-solving situations. Suchman reported the results of the study in terms of individual progress.

Noting the wide range of difference, Suchman concluded that this type of training was beneficial in helping childrenincrease inquiry skills. From this study, it can be concluded that inquiry skills can be taught through content

presented by films.

A follow up of Suchman's (1961) study was conducted by Wright (1978). In this study, the same films used bySuchman were studied. After assignment to one of the three treatment groups, subjects were shown a film of a

problem situation. They were then asked to list as many details about the problem situation as possible (a maximumof 75) and as many hypotheses as possible (a maximum of 5). More than a year later, the subjects viewed a new setof films of problem situations in order to test the long term retention of previous inquiry training. The study found

that those students who had received intensive inquiry training using films were able to list a significantly highernumber of details from a problem situation than those who had not received inquiry training.

It can be concluded from these studies that:

Film can contribute significantly to the acquisition of eductive learning as well as rote learning.

It is possible as a result of training by film for students to develop the abilities to attend to details and generatehypotheses in given problem situations.

The development of higher order thinking skills in children, such as inquiry ability, can be facilitated by films.

RELATIONSHIP OF FILM TO LEARNING STYLES

About 1960 the approach to instructional film research began to shift. Like the shift in focus of other mediaresearch, film research studies began to concentrate on learner characteristics and their interactions with the contentof films. A limited number of studies, however, have examined the interactions between films and learning styles.Three studies will be reviewed here in order to provide a basic understanding of how students learn from film.

In order to test if an interaction between cognitive style and behavior existed, Thomas (1972) conducted a studywith 143 boys ages 5 to 8. In the experiment the boys were divided into three groups. The first group viewed a filmexhibiting aggressive behavior. The second group viewed a film with nonaggressive behavior, and the third groupdid not view any films. After viewing the films, a test measuring for aggression revealed that: younger boys

became more aggressive after watching aggression films than did older boys; and cognitive styles became moredifferentiated with age. That is, there was a relationship between learning style and age. The older boys' learningstyle was different from that of the younger boys.

Multiple studies conducted at Iowa State University (Simonson, 1987) examined interactions between media andlearner aptitude when attitude change was the goal. More specifically, the studies examined learner characteristicssuch as field dependence, field independence, and hemisphericity as they interacted with mediated messages. Thegoal of the studies was to alter student attitudes toward soil conservation or disabled persons.

Two of the five studies conducted yielded results that indicated that an interaction existed between the treatment(method of mediation), cognitive style, and attitude change. It was found that field independent students whoviewed the film on soil conservation had higher attitude scores than other treatment groups, and field independentstudents who viewed the film on disabled persons developed more positive attitudes toward the subject. Also, left

brain dominant students had more positive attitudes towards soil conservation than right brain dominant students.


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For this study, the researchers concluded that material presented by film was effective in changing the attitudes of avariety of learners, and particularly attitudes of field independent learners.

In a study conducted at Purdue University, Snow, Tiffin, and Seibert (1965) sought to investigate the interactions oflearner characteristics such as responsibility, emotional stability, numerical and verbal aptitude, attitudes towardfilm and physics, and prior knowledge of physics. The results of the study that examined 437 college studentsindicated that students who were active, self-assured, and independent performed better academically withinstruction via film than face-to-face instruction. Students who ranked low in responsibility and were lessindependent tended to prefer traditional instructional methods, and those students with low numerical and verbalaptitudes performed better after receiving instruction through films. From these results, the researchers speculatedthat viewing films clarified physics concepts for low aptitude students. The researchers concluded that theinstructional method can facilitate learning for some students while inhibiting it for others.

From these studies on the effects of film on learning style, it can be stated that:

Films may be more effective with field independent learners who are left brain dominant, rank high inresponsibility, and are low in numerical and verbal aptitude.

Face-to-face instruction may work better than instruction via film for passive, less responsible students with highnumerical and verbal aptitudes.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

From the three major research reviews on instructional film (U.S. Army World War II studies, Hoban and VanOrmer review of instructional films 1918-1950, and the Reid and MacLennan reviews of film) came severalrecommendations for the use of instructional films. The studies reviewed here have also resulted in conclusionsindicating the benefits of film in education. From these studies, a list of the uses and benefits of instructional filmhas been compiled.

Films can convey factual information. When the instructional objective is to impart factual information that canbe presented visually, films can be an effective medium.

The acquisition of facts presented by films varies depending on the audience. There are various learnercharacteristics that influence the acquisition of factual information by each individual when the facts are presented

in films.

The contribution of films is specific. That is, the factual information gained through a film contributes more to aperson's specific knowledge base than to his/her general knowledge base.

Films can contribute significantly to the acquisition of eductive learning as well as rote learning.

It is possible, after training, for students to develop the abilities to attend to details and generate hypotheses ingiven problem situations depicted by films.

The development of higher order thinking skills in children, such as inquiry, can be facilitated by films.

Films may be more effective with field independent learners who are left brain dominant, rank high in

responsibility, and tend to be low in numerical and verbal aptitude.

Face-to-face instruction may work better than instruction via film for passive, less responsible students with highnumerical and verbal aptitudes.

Films may have the greatest impact when the content they present reinforces or extends the previous knowledge ofthe viewers.

Hoban and Ormer (1950) stated that the impact of instructional film on learning is contingent on several variablessuch as the content of the film, the way the content is treated, the psychological disposition of the audience, and the


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context or situation in which the film is presented. Keeping these variables in mind, Hoban and Ormer havedeveloped guidelines from the research that indicate what makes a film instructionally effective.

The influence of a motion picture is more specific than general; therefore, specific instructional objectives shouldaccompany an instructional film.

The content of a film should be directly relevant to the response it is intended to evoke in the viewers. Thisincreases the influence of a film.

The influence of a motion picture is relatively unaffected by fancy production techniques. Instead, a clearmeaning presented by good visuals and commentary are the primary considerations.

Viewers respond to instructional films most efficiently when the visual content is presented from the perspectiveof the learner.

Research on Television

INTRODUCTION

The teaching effectiveness of television has been well documented by over forty years of research. Summing up the

research on television, Chu and Schramm(1967) concluded that "given favorable conditions, children learnefficiently from instructional television...the effectiveness of television has now been demonstrated in well over 100experiments, and several hundred comparisons,... at every level from pre-school through adult education and with agreat variety of subject matters and method" (p. 1).

This section is divided into two parts. The first part will review the research on traditional, one-way instructionaltelevision. The second part will review interactive two-way instructional television research. Both subsections willsummarize research findings and include recommendations.

ONE-WAY INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION

One-way instructional television can be defined as instruction via television that accommodates only one directionof communication and interaction. That is, one-way instructional television allows the originator of instructionalinformation to communicate with viewers; however, it does not allow the viewers to interact with the instructor or

originator of instructional information. One-way instructional television is either broadcast live or played from aprerecorded videotape. Broadcast programs are those whose content is aired by a station according to the station'sschedule. Broadcasting can be over the air, through a cable, or via a communication satellite. Videotaped

programming is a method of creating and storing programs that are produced and edited like films. Videotaping oflive broadcast programs permits viewing those programs at times other than when they are originally aired(Newman, 1981).

Research on one-way instructional television followed the same research design patterns as other media. Earlystudies on the effects of instructional television on learning used media comparison designs; however, the resultswere both evaluative and comparative in nature. That is, the results from research comparing television and othermedia indicated that generally there was no significant difference in student achievement when instruction was

provided by television or other media (media comparison results). However, these studies indicated that given thecorrect conditions, students learned from television (evaluation results). For example, Sykes (1964), studied 58

education majors who had been randomly assigned either to a television group or to a control group that receivedinstruction through traditional methods. The television group watched six 45-minute art lessons over six weeks,while the control group did not view the art lessons. A post-test indicated that there was no significant difference instudent achievement between the control group and the group that viewed the art lessons on television. The resultsindicated that students learned from television.

Schramm (1962) summed up 393 experimental comparisons of television vs. classroom teaching, including aconsiderable amount of unpublished material. He reported that 255 of these comparisons showed no significantdifferences in student achievement, 83 were significantly in favor of televised teaching, and 55 were significantly infavor of conventional teaching.


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As media research designs changed, so did the research questions and approaches employed to study the effects ofone-way instructional television on learning. Chu and Schramm (1967) stated "The question is how to makeeffective use of television as an instrument of teaching" (p.22). Chu and Schramm (1967) reviewed several studiesexamining student aptitudes, instructional situations, and/or content treatment variables. One such study wasconducted by Mullin (1956). It investigated the interaction between motivation and home or school viewing ofinstructional television programs. In the experiment, eleventh-grade students were divided into two groups calledmotivated and unmotivated. The motivated group had the promise of monetary reward; the unmotivated groupreceived no such promise. Within each group, half of the students viewed instructional programs on explorations ofspace at home, and half viewed the same programs at school. Two tests were given to the groups, the first wasgiven one day after the students viewed the programs, and the second test was given two weeks later. The resultsindicated that the motivated group scored significantly higher on both tests. However, the results also indicated thatunmotivated viewers learned more in the classroom, and motivated viewers learned more at home.

The Mullin study (1956), and other similar studies that concentrated on the variables affecting the degree of successwith which television could be used, produced documentation of the characteristics of successful programs, and

provided guidance about the ideal conditions for learning from television. The following is a listing ofcharacteristics and conditions of effective one-way instructional television as compiled by Chu and Schramm (1967)and Newman (1981).

Characteristics of Effective One-way Instructional Television

Significant gains in student achievement may result when one-way instructional television programs:

Repeat the key concepts in a variety of ways.

Make use of animation, novelty, variety, and simple visuals (for young children).

Entertain as well as inform.

Make use of a trained communicator in presenting information (for adults: make use of nationally knownpersonalities).

Provide opportunities for students to participate in a learning activity, either in response to information presented

in a program or as part of a game presented by the program (for young children).

Match the length of the program to the attention span of the intended audience.

Follow principles of effective audiovisual presentations.

Characteristics of Effective One-way Instructional Television Viewing

Students show gains in achievement from viewing one-way instructional television when teachers:

Prepare students to receive information presented by the television program.

Provide reinforcing discussions and activities following viewing.

Provide corrective feedback to students, based on what students reveal they have understood from the program, infollow-up discussions between students and teacher.

Provide students with frequent feedback about their achievement as a result of viewing.

Maintain sufficient contact with students during instruction via television (for college students).

Assume an active role in the instruction that accompanies the viewing of television programs.


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Characteristics of Effective Planning for Teaching with One-way Instructional Television

Planning for effective teaching with one-way instructional television includes:

Selecting programs which accommodate the teacher's classroom management style.

Selecting broadcast times which meet classroom needs or using videotapes of programs at times.

Incorporating television as part of a coordinated instructional system, including use of a teacher presentation text,study guides, and tests of achievement gains.

Using television programs when what is to be learned requires visualizing, and continuity of action.

Using television when reducing student anxiety is a priority (capitalizing on the third person, non-judgmentalnature of the medium and student familiarity with the technology).

The effectiveness of one-way instructional television has been substantiated by many studies. From the studiesreviewed it can be concluded that television can provide instruction that might not otherwise be available. One-wayinstructional television, as a delivery system, can present material in a manner that facilitates learning. Methods foreffectively incorporating the medium into instructional settings have been established and will continue to be

explored as the technology continues to advance and become more commonplace in schools.

TWO-WAY TELEVISION:DISTANCE EDUCATION

Adults wanting to participate in formal education must deal with a variety of barriers including limited time to takeclasses, location of desired classes in relationship to home and work, and the costs of formal education (Cross,1981). Young people located in sparsely populated areas face similar barriers. They encounter a number of

problems when wanting to take courses such as foreign languages, math and sciences, and vocational educationbecause local schools often can not afford to provide many advanced and specialized courses (Maher, 1982).Fortunately, advances in audio and video technology have made it possible to deliver formal education viainteractive television. Interactive television (ITV) is a system that allows for live, two-way audio and videocommunication. In ITV environments, the learner and the instructor are physically separated, but they are broughttogether through the use of technology (Hughes, 1988). Furthermore, ITV can link multiple classes at various sites,

and all students can see and hear the teacher and other learners (McClelland, 1987).

There has been a limited number of research studies conducted on ITV because it is a new form of distanceeducation and has not been in existence for long. ITV in the USA is often used for teaching at a distance. This iscalled distance education. Keegan (1986) cited six characteristics of distance education environments:

The separation of teacher and learner which distinguishes it from face-to-face lecturing.

The influence of an educational organization which distinguishes it from private study.

The use of technical media to unite teacher and learner and carry the educational content.

The provision of two-way communication.

The separation of the learner and the learning group.

The participation in an industrialized form of education (p. 42).

Hughes (1988) stated that "because the technology of interactive television is still at an early developmental stage,programming using this technology remains scattered and often idiosyncratic in design, implementation, andevaluation. Thus, no sampling of data for programming in the field can be truly 'representative' " (p. 2).


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According to McClelland (1987) "ITV technology links subcultures of learners together into the larger culture of anexpanded classroom where interaction may or may not develop in ways that encourage participation from all

persons and sub-groups" (p. 6). These subcultures are equipped with video cameras and monitors that are set up soteachers can switch cameras to send views of themselves, students, or visuals, to students at remote sites. The intentis for the technology to be so simple that a technician is not needed.

Currently, two-way instructional television has been used either to facilitate the offering of courses, or to provideopportunities for specialization and additions to the existing curriculum. The integration of two-way instructionaltelevision into the core curriculum as a part of the basic instructional delivery system has not yet been widelyattempted (Hughes, 1988).

Hughes stated that the use of ITV primarily occurs with four types of courses:

1. Low-enrollment courses (e.g. advanced mathematics, science and business courses.)

2. Low-enrollment course sequences (e.g. particularly foreign language tracks: Latin, German, and French).

3. Limited staff courses (e.g. essentially in specialization areas where qualified staff and/or instructional resourcesare only available to a single school district).

4. Special interest courses (e.g. pilot's training, theater criticism, computer graphic design).

The department of vocational and technical education at the University of Minnesota conducted four case studies inwhich they investigated how teachers and learners interact in classes that are held in an ITV context (McClelland,1987). They also tested to discover what ways, if any, did ITV constrain or facilitate teaching and learning. Thefour case studies examined interactions in two high school classes: a vocational education class and a foreignlanguage class; and two adult education classes: a professional education class and a food preservation class. Thestudies employed a naturalistic research design, and data were collected in the form of videotapes of class sessionsand interviews with students and teachers.

One significant conclusion derived from the study was that ITV technology did not appear to be a significantintrusion on the flow of lessons. The data indicated that approximately four percent of the comments in secondaryclasses related to adjusting or using the technology. When the lesson was stopped to correct equipment problems,usually it was because the teacher had not checked the equipment before class. Students in secondary classes quite

often assumed the responsibility for making technical adjustments to ITV equipment.

The researcher observed that teachers in the secondary classes exhibited a good deal of skill in coordinating thetechnology and the classroom activities. For example, theforeign language teacher would switch to the overhead camera in order to present new words for translation and toemphasize correct spelling. In contrast to the secondary teachers who had used ITV systems for five months prior tothe experiment, teachers of the adult education classes were using the system for the first time during theexperiment. These instructors had received limited instruction on the use of the hardware prior to actually using itin class; therefore, many of the camera views and learning activities lacked coordination. This evidence suggestedthat teachers need instruction and practice using the ITV system before effective use of it will occur.

A second significant finding of the case studies was something called the "invisible class". An invisible class, or theconcept of invisibility, existed when a remote class did not participate heavily, and in essence was not seen or heard

from much by others. In the secondary classes, one remote site had considerably fewer students than the others.According to the researcher, this class was in a sense "invisible". That is, the teacher called on members of thisclass significantly fewer times than the other classes and the students in this class interacted much less than studentsfrom the other classes. The researcher stated that this may have been because of the small number of students in theclass. Currently, there is no research that supports the notion that the "invisible" class phenomena lessensopportunities for learning. However, ITV teachers should be alert to this possibility until more research isconducted. According to McClelland (1987), teachers can help minimize invisibility by facilitating participation byall and "humanizing" the ITV classroom environment. For example, in the secondary classes, teachers focused onindividuals and developed rapport by calling on students in remote sites.


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There have been several studies on distance education conducted at Iowa State University. Many of these studiesexamined the attitudes of those using distance education systems. For example, Johnson (1988) conducted a studyto describe the attitudes of high school students toward interactive televised instruction relayed usingcommunications satellites. Data were collected by circulating questionnaires to approximately 400 high schoolstudents. Results indicated that students generally had positive attitudes toward ITV, although they tended to prefertraditional instructional methods. The data also indicated that the attitude of high school students toward ITV wasmore positive when there were other students in their local classrooms.

In a second study, Chinn (1990) examined the attitudes of interactive television teachers toward their ability andtraining to teach on interactive television. More specifically, the purpose of Chinn's study was to "determineteachers' attitudes toward interactive televised instruction, the type of training received and personal perceptions ofself-efficacy with regard to being interactive TV teachers" (p. 23). Chinn surveyed approximately 200 K-12interactive television teachers from throughout the United States and found that attitudes toward teaching ontelevision were slightly negative although the respondents tended to have positive attitudes toward the training theyhad received. Chinn stated that this was probably because some training needs had been met, but others had not.

Chinn suggested other research issues in distance education. Some of these include the investigation of the role ofteacher educators who prepare ITV teachers, and the criteria employed by them when they develop training forinteractive television teachers. Chinn stated that " the issue of how decisions are made by trainers with regard towhat constitutes a training program for television teachers should be addressed" (p. 101).

The attitudes of school administrators and teacher leaders toward satellite delivery of courses for high school creditwas described in a study by Neuberger (1989). Neuberger found that the two groups generally had positiveattitudes toward interactive satellite instruction, although school administrators tended to be more positive thanteacher leaders about the use of satellite technology. It was also found that school administrators seemed to favorless regimented control on the use of the technology in schools than did teachers.

Albright (1988), conducted a study to determine the procedures for developing and delivering college level coursesvia satellite. The study indicated that at the university level, classes offered by satellite may be an effective methodof providing college credit. However, well planned instruction and organized student support services were neededfor less motivated individuals. According to Albright, "a course must be based on clearly established learner needs,and course objectives must reflect a careful assessment of those needs" (p. 209). Albright stated that less motivatedstudents may not be as tolerant of uninspired instruction and underutilized video as highly motivated students.

Recommendations For Use

Although two-way interactive television is technically "the next best thing to being there" it is still a technologydelivery system that is intrinsically remote. Because of this, teachers and administrators must put forth a great dealof effort in order to add a human touch to the delivery system. The following is a list of guidelines for personalizingITV classrooms (Hughes, 1988).

The ITV teacher should emphasize and encourage active student participation.

The ITV teacher should meet face-to-face (if at all possible) with the remote site group prior to the first scheduledclass.

ITV teachers should learn students' names immediately. (This may be facilitated by taking photographs of each

class during the meeting prior to the first scheduled class.)

ITV teachers should schedule informal and formal face-to-face meetings with the class during the school year.

When teaching on ITV systems, teach to the camera. This gives the student the impression of eye contact which iscritical to personalization.

Do not ignore the "home" site students. Home site students are those students in the room where the ITV class isoriginating.


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Use the attributes of the audio and video technology to enhance presentations. For example, use the zoomingcapabilities of the video camera to capture and display details.

If possible, teachers should travel to, and teach from, each remote site.

Devise formative evaluation techniques in order to assess the success of the class as it is being taught.

Be cognizant of school rivalries. Avoid pitting one school against another. Try to have heterogeneous groups atall sites.

Hughes (1988) and others have stated that staff development is the key to the effective use of an ITV system.Teachers who will use the system must feel comfortable with and confident of their ability; therefore, appropriatetraining that provides both information and experience must be provided. The following is a list of trainingrecommendations.

ITV training sessions should:

Provide hands-on guided practice on the use of ITV technology.

Have experienced ITV teachers present to answer questions, provide solutions to potential obstacles, and assist

teachers with problems they may encounter.

Incorporate the effective elements of instruction as major parts of the training session.

Provide teachers with an overview of the technology and how it works.

Include periodic follow-up inservices and on-site coaching.

Include teachers who volunteer for ITV training.

As research directions on ITV are being formed, Hughes (1988) recommended that further research in two-wayinteractive instructional television should ask the following kinds of questions:

What kinds of courses should make the most productive use of interactive television?

What kinds of learning styles can be successfully integrated with interactive television technology?

What age levels can be most appropriately taught using ITV?

Can conventional video, audio-visual, and computer technology be integrated into a multifaceted instructionalsystem? If so, to what extent can this be done?

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

One- and two-way instructional television have been used as effective delivery systems that facilitate studentlearning. The research on one-way instructional television has produced the following characteristics of effectiveITV programs:

Key concepts are repeated in a variety of ways.

The material is entertaining as well as informative.

Trained communicators are used to present information.

The programs encourage and provide opportunities for students to participate in learning activities.

The length of programs should be matched to the attention span of the intended audience.


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Two-way instructional television is an emerging instructional delivery system that has the capability of overcoming

physical barriers. Two-way ITV allows for live audio and video communication between teachers and students whoare not at the same location. Although a limited number of studies have been reported in the area of two-way ITV,existing research has suggested that the following techniques can personalize the two-way instructional classroom.ITV teachers should:

Emphasize and encourage active student participation.

Meet face-to-face (if at all possible) with students at the remote sites of the ITV class prior to the first scheduledclass.

Schedule informal and formal face-to-face meetings with the class during the school year.

Teach to the camera. This gives the student the impression of eye contact which is critical to personalization.

Travel to, and teach from, each remote site if possible.

Devise formative evaluation techniques in order to assess the success of the class as it is being taught.

Researchers in the area of two-way ITV have also made recommendations on how to prepare teachers to use two-way ITV systems. The following is a listing of those recommendations. ITV training sessions must:

Provide teachers with an overview of the technology and how it works.

Provide hands-on guided practice on the use of ITV technology.

Incorporate the effective elements of instruction as major parts of the training session.

Have periodic follow-up inservices and on-site coaching to ensure long term training benefits.

Be used with teachers who volunteer for ITV training.

Research on Computer Based Learning (CBL)

"What we need to do, then, is to educate as though this technological revolution is what it really is--the thirdlearning revolution--the most important change in learning since the 16th Century"Mary Alice White (1987, p. 63)

INTRODUCTION

"In the 1980s, no single medium of instruction or object of instructional attention produced as much excitement inthe conduct of elementary and secondary education as did the computer" (Becker, 1990). Over the last decade, the

number of microcomputers in schools has increased nearly 50-fold from about 50,000 to roughly 2,400,000. As aresult, much of the current research interest in technology in education is currently concentrated in the computerarea.

This research, which is focused on the use of the computer in education, will be reviewed in this section. Thesection begins with a clarification of current terminology in the field, then moves to a discussion of various systemsfor conceptualizing and categorizing computer uses in education. Problems with current research in the area arethen discussed. The review of the research begins with a description of two large scale review studies, then presentsresults of studies in particular areas. Two major descriptive studies are also included, as are suggestions for futuredirections in CBL research.


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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION: RESEARCH, THEORY, AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Introduction

It is curious to read the large number of recently published studies that advocate the superiority of a particularmedium when research clearly indicates that no one medium is inherently better than any other. Most recently,advocates of computer based learning have made claims concerning the superiority of the computer. Of course, asClark (1983) says, conclusions about the real impact of media on learning are disseminated slowly and mustcompete with the advertising budgets of a multimillion dollar industry which has a vested interest in sellingmachines for instruction. Also of impact are the high expectations that most people have for technology.Technologies have revolutionized industry and many educators have hoped that they would do the same foreducation. The computer, considered by some as the ultimate medium, brings to a peak the hopes and expectationsof many educators. This is not necessarily inappropriate. Rather, the desire that many have for an improvededucational process based on the widespread application of technology should be realistic. The evidence shows thata media-based teaching and learning process is not inherently better than traditional teaching and learning processes.However, the evidence supports the position that technology based teaching and learning is effective. That is,

people can learn from media and because of the improved instructional strategies and the enhanced materials,facilitated by media, they may learn more effectively and in some cases, more efficiently.

This concluding section has two sub-sections. First, there will be a summary of what the research tells us. Second,

recommendations for future research directions in educational technology will be proposed.

Summary of the Research: What it Tells Us

If a reader of this monograph was limited to remembering only one idea from it, then Clark's "...mere vehicles..."analogy would be the authors' choice for the most significant concept provided by the literature. Educationaltechnology provides ways of efficiently and effectively storing and delivering instructional messages; however, thetechnology, in and of itself, does not directly impact learning. Rather, educational technology can facilitate theteaching and learning process and potentially make education richer and more stimulating by creating environmentsand presenting content not possible otherwise.

Once it is widely understood that there is no superior medium, researchers and practitioners can concentrate on theimportant questions of instructional design and effective methodology. Understanding the learner and the processof organizing instruction are the critical issues of educational technology. The theories discussed earlier in this

paper (systems, communication, behaviorist, cognitive), never suggested the superiority of one medium. Rather,they provided and still provide, an overview for investigating the teaching and learning process when media areinvolved. Specifically, behaviorism and cognitive theory contribute information about the characteristics of learnersand the learning process. Systems and communication theory give insights into the process of message construction,delivery, and organization.

The goal of a "true" education, as Cronbach and Snow (1977) have stated, is to accommodate the individual bytailoring instruction to his/her needs. The development of instructional technologies has made possible thisaccommodation; however, the best uses of technology and most appropriate instructional strategies to be employedwith the technology are just beginning to be identified.

Research on different instructional media (audio, still pictures, film, television, and computers) has indicatedproduction and utilization techniques that may be effective in facilitating learning, and researchers have examined

the effectiveness of media when used to enhance the academic achievement of groups. The evolution of educationaltechnology research (from media comparison studies to intra-medium and aptitude treatment interaction studies)points toward a more focused examination of media effects on learning.

Specifically, the reviews in this paper indicate several significant findings for educators. These include:

The paradigm shift from behavioral to cognitive psychology has effected technology research in the followingways:

1. Emphasis on outcomes involving problem solving and process skills.


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2. Emphasis on using technology to create meaningful learning contexts where students

are actively involved.

3. Focus on the interaction of specific technologies with specific learner characteristics.

Future research in educational technology should use intra-medium, aptitude treatment interaction or naturalisticdesigns; some evaluation research is also necessary.

Media comparison studies are usually inappropriate.

Students can learn from all educational media; there is no best medium.

Computers and technology can be used to help students learn new material in new ways; these types of uses mustbe encouraged and evaluated.

In general, teachers and schools are not yet integrating newer computer applications into the curriculum.

Gender differences related to computer use and attitude exist.

Persuasion is possible using mediated messages. Attitudinal outcomes can be produced as predictably as cognitiveoutcomes.

Computers are increasingly being interfaced with other technologies to create learning environments for students;the computer should no longer stand alone as the technology for researchers.

Hypermedia environments provide potential for creating meaningful, relevant learning contexts for students.

Recommendations for Future Research

By critically looking backward, it is possible to set the agenda for the future. The following recommendations aredirections for this decade and are derived from past research and practice.

Use findings from audio, still picture, video, film and computer-based learning research as a foundation forresearch on hypermedia.

Examine the use of technology-based environments to improve students' higher order thinking and problemsolving skills.

Develop and use outcome measures to assess higher order thinking and problem solving skills.

Develop evaluation methods to assess the cognitive processes employed by students to achieve instructional goals.

Continue to examine methods of using technology to improve the teaching of writing.

Examine the use of technology in the restructuring of schools; that is, in changing the roles of students and

teachers, and the organization of classrooms.

Develop and examine interventions designed to encourage females to use technology and develop positiveattitudes.

Examine the instructional dynamics of distance education environments from the learners' perspective.

Examine the instructional strategies to be employed in distance education as well as teacher training issues.

Design and perform appropriate cost-effectiveness studies.


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Examine methods of using technology to create meaningful and realistic instructional contexts.

Finally, it is again appropriate to quote Mary Alice White, "What we need to do, then, is to educate as though thistechnological revolution is what it really is--the third learning revolution--the most important change in learningsince the 16th Century" ( p. 63).

Now that researchers are free from questions of which form of technology is best, they can concentrate ondiscovering the most effective means of using technology to facilitate learning. Results and directions cited in this

paper give credence to White's claim that modern technology, appropriately used, can facilitate the third learningrevolution. Researchers in technology have begun to ask the questions which will enable this revolution torestructure schools in ways that will: Adapt curricula to individual learner characteristics, make learning moreactive and meaningful for all students, and help students and teachers learn how to learn.


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Comparison of Behavioral and Traditional Cognitive Theories of Learning and Cognition

Behavioral learning theory Traditional cognitive theory

1. Learner is seen as passive and reactive 1. Learner is seen as active andto environment. mastering the environment.

2. Learning occurs because of associations 2. Learning occurs because the learneramong stimuli or between stimuli and actively tries to understand theresponses. environment.

3. Knowledge consists of whatever pattern 3. Knowledge consists of an organized set ofassociations have been learned. of mental structures and procedures.

4. Learning is the acquisition of new 4. Learning consists of changes inassociations. mental structure brought about by

mental reasoning.

5. Prior knowledge influences new learning 5. New learning is based on using prior

primarily through indirect processes, knowledge to understand newsuch as positive or negative transfer situations, and changing prior

because of similarity of stimuli between knowledge structures to deal withsituations. new situations.

6. Discussion of the activities of the mind is 6. Discussion of activities of the mind isnot permitted. the central issue in psychology.

7. Strong experimental research tradition. 7. Weak experimental researchTheories can only be verified through tradition. Observational research,experiment. thought, experiments, and logical

analysis can be used.

8. Education consists of arranging stimuli so 8. Education consists of allowing/

that desired associations are made. encouraging, active mentalexploration of complex

environments.


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EducationalManagementFunctions

OrganizationManagement

PersonnelManagement

LearningResources

MessagePeopleMaterialsDevicesTechniquesSettings

Learner

EducationalDevelopmentFunctions

Research-TheoryDesignProductionEvaluation-Selection

Logistics

Utilization(Utilization/Dissemination)

DOMAIN OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1


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STAGE I: SYSTEM DEFINITION

FUNCTION 1:

IDENTIFY PROBLEM

FUNCTION 2:

ANALYZE SETTIN

simonson 2003 ed tech review

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