Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1871)

• Abdülmecid became sultan in 1839 (1839-1861)• Tanzimat: Reorganization• Continuity from Mahmud II to Tanzimat• Shift of power from the Palace to bureaucracy

(Sublime Porte – Bâb-ı Âli)• Gülhane-i Hatt-ı Hümayun (Noble Edict of the

Rose Garden)

Mustafa Reshid Pasha reading the Gülhane Edict

Gülhane Edict

• Protection of life, honour and property of all Ottoman subjects

• New & just system of taxation• New system of conscription• Equality before the law, regardless of religion

Reasons for Tanzimat Reforms

• Immediate reason: need for support against Mehmed Ali of Egypt

• Preventing the rise of nationalism by granting equal status to Christians, therefore preventing foreign intervention

• Genuine reformist motivations: reformers trained in Mahmud II’s reformist institutions

Internal Crises Become International

• 1840: European intervention to get Mehmed Ali out of Syria

• 1845: Crisis in Lebanon among Druzes and Maronites

• 1853: Catholic-Orthodox confrontation as to who would control holy places in Bethlehem, Palestine.

The Crimean War

• Russian claim to protect all Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire – 1/3 of the entire Ottoman population

• Russia occupied Wallachia and Moldavia in 1853.

• Russian-Ottoman War of 1853-1856: The Crimean War

• 1856: Paris Peace Conference

Consequences of the Crimean War

• Reform Edict of 1856 (Islâhat Fermanı)• Direct contact with Europeans• Improved communications (telegraph lines,

roads, etc)• Increasing foreign intervention• Increasing foreign economic influence

Rising Nationalism and Inter-Ethnic Conflicts

• 1860: Another crisis in Lebanon between Druzes and Maronites

• Restructuring of administration in Lebanon: Britain and France gained authority

• Revolution in Crete in 1866-1868• Revolts in Bosnia in 1853 and 1860-1862

What did the Ottomans do to deal with domestic and international crises?

• More Reforms.• Judiciary, provisional administration, army,

education, bureaucracy, taxation, communication.

• Military reforms: nearly universal conscription

Bureaucratic Reforms

• The establishment of European-style ministries

• Mustafa Reşid Pasha, Ali Pasha, Fuat Pasha

• Supreme Council (Meclis-i Vâlâ): legislative and judiciary roles

• 1867: Council of State (Şura-yı Devlet): legislative functions

Provincial Reforms

• Standardization of taxes• Cizye: abolished• 1864: New Law on Provincial Administration• Hierarchical order (Province / county / district)• Different degrees of success in different parts

of the Empire• Midhat Pasha in Danube and Baghdad

Judicial Reforms

• Sharia restricted only to family law: codified along European lines

• Promulgation of new criminal and commercial laws: Upon French example

• Secularization of laws

• 1843: New criminal code recognized Muslims and non-Muslims as equal

• 1869: secular Nizamiye courts• 1868-1876: Mecelle: civil code

The Millet System

• Secularization of the millet system

• Secularization within Christian communities: increasing level of education and contacts with Europe: spread of European ideas– Opposition to exclusive control of the churches

• Armenian and Jewish millets adopted constitutions in 1860s: stimulated Ottoman constitutionalism

Educational Reforms

• 1859: Mektep-i Mülkiye (School of Public Administration)

• Rüşdiye (middle school) and İdadiye (high school)• Both civil and military• 1869: Regulation for Public Education upon French

example. 3-tier system• Rüşdiye-İdadiye in major towns -Sultaniye in provincial

capitals• The regulation also had a clause about school for girls• Two Sultaniye schools: Galatasaray and Darüşşafaka

Educational Reforms

• 4 types of schools in the Tanzimat period

• Traditional Islamic schools: Mekteps – medreses• Traditional millet schools• Secular, modern schools• Protestant and Catholic missionary schools, also attended

by Muslim children

• This educational system did not create a sense of common Ottoman identity

Economic Impacts of Tanzimat

• Increasing European economic influence after free trade agreements

• Ottoman trade deficit

• European loans• Galata bankers• 1856: Ottoman Bank

Tanzimat Culture

• Abdülaziz’s trip to France and Britain in 1867: the first time an Ottoman sultan visited a foreign country for peaceful purposes

• New kind of Europeanized elites

• New literature: Felâtun Bey ve Râkım Efendi

Tanzimat Culture

• First generation of Tanzimat reformers: Mustafa Reşit Pasha

• His followers: Ali Pasha & Fuad Pasha

• Ahmed Cevdet Pasha: lawyer & historian

• Mithat Pasha: governor & bureaucrat

Intellectual Responses

• The birth of journalism

• Takvim-i Vekai: first newspaper; its publication started in Mahmud II’s reign

• Ceride-i Havadis: 1840• Tercüman-ı Ahval: 1860s (İbrahim Şinasi as editor)• Tasvir-i Efkar: Şinasi as the owner• 1865: Press law introduced censorship

Intellectual Responses

• Young Ottomans (Jeunes Turcs)• İbrahim Şinasi• Namık Kemal• İttifak-ı Hamiyet (Alliance of Patriotism): secret

society• Ali Suavi• Ziya Pasha• Mustafa Fazıl Pasha

Intellectual Legacy of the Young Ottomans

• Constitutionalism

• Combining Islamic values with European notions of modernity

• Supported parliamentary system

• Inspired later constitutional movement

• Public opinion

The Crisis of 1873-1878

• Death of Fuat Pasha and Ali Pasha• Mahmud Nedim Pasha and the pro-Russian

party• Suez Canal (1869)• Changing balance of power in Europe• Famine of 1873-1874• Unrest in the Balkans (Bosnia & Bulgaria)• Andrassy Note (1875)

The Crisis of 1873-1878• May 1876: coup d’état (led by Midhat Pasha, Hüesyin Avni Pasha

and other reformists)

• Abdülaziz deposed, Murat V ascended the throne with the promise of a constitutional and parliamentary regime

• June 1876: Abdülaziz committed suicide

• June 1876: Massacre of the cabinet

• September 1876: Abdülhamid crowned as Abdülhamid II

• November 1876: the proclamation of the constitution

The Crisis of 1873-1878

• The Bulgarian Crisis• Pan-Slavism in Russia• Istanbul Conference (Tersane Konferansı) in 1876-1877

convened to discuss reforms in Bosnia and Bulgaria• April 1877: Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire• Russian-Ottoman War of 1877-1878 (93 Harbi)• Siege of Plevne• San Stefano Treaty (March 1878)• Treaty of Berlin (July 1878)

Background of Abdülhamid II’s Reign

• Territorial loss (1/3)

• Population loss (20%)

• Immigration of Muslims (Balkans, Crimea, Caucasus)

Abdülhamid II as a Reformer• Administrative reforms• Improvement of communication• Railways–Baghdad Railway

• Steamships• Education• Ottoman press: increasing number of publications– The spread of kıraathane

Abdülhamid II as a Reactionary• Stricter censorship on newspapers

• The Empire’s Islamic identity more pronounced– Counterweight to liberal ideas– Result of territorial loss– Hijaz railway from Damascus to Medina for pilgrims

• Power centered at the palace– Development of palace bureaucracy (Mabeyn)– Network of spies– Abdülhamid’s suspicious personality

Abdülhamid II and International Politics

• Germans as the new allies

• Macedonian Crisis– Bulgarian Exarchate (1872)– Conflict between Greeks and Bulgarians– IMRO (Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization)

Abdülhamid II and International Politics

• Armenian Crisis

– Sizeable minorities in six provinces in the East– Berlin Conference– 1887: Henchak established in Geneva– 1890: Dashnakzoutiun in Tiflis– Hamidiye units– Massacres in 1894-1896

Economic Situation

• Public Debt Administration (Düyun-u Umumiye)

• Controlled 1/3 of state income

• Foreign direct investment after 1880s

• France and Germany received the lion’s share

King Lear: "Although Lear, one of the kings of England, due to old age divides his government between two of his daughters and withdraws into solitude with the allowances and title of kingship, his daughters ungratefully imprison their father along with another of his daughters."