slide 1 of 39 chemistry 16.1 chapter 16 section 1
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Chemistry 16.1
Chapter 16Section 1
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Properties of Solutions
A sinkhole forms when the roof of a cave weakens from being dissolved by groundwater and suddenly collapses. One recorded sinkhole swallowed a house, several other buildings, five cars, and a swimming pool! You will learn how the solution process occurs and the factors that influence the process.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >
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Solution Formation
Solution Formation
What factors determine the rate at which a substance dissolves?
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solution Formation
The compositions of the solvent and the solute determine whether a substance will dissolve. The factors that determine how fast a substance dissolves are
• stirring (agitation)
• temperature
• the surface area of the dissolving particles
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solution Formation
A cube of sugar in cold tea dissolves slowly.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solution Formation
Granulated sugar dissolves in cold water more quickly than a sugar cube, especially with stirring.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solution Formation
Granulated sugar dissolves very quickly in hot tea.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solution Formation
Stirring and Solution Formation
Stirring speeds up the dissolving process because fresh solvent (the water in tea) is continually brought into contact with the surface of the solute (sugar).
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solution Formation
Temperature and Solution Formation
At higher temperatures, the kinetic energy of water molecules is greater than at lower temperatures, so they move faster. As a result, the solvent molecules collide with the surface of the sugar crystals more frequently and with more force.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solution Formation
Particle Size and Solution Formation
A spoonful of granulated sugar dissolves more quickly than a sugar cube because the smaller particles in granulated sugar expose a much greater surface area to the colliding water molecules.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >
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Solubility
Solubility
How is solubility usually expressed?
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solubility
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute for a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than a saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solubility
In a saturated solution, the rate of dissolving equals the rate of crystallization, so the total amount of dissolved solute remains constant.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solubility
The solubility of a substance is the amount of solute that dissolves in a given quantity of a solvent at a specified temperature and pressure to produce a saturated solution.
Solubility is often expressed in grams of solute per 100 g of solvent.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solubility
Some liquids combine in all proportions, while others don’t mix at all.
• Two liquids are miscible if they dissolve in each other in all proportions.
• Two liquids are immiscible if they are insoluble in each other.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solubility
Oil and water are immiscible.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Solubility
Vinegar and oil are immiscible.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >
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Factors Affecting Solubility
Factors Affecting Solubility
What conditions determine the amount of solute that will dissolve in a given solvent?
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >
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Factors Affecting Solubility
Temperature affects the solubility of solid, liquid, and gaseous solutes in a solvent; both temperature and pressure affect the solubility of gaseous solutes.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Factors Affecting Solubility
Temperature
• The solubility of most solid substances increases as the temperature of the solvent increases.
• The solubilities of most gases are greater in cold water than in hot.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Factors Affecting Solubility
The mineral deposits around hot springs result from the cooling of the hot, saturated solution of minerals emerging from the spring.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Factors Affecting Solubility16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Factors Affecting Solubility
A supersaturated solution contains more solute than it can theoretically hold at a given temperature.
The crystallization of a supersaturated solution can be initiated if a very small crystal, called a seed crystal, of the solute is added.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Factors Affecting Solubility
A supersaturated solution is clear before a seed crystal is added.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Factors Affecting Solubility
Crystals begin to form in the solution immediately after the addition of a seed crystal.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Factors Affecting Solubility
Excess solute crystallizes rapidly.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >
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Factors Affecting Solubility
Simulation 20
Observe the effect of temperature on the solubility of solids and gases in water.
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Properties of Solutions >Factors Affecting Solubility16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Factors Affecting Solubility
Pressure
Changes in pressure have little effect on the solubility of solids and liquids, but pressure strongly influences the solubility of gases.
Gas solubility increases as the partial pressure of the gas above the solution increases.
16.1
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Properties of Solutions >Factors Affecting Solubility
Henry’s law states that at a given temperature, the solubility (S) of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure (P) of the gas above the liquid.
16.1
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.1
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.1
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.1
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.1
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Practice Problems
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for Sample Problem 16.1
Problem Solving 16.2 Solve Problem 2 with the help of an interactive guided tutorial.
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Section Quiz
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Assess students’ understanding of the concepts in Section
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16.1 Section Quiz.
16.1.
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16.1 Section Quiz.
1. For a given substance, which of the following will NOT influence how fast it dissolves?
a. temperature
b. amount of agitation
c. molar mass
d. size of the crystals
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16.1 Section Quiz.
2. The solubility of a substance is often expressed as the number of grams of solute per
a. 100 liters of solvent.
b. 1 cm3 of solvent.
c. 100 grams of solution.
d. 100 grams of solvent.
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16.1 Section Quiz.
3. The solubility of a gas in a solvent is affected by
a. both temperature and pressure.
b. only pressure.
c. only temperature.
d. both pressure and agitation.
END OF SHOW
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Chemistry 16.2
Chapter 16Section 2
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Concentrations of Solutions
Water must be tested continually to ensure that the concentrations of contaminants do not exceed established limits. These contaminants include metals, pesticides, bacteria, and even the by-products of water treatment. You will learn how solution concentrations are calculated.
16.2
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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16.2 Molarity
Molarity
How do you calculate the molarity of a solution?
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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Making Dilutions
She then transfers the 20 mL to a 100-mL volumetric flask.
16.2
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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Making Dilutions
Finally she carefully adds water to the mark to make 100 mL of solution.
16.2
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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Making Dilutions
Volume-Measuring Devices
16.2
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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16.4
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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16.4
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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16.4
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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16.4
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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Problem Solving 16.12 Solve Problem 12 with the help of an interactive guided tutorial.
for Sample Problem 16.4
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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Percent Solutions
Percent Solutions
What are two ways to express the percent concentration of a solution?
16.2
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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Percent Solutions
–The concentration of a solution in percent can be expressed in two ways: as the ratio of the volume of the solute to the volume of the solution or as the ratio of the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution.
16.2
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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Percent Solutions
Concentration in Percent (Volume/Volume)
16.2
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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Percent Solutions
Isopropyl alcohol (2-propanol) is sold as a 91% solution. This solution consist of 91 mL of isopropyl alcohol mixed with enough water to make 100 mL of solution.
16.2
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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16.5
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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16.5
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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16.5
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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16.5
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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Concentrations of Solutions>
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Percent Solutions
Concentration in Percent (Mass/Mass)
16.2
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16.2 Section Quiz.
1. To make a 1.00M aqueous solution of NaCl, 58.4 g of NaCl are dissolved in
a. 1.00 liter of water.
b. enough water to make 1.00 liter of solution
c. 1.00 kg of water.
d. 100 mL of water.
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16.2 Section Quiz.
2. What mass of sodium iodide (NaI) is contained in 250 mL of a 0.500M solution?
a. 150 g
b. 75.0 g
c. 18.7 g
d. 0.50 g
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16.2 Section Quiz.
3. Diluting a solution does NOT change which of the following?
a. concentration
b. volume
c. milliliters of solvent
d. moles of solute
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16.2 Section Quiz.
4. In a 2000 g solution of glucose that is labeled 5.0% (m/m), the mass of water is
a. 2000 g.
b. 100 g.
c. 1995 g.
d. 1900 g.
END OF Section 2
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Chemistry 16.3
Chapter 16Section 3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions
The wood frog is a remarkable creature because it can survive being frozen. Scientists believe that a substance in the cells of this frog acts as a natural antifreeze, which prevents the cells from freezing. You will discover how a solute can change the freezing point of a solution.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions >
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Vapor-Pressure Lowering
Vapor-Pressure Lowering
What are three colligative properties of solutions?
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Vapor-Pressure Lowering
A property that depends only upon the number of solute particles, and not upon their identity, is called a colligative property.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Vapor-Pressure Lowering
Three important colligative properties of solutions are
vapor-pressure lowering
boiling-point elevation
freezing-point depression
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Vapor-Pressure Lowering
In a pure solvent, equilibrium is established between the liquid and the vapor.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Vapor-Pressure Lowering
In a solution, solute particles reduce the number of free solvent particles able to escape the liquid. Equilibrium is established at a lower vapor pressure.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Vapor-Pressure Lowering
The decrease in a solution’s vapor pressure is proportional to the number of particles the solute makes in solution.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Vapor-Pressure Lowering
Three moles of glucose dissolved in water produce 3 mol of particles because glucose does not dissociate.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Vapor-Pressure Lowering
Three moles of sodium chloride dissolved in water produce 6 mol of particles because each formula unit of NaCl dissociates into two ions.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Vapor-Pressure Lowering
Three moles of calcium chloride dissolved in water produce 9 mol of particles because each formula unit of CaCl2 dissociates into three ions.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Freezing-Point Depression
Freezing-Point Depression
What factor determines the amount by which a solution’s vapor pressure, freezing point, and boiling point differ from those properties of the solvent?
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Freezing-Point Depression
The difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent is the freezing-point depression.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Freezing-Point Depression
The magnitude of the freezing-point depression is proportional to the number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent and does not depend upon their identity.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Freezing-Point Depression
The freezing-point depression of aqueous solutions makes walks and driveways safer when people sprinkle salt on icy surfaces to make ice melt. The melted ice forms a solution with a lower freezing point than that of pure water.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Boiling-Point Elevation
Boiling-Point Elevation
The difference in temperature between the boiling point of a solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent is the boiling-point elevation.
The same antifreeze added to automobile engines to prevent freeze-ups in winter, protects the engine from boiling over in summer.
16.3
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Colligative Properties of Solutions > Boiling-Point Elevation
The magnitude of the boiling-point elevation is proportional to the number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent.
The boiling point of water increases by 0.512°C for every mole of particles that the solute forms when dissolved in 1000 g of water.
16.3
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Section Quiz
-or-Continue to: Launch:
Assess students’ understanding of the concepts in Section
16.3 Section Quiz.
16.3.
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Section Quiz
-or-Continue to: Launch:
Assess students’ understanding of the concepts in Section
16.3 Section Quiz.
2. Choose the correct word for the space: The magnitude of each colligative property of solutions is proportional to the __________ solute dissolved in the solution.
a) type of
b) number of particles of
c) molar volume of
d) particle size of the
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16.3 Section Quiz.
2. Choose the correct word for the space: The magnitude of each colligative property of solutions is proportional to the __________ solute dissolved in the solution.
a. type of
b. number of particles of
c. molar volume of
d. particle size of the
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16.3 Section Quiz.
3. The decrease in vapor pressure when a solute is added to a liquid is due to
a. attractive forces between solvent particles.
b. repulsion of the solute particles by the solvent particles.
c. dissociation of the solvent particles.
d. attractive forces between solvent and solute particles.
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16.3 Section Quiz.
4. You have 500 mL of 1M solutions of NaCl, Na2SO4, Na3PO4, and Al2(SO4)3. Which solution will have the highest boiling point?
a. NaCl(aq)
b. Na2SO4(aq)
c. Na3PO4(aq)
d. Al2(SO4)3(aq)
END OF Section 3
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Chemistry 16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
Cooking instructions often call for the addition of a small amount of salt to the cooking water. Dissolved salt elevates the boiling point of water. You will learn how to calculate the amount the boiling point of the cooking water rises.
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
>
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16.4 Molality and Mole Fraction
Molality and Mole Fraction
What are two ways of expressing the concentration of a solution?
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
>
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Molality and Mole Fraction
The unit molality and mole fractions are two additional ways in which chemists express the concentration of a solution.
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Molality and Mole Fraction
The unit molality and mole fractions are two additional ways in which chemists express the concentration of a solution.
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Molality and Mole Fraction
The unit molality (m) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kilogram (1000 g) of solvent. Molality is also known as molal concentration.
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Molality and Mole Fraction
To make a 0.500m solution of NaCl, use a balance to measure 1.000 kg of water and add 0.500 mol (29.3 g) of NaCl.
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Molality and Mole Fraction
Ethlylene Glycol (EG) is added to water as antifreeze.
16.4
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.6
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.6
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.6
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.6
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Practice Problems
Practice ProblemsFor Sample Problem 16.6
Problem Solving 16.29 Solve Problem 29 with the help of an interactive guided tutorial.
for Sample Problem 16.6
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Molality and Mole Fraction
The mole fraction of a solute in a solution is the ratio of the moles of that solute to the total number of moles of solvent and solute.
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Molality and Mole Fraction
In a solution containing nA mol of solute A and nB mol of solvent B (XB), the mole fraction of solute A (XA) and the mole fraction of solvent B (XB) can be expressed as follows.
16.4
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.7
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.7
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.7
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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Sample Problem 16.7
16.7
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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Problem Solving 16.32 Solve Problem 32 with the help of an interactive guided tutorial.
for Practice Problem 16.7
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation
Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation
How are freezing-point depression and boiling-point elevation related to molality?
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation
The magnitudes of the freezing-point depression and the boiling-point elevation of a solution are directly proportional to the molal concentration (m), when the solute is molecular, not ionic.
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation
The constant, Kf, is the molal freezing-point depression constant, which is equal to the change in freezing point for a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile molecular solute.
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation
The constant, Kb, is the molal boiling-point elevation constant, which is equal to the change in boiling point for a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile molecular solute.
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation
16.4
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation
Simulation 21 Discover the principle underlying the colligative properties of solutions.
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Calculations Involving Colligative Properties
> Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation
16.4
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.8
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.8
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.8
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.8
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Practice Problems
Problem Solving 16.33 Solve Problem 33 with the help of an interactive guided tutorial.
for Sample Problem 16.8
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.9
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.9
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
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16.9
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Practice Problems
Problem Solving 16.36 Solve Problem 36 with the help of an interactive guided tutorial.
for Sample Problem 16.9
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16.4 Section Quiz.
1. What is the mole fraction of He in a gaseous solution containing 4.0 g of He, 6.5 g of Ar, and 10.0 g of Ne?
a. 0.60
b. 1.5
c. 0.20
d. 0.11
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16.4 Section Quiz.
2. The freezing point depression caused by a given concentration of a nonvolatile molecular solute
a. depends on the solute.
b. depends on the solvent.
c. is always the same.
d. cannot be determined.
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16.4 Section Quiz.
3. What are the freezing and boiling points of a 0.1m solution of CaCl2 in water?
a. -0.2°C, 100.1°C
b. -0.6°C, 100.1°C
c. -0.6°C, 100.2°C
d. -0.6°C, 99.8°C
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16.4 Section Quiz.
4. Compared to the freezing point depression by ethylene glycol (C2H6O2,) for a given solvent, the freezing point depression caused by the same molal concentration of CaCl2 would be
a. exactly the same.
b. twice as large.
c. three times as large.
d. four times as large
END OF Chapter 16