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Smakkerup Huse: A Mesolithic Settlement in NW Zealand, DenmarkAuthor(s): T. Douglas Price, Anne Birgitte Gebauer, Signe Ulfeldt Hede, Charlotte SedlacekLarsen, Nanna Noe-Nygaard, Sarah L. R. Mason, Jens Nielsen, David PerrySource: Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 28, No. 1/2 (Spring - Summer, 2001), pp. 45-67Published by: Boston UniversityStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3181459Accessed: 14/12/2010 18:27

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45

Smakkerup Huse: A Mesolithic Settlementin NW Zealand, Denmark

T. Douglas PriceAnne Birgitte GebauerUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI

Signe Ulfeldt HedeCharlotte Sedlacek LarsenNanna Noe-NygaardUniversity of Copenhagen

Copenhagen,Denmark

Sarah L. R. MasonUniversity of LondonLondon, Great Britain

Jens NielsenKalundborg og Omegns Museum

Kalundborg, Denmark

David PerryUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, CT

Excavations t the site of Smakkerup Huse on the island of Zealand, Denmark, haverevealed Late Mesolithic Erteb0lle deposits, ating between 000 and 3900 B.C. Preservationwas excellent nd a variety of bone, antler, wood, and other plant remains were recovered nthe waterlogged eposits, long with stone and ceramic artifacts. The remains document adiverse ubsistence ase utilizing both marine and terrestrialfoods, n elaborate wood ech-nology, new artifact types, nd some of the oldest domestic ows n Scandinavia. This reportprovides background nformation on the site, and discusses he artifacts and plant and ani-mal remains. The question of domestic nimals in the Late Mesolithic s addressed.

IntroductionThe archaeological site of Smakkerup Huse is located at

the headwaters of a former fjord, or inlet, now dammed,known as the Saltbxk Vig on the NW coast of the island ofZealand, Denmark (FIG. i). Excavations at the site wereundertaken as part of the Saltbak Vig Archaeological Pro-ject, a regional investigation of the introduction of agricul-ture into prehistoric southern Scandinavia (Gebauer andPrice 1990). Excavations took place at Smakkerup Huse in1989 and from 1995 through 1997. Some 140 sq m wereexcavated, n places to a depth of more than 2 m. A total ofmore than 225 kg of flint and other worked stone and 150kg of bone and antler, wood, and nutshell and other plant

remains were recovered, along with many other interestingartifacts. These materials were found in waterlogged de-

posits along a former coastline of the sea. The site, datingbetween 5000 and 3900 B.C. (calibrated), belongs to thelater Mesolithic, a period known as the Ertebolle.

The site is important for its 1000-year record of cultur-al deposits and the preservation of abundant subsistence re-mains and wooden objects. In addition, Smakkerup Husedocuments some of the oldest domestic cattle in Denmarkand a new artifact type-the painted pebble-from theMesolithic. This preliminary report (a monograph is forth-coming) includes background on the Mesolithic of south-ern Scandinavia, a history of research at the site, the geol-


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46 Smakkerup Huse: A Mesolithic Settlement in Denmark/Price et al.

0 10okm

Figure 1. The location of Smakkerup Huse in NW Zealand, Denmark, and other sites mentionedin the text.

ogy of the area, the topographic situation of the settle-ment, the layout and sequence of the excavations, stratig-raphy, the finds, dating, and interpretation. Among sever-

al issues that the research raises is the question of how todefine the Neolithic, discussed in the conclusions.

The Mesolithic of Southern ScandinaviaThe Mesolithic of Europe is the last phase of hunter-

gatherer adaptations across most of the continent. Becauseof a long history of research, substantial public interest,and excellent conditions for preservation, this period is

perhaps best known in southern Scandinavia. TheMesolithic of that region began around 8500 B.C. (all datesin calibrated radiocarbon years), shortly after the end of the

Pleistocene, and ended with the onset of the farming cul-tures of the Neolithic around 3900 B.C. (TABLE i). The pri-mary period of concern for the present discussion extends

from 5400 B.C. to 3300 B.C., encompassing the LateMesolithic (known as the Ertebolle) and the Early Ne-olithic (belonging to the Funnel Beaker period, or Tragt-bager, or TRB) in this area. The Ertebolle is found pri-marily along the coastal areas of northern Germany, Den-mark, and in the provinces of Scania and Halland in Swe-den. The last two phases of Ertebolle are most relevant tothe site of Smakkerup Huse. The middle Ertebolle phase(4800-4300 B.C.) witnesses the appearance of crude,thick-walled pottery; small, ceramic lamps appear duringthe later Ertebolle (4300-3900 B.C.).


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Journal ofFieldArchaeology/Vol. 8, 2001 47

Table 1. Relative hronology f southern Scandinavia.

Period Phases Facies Years B.C.

Mesolithic 5400 B.C.Early Erteb0lle Trylleskove 4800 B.CMiddle Ertebolle Stationsvej 4300 B.C.Late Ertebolle Alekistebro 3900 B.C.

Neolithic Funnel Beaker TRB) Early Neolithic 3300 B.CFunnel Beaker (TRB) Middle Neolithic 02800 B.C.Pitted Ware CultureSingle Grave Culture 2400 B.C.Dagger Period 1700 B.C.

The presence of extensive shell middens, a diversity ofextraction camps, the remains of a wide range of fish and

mammals-including seals, dolphins, and whales-and

"species-specific" trapping stations show the diversity ofthe subsistence base during the Ertebolle. The importanceof marine resources n the diet is further highlighted by sta-ble carbon isotope values in human bone from this time

(Tauber 1981; Noe-Nygaard 1988; Richards, Price, andKoch, in press). The occurrence of cemeteries in Zealandand southern Scania at this time complements a picture ofmore sedentary residence and suggests increased social andritual complexity (Price 1985, 2000). Significant regionalvariation in artifact types and styles begins in the later partof the Ertebolle; differences between eastern and westernDenmark, and among smaller areas within Zealand, havebeen reported (Andersen 1981; Vang Petersen 1984; Jo-hansson 1999). Exchange of exotic materials is indicated

by a variety of foreign objects in southern Scandinavia. Pot-tery, ornaments made from the teeth of extinct animals,and the "shoe-last" axes of amphibolite, originating in aDanubian context in Silesia, Poland appear n the Ertebolleof Denmark. Bone combs and t-shaped antler axes were

copied from LBK farmers to the south.The introduction of domesticates, polished stone axes,

new burial practices, and a new form of pottery marks theend of the Mesolithic and the beginning of the early Ne-olithic (Gebauer 1995). Some coastal sites continued inuse during the earliest Neolithic for specialized huntingand fishing until ca. 3300 B.C. (Skaarup 1973; Madsen

1987). Changes in settlement and subsistence are reflectedin sites that are generally smaller in size and located moreinland than during the preceding Mesolithic (Madsen andJensen 1982). Stable carbon isotope data indicate a sub-stantial reduction in the consumption of marine foods(Tauber 1981; Richards, Price, and Koch in press). Offer-ings in bogs and large tombs present new social and reli-gious patterns in the early Neolithic TRB. Ceremonial sitesin bogs (Koch 1998; Bennike and Ebbesen 1986) and sac-rificial deposits of flint axes, amber beads, and copper or-naments and axes (Becker 1948; Nielsen 1977; Randsborg

1975) are further evidence of increased religious activityand exchange at this time.

History of Research

The site of Smakkerup Huse was probably first discov-ered when the Horve-Varslev railroad was built throughthis area between 1908 and 1916. Leveling the roadbedacross the inlet with earth from both sides of the valley ex-

posed artifacts of bone and antler that were collected by thelandowner. The site was first reported to the Danish Na-tional Museum in 1952, designated as Viskinge sb. 42 (lat-er as sb. 86), as a result of Therkel Mathiassen's (1959) sur-

vey of NW Zealand. A visit made during this survey record-ed a flake axe made from a pointed-butt polished flint axe,an antler axe, the neck of a greenstone axe with an hour-

glass-shaped hole, and four knapped blades, all attributed

generically to the Stone Age. Bjarne Larsen and EgonIversen, of the Arkaeologisk orening (Archaeological Soci-

ety) in the nearby town of Kalundborg, found a variety offlint and bone materials under a thick, heavily mixed layerof gravel. Lisbeth Pedersen, director of the Kalundborg ogOmegns Museum, visited Smakkerup Huse in 1984 afterthe current landowner, Karl Jensen, reported plowing upthe remains of charcoal and fire-cracked rock. Core andflake axes were collected along with flint debitage. Peder-sen and Iversen undertook the first professional excava-tions at the site in 1985 with five test pits excavated

through layers of heavy gravel. The two tests on top of the

beach ridge exposed only plow zone on top of gravel andsand. Below the beach ridge, three test pits revealed stratig-raphy consisting of the plow zone, a 1-1.5 m thick gravellayer with heavy iron staining, followed by a grey sand lay-er with artifacts. The fids included two core axes, three

long thin blades, four cores, and 19 flakes. The flint was

sharp and without damage from being rolled. Groundwa-ter allowed only a brief glimpse of the cultural layer be-neath the beach ridge deposits.

Geology and TopographyThe local topography and history of deposition at

Smakkerup Huse is essential to an understanding of thesite and its context. The site is located at the head of theSaltbzk Vig inlet, at the mouth of the Bregninge stream,halfway between the opening of the Saltbek inlet to theKattegat to the west and the hills that mark the east end ofthe stream valley (FIG. 2). The sediments in the Saltbxk Vigregion result from four major processes: the deposition ofground moraine by Late Pleistocene ice sheets, the meltingof glacial ice leaving deep layers of outwash sand and grav-el, the transgression of the sea in the Holocene depositingmarine sand and clay, and the subsequent accumulation of


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48 Smakkerup use: A Mesolithic ettlement n Denmark/Price t al.

Figure 2. The location of Smakkerup Huse at the mouth of the Saltbak Vig. The dark shading shows

present water levels in the Kattegat and the Saltbaek Vig. The waters of the Saltbask Vig are maintained

by pumping at -1.2 m below sea level. The lighter shading shows the sea level in the Vig during the lateMesolithic. The first contour line outside the Saltbak Vig is at modern sea level and the second is at 2.5m, the approximate sea level during the late Mesolithic. Subsequent contour lines are at 5 m intervals.

organic deposits of peat and organic mud (gytja). Marinesediments define the extent of the basin of the Saltbak Vigitself, marking the stand of the sea during the Littorina

(Early Holocene sea) transgressions at a maximum of ap-proximately +2.5 m asl (Mertz 1924). Beach ridges wereformed along the coast of the Saltbek Vig at that time.

Smakkerup Huse is the name given to a small, higher areadefined by the 2.5 m elevation contour, perhaps 1 sq km insize. This area would have been an island during periods of

higher sea levels in the late Atlantic and early Subboreal be-tween approximately 5000 and 3000 B.C. The Smakkerup

Huse site today is situated along that beach ridge on thesouth side of the Bregninge A stream valley near the mouthof the SaltbakVig (FIG. 2). Directly across the valley on the

opposite bank of the Bregninge stream lies the late Erte-b0lle settlement of Engelsborg.

The Excavations

Excavations at Smakkerup Huse were undertaken tolook for evidence of an occupation horizon on the coastand to expose the materials preserved in the waterlain de-

posits next to the settlement. While the settlement area had

been destroyed by wave action and erosion, deep depositsof waterlain material were preserved and became the majorfocus of excavation. Excavations in this area continueddown to in situ layers from the middle Ertebolle period.The excavations at Smakkerup Huse involved two weeks in1989 and more substantial seasons during the summers of1995-1997, consuming more than 400 person-days (FIG.3). In 1989 a 45 m long exploratory trench was excavated

by machine from the beach ridge north down the face ofthe coastal barrier to determine the location and extent ofthe cultural layer and its relationship to past marine trans-

gressions. The southern 37 m of the trench contained heav-ily rolled sand and gravel deposits. In the northern, lower

part of the trench was found a deep layer of gytja contain-

ing material from the Ertebolle period. This, the same lay-er found by Pedersen in 1985, contained fresh, black flintartifacts and an Ertebolle potsherd, along with bones fromseveral different species of animals.

Excavations in 1995 began with a machine to removethe railroad bed and plow zone from two areas along theformer beach ridge (FIG. 3). In the smaller unit, only threetest pits were excavated. In the larger excavation unit, the


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Journal ofField Archaeology/Vol. 8, 2001 49

**- .'"

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o N . +40050,

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'-*---**-*-'........-.. //'*----*-^^^^^ ' . . ........

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1989l .....' ............. ' . . . . . _ 199

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A

Figure 3. Plan of the excavations at Smakkerup Huse. The location of the composite section shown inFigure 5 is marked on this plan with a light gray line (A) in the large excavation units from 1996 and1997. Dotted lines mark removal of the plow zone by machine while solid lines mark actual excavationareas. Contour lines mark the moder surface of the area at 20 cm intervals up to the line of the railroadcut. The grid marks are at 10 m intervals.

floor was cleaned, disturbances drawn, and excavationcommenced in square meter units and by natural layers. Insome areas where the natural level was thick, arbitrary 10cm units were removed within the layer. Cultural materials

were recorded by layer and level. Sediments were water-screened though 4 mm sieves, and sediment samples forflotation were collected in levels with cultural materials.One long trench was dug along the upper part of the beachridge and was used for water screening; a second, to theeast and south of the eastern excavation unit, exposedstratigraphy and facilitated drainage of the excavation area.

Investigations in 1996 also began with a machine toclear the upper sediments from a large area to the east ofthe 1995 work. In addition, a trench to the west was madefrom the edge of this new area to follow the coastline de-

posits. Excavations were concentrated in the large area tothe east almost directly under the former railroad bed andjust offshore in the waterlain deposits. Excavations in 1997were opened to the south of the 1996 unit in hopes of un-

covering the beach zone of the settlement and to look foran occupation horizon on the land adjacent to the sea. Inaddition, three parallel renches were excavated to the westto expose the stratigraphy n this area and to look for morecultural deposits.

Stratigraphy

Smakkerup Huse, and much of the coastline of the Salt-bak Vig, was exposed to the sea and subject to marine ero-sion during the higher sea levels of the mid-Holocene. It isparticularly ortunate that a small point or projection of the


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coast at the site preserved some in situ deposits along itslee, or eastern, side. This projection was also the spot usedfor the railroad bed across the Bregninge A valley, taking

advantageof natural

topography.The terrain at

SmakkerupHuse slopes slightly from south to north toward the stream

valley, and to a lesser degree from west to east. Deposits tothe south are closer to the beach with more stone and re-

deposited artifacts. The layers to the north and partially tothe east formed in deeper water and contain more gytja andin situ artifacts. The slope from the south toward the northis more pronounced under the railroad bed, at the beach

ridge, and becomes more level to the east.It is important to remember that the excavated layers at

Smakkerup were deposited in the water adjacent to the set-tement. Waterlain sediments vary in texture and composi-tion depending on their position along the coast and their

exposure to wave action. Thus, a single deposit may changefrom organic mud to fine sand to gravel depending uponthe depth and energy of the water along the shore. These

deposits are largely natural accumulations with the occa-sional introduction of artifacts or waste as either "outcast"

(materials either lost or tossed into the water as rubbish) or

redeposited materials eroded from the shore. Many of thecoastal sites of the Mesolithic of southern Scandinavia ex-hibit a common pattern of two major zones of depositionof cultural material (Andersen 1983). The actual occupa-tion or living area of the site contains primarily small itemsand preservation is usually poor. The second, outcast or

"dump" zone is in the water next to the settlement whererubbish was tossed and accumulated in the mud (Andersen1993a, 1995). Items here are generally larger than on thesettlement; bone, and occasionally wood, preservation canbe very good. During the Littorina transgression and re-

gression at Smakkerup Huse erosion and redeposition ofmaterials from the settlement area itself took place.

The stratigraphy at Smakkerup Huse is complex becauseof the sequence of marine transgressions and regressions inthe middle Holocene. The melting of the Weichselian ice-

cap resulted in rising sea levels continuing through theHolocene (Christensen 1993, 1995). The sea finally

reached and slightly exceeded modern levels around 4000B.C. This period, around the time of the transition to agri-culture, was marked by a series of transgressions and re-

gressions as the sea gradually adjusted to modern levels.Four episodes of transgression and regression have beenfound in western Zealand (Christensen 1997), and threeare recorded at Smakkerup Huse. The first transgression at

Smakkerup Huse takes place during the High Atlanticaround 5000 B.C. (FIG. 4). A second episode dates to theAtlantic/Subboreal transition around 3900 B.C., and thethird to the Subboreal around 3600 B.C. The stratigraphy

+1 m

1m

'3 m

Years BC 5ooo 4000

Atlantic | Subboreal

Kongemose Ertebolle Early Neolithic

early I middle I late

Figure 4. The rise in sea level at Halskov, western Sjaelland, n the midHolocene (after Christensen 1997).

at Smakkerup Huse, then, is a record of these changes inthe inlet during the middle and later Holocene. The com-

posite section from the excavations in Figure 5 shows the

major layers at the site and the sequence of deposits is sum-marized in Table 2.

Material for the railroad bed comprises the uppermostlayer, beneath which is a remnant of the plow zone. Layer3 is a laminated horizon of sand and clay that was deposit-ed in water with changing current velocity. A thick depositof iron-stained coarse sand, Layer 4, marks a substantial

transgression/regression event. This layer contained a mix-ture of cultural material, often rolled and patinated, thathad been redeposited here. Layer 5 is a complex erosionhorizon of grey brown sand and gytja becoming more or-

ganic toward the coast and is likely the product of a trans-

gression episode. Layer 6 in this horizon was a practicallysterile brown gytja deposited in deeper water conditions

perhaps reflecting the onset of the Subboreal transgression.Layer 7 was deposited as a grey sandy ridge during a pe-

riod of decreasing water level, likely a regression episode.Several facies of this layer could be distinguished as it

changed from more gravel in the upper half (7G) towardmore fine-grained sand in the lower portion. The densityof shell and shell fragments in Layer 7 increased away fromthe coast in both the upper and lower sections. This layer,rich in cultural material, yielded two bones of domestic


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Table 2. The major deposits at Smakkerup use along with probable ssociated vents nthe stratigraphic equence, adiocarbon ates, and associated ultural material.Layer Description Years B.C. cal.) Chronology Archaeology1 Railroad bed - Recent Historic2 Plow zone - Recent Stray Finds3 Sand and clay lenses - Tidal water? Sterile4 Coarse orange sand/gravel - Subboreal regression Erteb0lle/early Neolithic5 Grey brown sand/gytja - Subboreal regression Late Ertebolle6 Brown gytja - Subboreal transgression Essentially Sterile7G Grey sand with gravel 3920-3930 Atlantic/Subboreal regression Late Ertebolle7 Grey sand/gytja 4220-4090 Atlantic/Subboreal regression Late Ertebolle8 Brown sandy gytja 4990-4940 High Atlantic transgression Middle Ertebolle9 Grey sand 5060 High Atlantic transgression10 Grey sand with gravel - High Atlantic transgression11 Brown peat 5430 Freshwater marsh Essentially Sterile12 Sand/gravel - Pleistocene outwash channel Sterile

cow 14C dated to ca. 3900 B.C. (AAR-3316 and AAR-3317) a very early Subboreal date. A dog skeleton found inthe upper part of this layer was dated to ca. 4100 B.C.(AAR-3318). These radiocarbon determinations are dis-cussed in more detail in the subsequent section on dating.Because this layer is the result of regression, it is possiblethat at least some of the cultural material therein was sec-ondarily deposited. This shallow water deposit (Layer 7) atSmakkerup Huse likely corresponds to a similar episode re-ported elsewhere in Denmark. Investigations of the oscil-lations of the Littorina Sea have reported a period of low-er sea level around 3900 B.C. at the time of the transitionbetween the Atlantic and Subboreal (Christensen 1997:

53). At Smakkerup Huse this transition appears as a dis-tinct sand deposit between the Atlantic and Subboreal gyt-ja layers. The beach deposits of Layer 7 at Smakkerup siton top of layers of Atlantic gytja and underlie a later gytjathat must relate to a later transgression and thus a highersea level.

Layer 8 is an intact deposit of brown sandy gytja con-taining more shell toward the bottom of the layer and awayfrom the coast as well as a largely in situ outcast depositfrom the middle Ertebolle period. The projectile pointtypes and radiocarbon dates on hazel nutshell (4940 B.C.,WG-2573) and a bone awl (4990 B.C., WG-2574) confirmthis

age.This

layeris

rich in organic materials and con-tained a great deal of worked wood. Several zones could bedistinguished in this layer. One zone lay along the formercoastline where many of the bone points from the excava-tion were found as well as a number of vertical woodenstakes; this may have been a fishing area for both spearfish-ing and weirs. A second zone to the east contained threelarge slabs of bark and several pieces of the tree fungus de-scribed below. In addition, numerous chips from wood-working, as observed at other Mesolithic sites (Andersen1995), were present.

Extending from the first "shoreline" zone to the north,we encountered a number of large flat stone slabs that hadoriginally been placed in the water on the slope of the coastas stepping stones or pavement (FIG. 6). There were small-er stones between the larger slabs in places closer to the for-mer shoreline. Similar stone pavements at the shorelinehave been observed at the sites of Tybrind Vig (Andersen1985) and Vanget Nord (Price and Petersen 1987). Thiszone also contained a large pair of red deer antlers intactwith the top of the cranium. In the northern, deeper por-tion of the excavation we encountered several pieces ofdugout canoes that must have been abandoned in the wa-ter. This northern area, perhaps at the edge of a coastal reed

bed, was a boat landing area. In this section Layers 9 and10 are not present.

Beneath this intact outcast layer is a deep deposit of es-sentially sterile, brown peat (Layer 11) that formed duringfreshwater marsh conditions in the Saltbak Vig. A radio-carbon date from the upper part of this freshwater peatprovided an age of 5430 B.C. (AAR-3783). This peat ismore than 1.5 m thick in this part of the site and likely sitsatop the outwash sand and gravels of the Late glacial peri-od, when the Saltbxk Vig was a major outlet for meltwa-ters from the ice decaying in central Zealand. This layer ofoutwash sand and gravel (Layer 12) can be seen at the base

of the south end of the section where layers were deposit-ed directly on the coast. On top of this basal deposit, Lay-er 10 is grey sand and gravel marking the truncation of thefreshwater peat by rising water levels. An oak tree in thislayer, ikely killed by the onset of the transgression, was ra-diocarbon-dated to 5060 B.C. (AAR-3782).

Finds

The Late Mesolithic Ertebolle culture of southern Scan-dinavia is characterized by an elaborate blade technologywith distinctive projectile points and core axes. Ground


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stone appears as axes, adzes, and other tools. Projectileweapons had specialized tips of bone, wood, and antler, aswell as of stone. A wide range of fishing gear, includingnets, weirs, spears, leisters (spears with multiple prongs),hooks, and harpoons is known from this period, alongwith dugout canoes and paddles. Pottery appeared after4700 B.C. in the Ertebolle period and takes several forms

including pointed base cooking vessels, small oval bowlsthat likely served as oil lamps, and small cups (Andersen1991; Gebauer 1995).

Stone tools define the chronological phases of the old-

er, middle, and younger Ertebolle (Vang Petersen 1984).Transverse points with oblique angles and soft-hammerblades characterize the Trylleskov, the oldest of the threeErteb0lle phases on Zealand. Flint points become more

regular and symmetrical through the Ertebolle with core

axes predominant in the Trylleskov phase, replaced by sur-face retouched flake axes in the Stationsvej phase. Core ax-es are elaborated with specialized retouched edges in theAlekistebro phase of the late Ertebolle. Blade knives withtransverse retouch are common. Burins, scrapers, and bor-ers vary proportionately in the different phases.

LithicsThe vast majority of lithic remains at Smakkerup Huse

were pieces of flaked stone but examples of ground and

polished stone artifacts were also found. Fire-cracked ockswere common and their presence is simply noted here

along with the unmodified, flat stone slabs used as step-ping-stones from the shoreline into deeper water (FIG. 6).

FLAKED STONE

Almost 25,000 pieces of flaked flint were recovered

(TABLE 3), and the assemblage was typical of the Ertebolle

period with the addition of a few distinctively Neolithic ar-

tifacts in Layer 4. Flakes and blades are the most abundant

artifacts and this pattern is reflected in the number of flake

and blade cores as well. Hard-hammer blades are some-

what more common at Smakkerup Huse although soft-

hammer blades dominate in Layer 8. Burned flint pieces,

exposed to fires in the settlement area, usually constitutebetween 8 and 15% of the total flint in a layer.

The proportion of retouched tools in Mesolithic assem-

blages in southern Scandinavia is low (Johansson 1999;Stafford 1999) and our site proved no exception. Re-

touched pieces are listed in Table 3 in the categories of re-

touched flakes and blades, points, axes, scrapers, drills,notched pieces, and burins. The most common categoriesof the retouched tools are points and axes. Projectile pointsand their preforms are abundant; 365 were found at

Smakkerup Huse, almost 60% of the retouched tools.

502W420S

+i.o a; -

j^-S 9'l,9 42 tA'12 -5Z: ll X X

/' / / / / ?Drain 10

+0.0 asl _

llPj Stone

Wood

1.0 asl -

Figure 5. Composite stratigraphy at Smakkerup Huse showing majorstrata. See also Table 2.

These points are typical for the middle and late Ertebolle.The leading and trailing edges of the point are the sharpedges of the blade and the sides are retouched. The leadingedge is usually broader than the trailing edge and flares out

slightly. Through time the points become more symmetri-cal and parallel-sided. More than half of the points werefound in Layers 4 and 5 where they must have been rede-

posited from the settlement area. There is a tendency forthe transverse points in these upper layers to be more par-allel-sided as is expected for later Ertebolle materials (Vang

Petersen 1984).The flaked stone axes at Smakkerup Huse are fairly typ-

ical for the late Mesolithic. Forty-nine flaked flint axes wererecovered in the excavations. Nineteen of these are core ax-

es and the rest are flake axes. All of the axes are generallysmall in size. Core axes are poorly made and often difficultto distinguish from flake axes. Nine of the core axes were

fragments, with an equal number of bit and butt ends and

one indeterminable. Three pointed core tools (core borers)were found and are not included here with axes. Six of the

core axes exhibit specialized edge trimming that is distinc-

tive of the middle and late Ertebolle. The specialized axes

were more or lessequally

distributed through the stratig-

raphy. Of the 30 flake axes, the symmetrical, surface-re-

touched axes were the dominant type (12 examples); 5

flake axes were atypical; 4 were of the asymmetrical, sur-

face-trimmed type; and there was one bit end fragment. In

addition two flake chisels were found. The symmetrical,surface trimmed flake axes are the best and most well

shaped flake axes, but even these appear irregular, small,and of poor quality.

Table 3 also shows the distribution of flaked stone tools

by layer at Smakkerup Huse. There are no artifacts in the


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Journal of FieldArchaeology/Vol. 8, 2001 53

50lW410S

railroad bed material (Layer 1) and relatively few in the

plow zone (Layer 2) at the site. There are two major zonesof artifacts, each reflecting marine transgression; one in

Layers 4 and 5 and a second in Layers 7G, 7, and 8. Layer4 is the coarse sand horizon containing secondarily de-

posited materials largely eroded from the coastline duringthe last regression. The large number of projectile points inthis layer is almost certainly a result of this secondary de-

position from the settlement. Layer 5 is a sand and gytjalens that is likely a mix of late Ertebolle material both out-

cast and eroded from the shore. Layer 6, an otherwise ster-ile brown gytja, contained only a few, likely introduced, ar-tifacts. Layer 7/7G of grey sand and gytja is the richesthorizon at the site with a large number of artifacts rom thelate Ertebolle Alekistebro phase (TABLE i). Layer 8 is an in-tact deposit of brown gytja with artifacts primarily fromthe middle, Stationsvej phase of the Ertebolle (TABLE ).There is a clear increase in flake axes from the lower to the

upper levels at Smakkerup Huse. Only 3 flake axes werefound in the lowest cultural layer (8) and 13 flake axes werefound in the upper Ertebolle horizon (Layer 7/7G), whilethe remainder were found in the erosion layers above (Lay-

ers 4 and 5). Conversely, core axes are the most commonaxe type in the lowest Ertebolle horizon (n= 11) and few-er were found in the upper Ertebolle horizon (n= 3). Eightcame from the higher erosion horizons (Layers 4 and 5)where all levels are mixed together.

GROUND OR POLISHED STONE

The most significant ground stone artifact was one-halfof a greenstone axe (trind0xe). The bit-end fragment was105 mm long and 45 mm in diameter. The trindoxe, typi-cally a cylinder of hard, heavy stone shaped by pecking, is

known from the middle and late Mesolithic of southernScandinavia. In Denmark they are more common in thewest. Several other worked pieces of stone include an ovalslab of fine-grained sandstone 126 x 94 x 17 mm withsmall depressions or cups on one surface and the sides. An-other was a polygonally shaped slab of sandstone 129 x114 x 20 mm and the single polished surface was striatedwith several lines.

Several fragments of Neolithic polished flint axes areknown from Smakkerup Huse, including two specimensfound during earlier surveys. Two small fragments of Ne-olithic polished flint axes were found in our excavations,both in Layer 4. No other definite Neolithic materials wereencountered in the excavations, suggesting at most an

ephemeral presence by post-Mesolithic peoples.

CeramicsWhile pottery is well-known from the second half of the

Ertebolle period, after ca. 4700 B.C., only nine sherds werefound in our work, largely in the upper layers (5, 7G, and7). The differences between Ertebolle and Early Neolithicutilitarian ceramics are not pronounced (Koch 1998), but

the latter have a flat or rounded base and thinner walls,along with finer temper and a different coiling technique.The identification of Ertebolle vs. Early Neolithic potterywas a concern at Smakkerup Huse because of the presenceof the domesticated cows in the same layers. One sherdcame from a lamp of the middle to late Ertebolle, with sootresidue on the inside rim radiocarbon-dated o 4500-4440B.C. (WG-2575). A small cup clearly belongs to theyoungest Ertebolle phase, a form that only appears, for ex-ample, in the upper level at the Ertebolle site of Ringk-loster (Andersen 1995). An extroverted neck sherd is like-


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12/24


Table 3. The number of artifacts per category of flaked stone tools, ordered here in standardEuropean typology, by layer at Smakkerup Huse. The total number of retouched tools usedto calculate the last column, percent of tools, was 620. Soft blades = soft-hammer production;hard blades = hard-hammer production.

Layer1

2 3 4 5 6 7G 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals %ToolsFlakes 0 25 0 3588 4114 43 2171 5703 1643 18 10 51 0 17,366Soft blades 0 2 0 272 262 1 191 309 143 0 0 4 0 1184 -Hard blades 0 2 0 195 211 4 159 271 168 1 0 7 0 1018Total blades 0 6 0 679 678 8 451 800 412 2 1 13 0 3050Burned pieces 0 1 0 444 636 3 582 938 449 40 28 17 0 3138Ax sharp 0 0 0 7 8 0 9 8 5 0 0 0 0 37 -Flake ore 0 1 0 35 44 1 23 48 74 2 1 1 0 230 -Blade core 0 0 0 4 7 0 6 14 16 0 0 1 0 48 -

Microblades 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 6 -Retouch lakes 0 0 0 7 11 0 10 15 9 0 0 0 0 52 8.4Retouched blades 0 0 0 24 24 0 16 17 22 0 0 0 0 103 16.6Point 0 2 0 99 76 0 38 87 21 0 0 1 0 324 52.3Point preform 0 0 0 19 6 0 4 10 2 0 0 0 0 41 6.6Flake axe 0 0 0 9 5 0 5 8 3 0 0 0 0 30 4.8Core axe 0 0 0 4 1 0 0 2 6 0 0 0 0 13 2.1Specialized ore axe 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 6 1.0Polish axe ragment 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.3Scraper 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 7 1.1Blade craper 0 0 0 1 2 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 7 1.1Large lake drill 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 7 1.1Blade drill 0 0 0 3 5 0 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 14 2.3Small lake drill 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.3Notched blade 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.2Burin 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 4 3 0 0 0 0 11 1.8Burin pall 0 0 0 7 4 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 15 -Microburin 0 0 0 6 2 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 11Totals 0 39 0 5412 6101 60 3670 8253 2986 65 40 97 0 26,723

number of examples have been reported (Andersen 1983; these pieces had been worked, some just cut away from theAndersen 1987; Christensen 1990; Gron and Skaarup tree and others sharpened to a point; in some cases the bark1991; Hartz 1999). A complete large dugout from the site had been removed (FIG. 7). There are three types of cutsofTybrind Vig in Denmark (Andersen 1987) measures al- seen on the base of the stakes. One is a single facet frommost 10 m in length and 0.65 m in breadth. The sides of one axe blow with the remainder of the limb snapped offthis canoe are 25 cm high and 1-2 cm in thickness, the bow from the tree. A second type of cutting resulted in a chiselis a rounded point and the stern is a board inserted at the or v-shaped point on the stake created by two or threeback end of the boat. Near the stern of this canoe there is blows. The third type of base is a neatly rounded point like-an oval fire platform, similar to the one we have, made ly resulting from sharpening of the stake after it was re-from clay and small stones 3 cm thick and 70 x 40 cm in moved from the tree.size. Analysis of 32 stakes indicated that all were hazel (Cory-A fragment of an archery bow was found positioned ver- lus avellana L.), varying in age from 5 to 12 years at the

tically, likely recycledas a

wooden stake. Made of elm, one time of cutting, with a preference toward seven year-oldend had been delicately carved to a point. The piece was 19 branches (FIG. 8). The mean diameter of the stakes is 2.8cm long, 4.5 cm wide and 2.1 cm thick at the break, with cm with many fragmentes more than a meter long anda rectangular cross section with oval corners. Similar bows quite straight, often exhibiting the swollen base typical ofare known from several other sites, including Ringkloster coppiced trees (Rackham 1980; Rasmussen 1990). Hazeland Tybrind Vig (Andersen 1985, 1995). normally does not growth in long, straight sections unlessMore than 50 worked wooden stakes of varying length coppiced. Growth rings showed that 22 of the stakes wereand diameter were found both standing vertically and lying harvested at the end of the summer growing season. Onehorizontally in the deposits. Such stakes were likely fences branch five years of age was harvested early in the growingand fishweirs, common at coastal Mesolithic sites in south- season (spring), as was another 10 years old. Harvesting ofern Scandinavia (Andersen 1995; Pedersen 1997). All of preferred 7-year-old branches may have been concentrated


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162

8

4-

5 6 7 8 9101 12

Year of Cutting

Figure 8. Histogram of hazel stake ages at cutting.

during one time of year, with more opportunistic cuttingin other seasons. It is interesting that the main harvestwould have taken place at the end of the fishing season,perhaps to cure the wood over the winter before its use ina weir.

All of the wood remains included in this analysis docu-ment a long-term practice of coppicing hazel trees and pur-poseful management. Since the maximum nut productionof a hazel tree does not occur until around fifteen years ofage, this evidence suggests one goal of husbandry was us-able wood in addition to nuts.

Plant Remains

Most plant remains were hand picked from wet-sieved

materials, including an enormous amount of nutshell. Oneadditional archaeobotanical sample consisted of the 1-2mm fraction of one 10-liter bulk sample. Both sample typesare thus highly biased. The archaeobotanical assemblage isdominated by hazel, oak, and hawthorn. The wet screen-

ing also recovered large pieces of fungus and a small frag-

ment of wickerwork described at the end of this section.Thousands of fragments of hazelnut shells (Corylus vel-

lana L.), very few whole but a number of them burnt, werecollected during water sieving at Smakkerup Huse. Theshells were concentrated in Layers 5, 7, 8, and 11 with the

highest number in Layer 7. Hazelnut shells are abundantat other coastal Mesolithic sites (e.g., Tybrind Vig and

Bjornsholm [Andersen 1985, 1993b]). Special locationsfor harvesting and roasting enormous quantities of nuts areknown in northern Germany (e.g., Bokelmann 1991). Allevidence points to the fact that hazel nuts were an impor-

tant component of Mesolithic diet and could be stored formonths (Kosina 1991).

Both acorn shell and cupule (acorn cap) fragments were

presentin wet-sieved

samplesfrom

Smakkerup,but

theycannot be tied to human activity as they are mostly un-charred and many are immature. They likely indicate thatoak was growing near the site, but charred acorn shellswere present in very low numbers, raising the possibility ofhuman consumption. It is difficult to assess the importanceof acorns in the diet, however, since the nutshell is very thinand does not preserve well. Remains of buds and smallsterile or immature whole acorns (barely, if at all, exsertedfrom their cupules) were also present but, as with similarremains at other Ertebolle sites (e.g., Bokeberg III in Reg-nell et al. 1995; Mollegabet II in Gron and Skaarup 1991;Mason, Hather, and Hillman in press b; Halsskov inRobinson and Harild in press; Tybrind Vig in Kubiak-Martens 1999), their interpretation is problematic. Theymay have entered the site with twigs, carried in for some

purpose or they may indicate the presence of nearby, over-

hanging trees. Quercus wood charcoal is present in some

samples, indicating its likely use as fuel.Crataegus hawthorn) fruits were recovered via wet siev-

ing, usually in the form of the pyrenes (stones), though oc-casional whole fruits are present, sometimes somewhat im-mature. Where identifiable to species these appear to be ofC. monogyna Jacq. Since Crataegus fruits are edible, these

may be food remains. They are a frequent find at the Erte-

b0lle site of Mollegabet II (Gron and Skaarup 1991; Ma-son, Hather, and Hillman in press b) and Ringkloster (An-dersen 1998). Crataegus ruits in Scandinavia today are col-lected in the fall after the first frost when the fruit is less bit-ter.

Other specimens present in the wet-sieved samples are

largely unidentifiable, mostly consisting of fragments of

petiole or peduncle (leaf or fruit stalks). It is likely that theyderive from one or other of the taxa already dentified. Onecharred fragment of plant tissue was examined under SEMand identified as parenchyma, possibly deriving from rootsor tubers. Such finds are increasingly common on Euro-

pean Paleolithic and Mesolithic sites (Holden, Hather, andWatson 1995; Kubiak-Martens 1996, 1999; Mason,Hather, and Hillman in press a; Perry 1997, 1999, in press;Robinson and Harild, in press; Zapata et al., in press), ow-

ing to improved techniques of recovery. Other plant re-

mains, from the 1-2 mm fraction of one 10 liter bulk sam-

ple, included both charred and waterlogged plant remains.The bulk of charred remains were wood and stem or rhi-zome of Equisetum (horsetail) with a small number of

charred fragments of Tilia bark. There were several frag-ments of possible parenchyma and cf. Gramineae stem (re-


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sembling Phragmites) and one seed each ofJuncus, Galium,and Gramineae. Mats made of Tilia bast are known fromother Ertebolle sites, such as Tybrind Vig, and Phragmitesstems would

provideuseful

thatchingmaterial. The

pres-ence of Equisetum s harder to explain, but it is interestingthat it has been noted also at Mesolithic sites in the Nether-lands, where it was the most ubiquitous class of vegetativeremains (Perry 1999).

The bulk sample also yielded fragments of wood, bark(notably of Tilia), stem, leaf of both dicots and monocots,roots, Bryophytes, bud scales (many of Quercus type), aswell as fungal sclerotia, small snails, fragmented oystershell, fish bones, foraminifera, and insect remains. Therewere also a large number of uncharred seeds, with abun-dant Chenopodiaceae (largely cf. Chenopodium lbum, alsoSuaeda maritima, among other species) and Ruppia mariti-ma. Other species present in smaller numbers included Ur-tica, Rubus, Rumex, and cf. Malus. The presence of abun-dant seeds ofRuppia, a submerged maritime plant of salt-water pools, and considerable numbers of foraminifera,which live largely in sub- or inter-tidal zones reflects thewaterlain deposition at Smakkerup Huse. Many of the re-mains found are of ruderal species (characteristic of dis-turbed habitats, in some cases especially maritime habitats,and also producers of large numbers of seeds). Most ofthese species have edible seeds, greens, or fruits, and manyhave been recovered from other Ertebolle sites (Kubiak-Martens 1999; Regnell et al. 1995).

Some of the more unusual finds at the site were piecesof tree fungus or polypores (Fomes or Polyporus omentar-ius), known in Danish asfrsvamp or tondersvamp fire fun-gus or tinder fungus). This fungus grows commonly todayas a thick shelf, white-brown in color, on birch and beechtrees (Mason and Hather in press). Over ten pieces morethan 10 cm in diameter were found here and many pieceswere also found at the submerged site ofTybrind Vig of thewest coast of the Danish island of Funen (Lange 1994).Fyrsvamp s well known as a tinder or punk for use in start-ing fires. Its use as tinder is mentioned in the Icelandicsagas and the fungus was included in the fire-making kit ofthe Iceman

(Chapelaand

Lizon 1993; Poder, Puimpel, andPeintner 1994). One thin, flat piece of fyrsvamp had thetexture of leather, but an amino acid comparison showedthis object not to be skin. The piece resembles felt; perhapsthere was some cloth-like use for the material.

A wicker fragment, probably a fish trap, perhaps a bas-ket or a bag, was approximately 35 x 15 mm and consistsof six cross-strands woven with two pairs of thinner, braid-ed strands. Each pair of strands is twisted so that it crossesover between each of the cross-strands. This pattern isknown from fish traps at other Danish Mesolithic sites.

While the plant species is unknown, the material s not bast(beaten bark), but perhaps heather (P. H. Mikkelsen andH. Strehle, personal communication 2000) or willow

(Myrhoj 1997).Heather

likelywould not have

survivedwell in marine environment (L. Pedersen, personal com-munication 2000).

Animal RemainsThe faunal remains from 1989 were identified by Tine

Trolle-Lassen; the non-fish bones from the excavations inthe 1990s were studied by Hede (1999). The fauna in-cludes 16 species of mammals, 5 of birds, and 1 amphibian(TABLE 4). No human bones were recovered. A total of1773 bones, representing at least 70 individual animals,could be identified as to species from the approximately22,500 fragments that were examined. In general the bonematerial is well preserved but heavily fragmented frombutchering, the extraction of marrow, and the manufactureof bone tools.

The remains of forest game animals are most commonamong the mammals and include red and roe deer and wildboar (FIG. 9). Several fur-bearing taxa are present, includ-ing marten, beaver, otter, dog, and wildcat, with similar as-semblages known from other Mesolithic sites: Agernams(Richter and Noe-Nygaard in press), Ringkloster, and Ty-brind Vig (Andersen 1985, 1995). While fish (discussedbelow) dominate the marine fauna, sea mammals are rep-resented by two species of seals (Halichoerus rypus and

Phoca hispidae). Less than 1% of the total number of bonefragments could be identified as bird; such a small show-ing is common at late Mesolithic sites owing to the fragili-ty ofthin-walled bird bones. Small mammals, no doubt un-derrepresented here because of the size of the screen, in-clude squirrels, hedgehogs, and two kinds of voles. Whilethe voles may occur naturally (cf. Noe-Nygaard 1995),squirrels and hedgehogs had economic value (Aaris-Sorensen and Andreasen 1993).

Two domesticated species were present, dog and cow.Bones from several individual dogs were found, includingone partially articulated skeleton. Cutmarks on the last in-

dicated that it was skinned before the carcass was thrownin the water. Stable carbon isotope analysis of the dog col-lagen produced a negative value of -10.2 parts per thou-sand (ppt). What is striking about this value-the lowestreported for a dog in southern Scandinavia-is that it sug-gests an almost exclusively marine diet for this animal. Sta-ble isotope ratios in dogs have been used as a proxy for hu-man diet in Mesolithic studies (Noe-Nygaard 1988,1995). Three bone fragments were identified as the upperjoint of the radius and the lower joint of a metacarpus anda metatarsus from domestic cattle. Identification is


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Table 4. Species of animal bones identified from excavations at

Smakkerup Huse.MinimumNumber of

Talon Scientific name Common name Elements

Mammal Cervus elaphus Red deer 732Capreolus apreolus Roe deer 664Sus scrofa Wild boar 270Bos domesticus Domestic cow 4

Canisfamiliaris Domestic dog 39Vulpes ulpes Fox 1Felis silvestris Wildcat 10Martes martes Marten 4

Lutra lutra Otter 17Halichoerusgrypus Grey seal 3Phoca hispidae Ring seal 2

Castorfiber Beaver 4

Sciurus vulgaris Red squirrel 1Arvicola terrestris Water vole 8

Clethrionomysglareolus? Bank vole? 8

Erinaceus europaeus Hedgehog 6

Amphibian Bufo sp. Toad 1

Bird Anas sp. Duck 1

Cygnus sp. Swan 3Turpus menula Blackbird 2Tetrao urogallus Capercaillie 3Haliaeetus albicilla White-tailed eagle 2

Fish Gadus morhua Cod 805

Merlangius merlangus Whiting 2

Clupea harengus Herring 2Platichthys Flounder 1708

Belone belone Garfish 620Scomber combrus Mackerel 81

Myoxocephalus corpius Bullhead 5

Squales acanthias Spiny dogfish 50

Anguilla anguilla Eel 157Rutilus rutilus Roach 16Abramis brama Bream 2

Lucioperca ucioperca Zander 2Esox ucius Pike 101

straightforward based on the size and thickness of the

bone. Although it is sometimes difficult to distinguish do-

mesticated cattle from Bos taurus, the aurochs (Degerboland Fredskild 1970; Grigson 1974; Rasmussen and

Richter 1991; Noe-Nygaard 1995), that animal had been

extirpated on the island of Zealand at least 1000 years pri-

or to the occupation of Smakkerup Huse (Aaris-Sorensen1980). The cow bones are from adult animals; there is a

complete fusion of the diaphysis, the epiphysis is terminat-ed and the suture is obliterated. Radiocarbon dates from

two of the cow bones and the articulated dog skeleton are

discussed below in the section on dating. Stable carbon val-

ues for the domestic cow bone collagen (n=2, mean =

-21.5 ppt) seem to indicate that they were feeding alongthe forest rim or in more open grass areas, compared to

other species.The '13C values from red deer (n=4, mean = -22.87

ppt) compared to modern individuals and to prehistoricroe deer at Smakkerup Huse (n= 3, mean = 21.76 ppt) are

interpreted as a result of increasing forestation of the areaaround Smakkerup Huse. This conclusion matches the re-sults from investigations in the nearby Amose region(Noe-Nygaard 1995). The red deer sought most of its foodin the shaded forest vegetation, while the roe deer browsedin the more exposed vegetation of the forest rim along thecoast. The stable carbon isotope values of the wild boar

(n= 3, mean = -20.08 ppt) are slightly less negative thanthe deer, possibly the result of feeding on vegetation alongthe beach.

The vast majority of the faunal remains (96%) comefrom Layers 5, 7G, 7, and 8, with a pronounced abundancein Layer 7. Animals equally distributed in all layers are themost common species including red and roe deer, pig, dog,otter, and water vole. There is little change in the propor-tions of red deer, roe deer, and wild boar over time; red is

38-50%, roe is 25-43%, and boar is 10-16% in the four

layers. Dog is represented in all four layers and particular-ly in Layer 7G with the articulated skeleton. The cowbones are found in the higher Layers 5, 7G, and 7, a cir-cumstance that likely reflects the rough contemporaneity ofthese layers and the presence of secondarily deposited ma-terials. The fur-bearing species are more common in thelower layers, but we note that there are many more identi-fied individuals in those layers. While there seems to bemore variety in Layer 8, given the relatively small sample

size, there is little substantive observable change over timein the faunal remains at Smakkerup Huse.

The bone treatment and fragmentation pattern at

Smakkerup Huse is consistent with those for prey animalsat other late Mesolithic sites in southern Scandinavia (Noe-

Nygaard 1977, 1988, 1995; Trolle-Lassen 1987, 1992).Few differences could be seen in these patterns among the

three major species-red deer, roe deer, and wild boar-at

the site, with bones reduced to fragments via marrow frac-

turing or tool production. Juvenile animal bones are less

fractured than adult bones. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) did

show some difference in the representation of elements;solid bones with little

meat,such as

phalanges,and the dis-

tal ends of limb bones are present but the proximal end is

often missing, likely because of scavenging dogs, who left

tooth marks on bone fragments from a range of species.

Analysis of bone, teeth, and antler fragments indicates

that the site was definitely occupied in the summer, fall,and winter, and likely year-round (FIG. io). In common

with Mesolithic sites throughout southern Scandinavia,there are few indicators of spring in the fauna. There are ju-veniles, no more than a year old, of both red deer and wild

boar that must have been born in the spring or early sum-


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Figure 9. Proportion of estimated minimum number of individuals(EMNI) by major species at Smakkerup Huse.

mer. Antler development in red deer and roe deer indicatessummer and winter occupation. Fully developed red deerantler attached to the skull reflects a period from Septem-ber through February; roe deer carry developed antler suchas found at Smakkerup Huse in the summer months, Maythrough October. Fur-bearing animals such as otter andbeaver are usually hunted in the winter when their pelts arein prime condition. Age estimates from the mandibles ofwild boar show that they were taken during summer, fall,and winter.

Fish and ShellfishThe fish remains comprise 11,140 bones, of which

9332 were identified as to species or family by Larsen(2000). Nearly all were collected by water sieving with 4mm screens. Thirteen species, including three flatfish, arerepresented (TABLE 4). The majority of the bones comefrom either small species (e.g., roach, Rutilus rutilus) orsmall individuals from species that have large adults (e.g.,cod, Gadus morhua). Small fish are often caught uninten-tionally in fish traps as secondary catch (Enghoff 1994). Ofthe identified fish bones, approximately 70% came fromcod, 18% from various flatfish, 7% from gar, and the re-maining 5% were other species. The vast majority weresaltwater species, including the spiny dogfish, whiting, gar,and mackerel.

Freshwater species include zander, roach,bream, and pike.The fish species at Smakkerup Huse are coastal dwellers,

some living out their lives along the coast in in-shore envi-ronments of the eel grass zone, such as the bullhead (My-oxocephalus corpius). Gar (Belone belone) and dogfish arefound around the coast in the summer while feeding onsmaller fish. None of the identified species are solely deep-water dwellers. The fish represented are found primarilyduring the warmer half of the year. Some of the species areonly found in the summer today in Denmark, such as gar

and mackerel (Scomber combrus), nd thus may be season-al indicators. Zander (Lucioperca ucioperca) s an indicatorof warmer climate during the Atlantic episode; its presenthabitat is in the south of France. The

majorityof the

fish,such as the small cod and flatfish, are taken in shallow wa-ters during the summer. The evidence for the importanceof fishing at Smakkerup Huse consists of the fish bone,oyster shell, the placement of the site near the mouth of thefjord, and fishing equipment, such as bone fish hooks andawls. Recall also the dugout canoes and the bones of greyand ring seals. Large oyster shells, some burnt, were pre-sent in the cultural layers, clearly collected nearby and eat-en at the site. Many other species of shells were also foundat the site, but with the exception of oysters and perhapsthe blue mussels are largely naturally present in the site.

Bone and AntlerArtifactsA number of worked bone artifacts were found includ-

ing a bird bone awl, a possible needle, 2 perforated toothpendants, a worked tooth, 55 awls (Danish: prene), 6points, 6 fish hooks, 1 possible hair pin, 1 dogfish spine,and several pieces of worked antler including fragments oftwo retouchoirs and an axe. In addition, one complete rackof red deer antler and a large piece of a single antler, bothwith cut marks, were excavated. Another rack of antler hadbeen found nearby during the construction of the railroad.Some of these items are briefly described below to providea sense of their form and variety.

Bone spikes (Danish: prene), asymmetrical though veryuniform in size and shape, were made from the proximalends of roe deer metatarsals. The discarded distal endsmake up the principal presence of roe deer metatarsals inthe faunal remains at Smakkerup Huse. Although awl-likein shape, these objects were used as a spike for a fishingspear or, less likely, a leister, since no leister prongs werefound. There were 54 found in a distinct zone parallel tothe coastline a few meters from the water's edge. The arti-facts must have accumulated there as a result of spearfish-ing from the shore. The average length of the 32 intactspecimens is 82 mm and the average weight is 3.9 g.

Two intact fishhooks and four fragmentary specimenswere recovered, all with a distinctive shape and carved frombone. The shank of the hook has a small knob of bone forattaching the line; the curve of the hook is thicker than theshank and ends in a barbless point. Five of the hooks weresmall, ca. 15 mm in length by 7 mm wide, appropriate forsmall fish and eels. The hooks were cut from a thin, flatpiece of bone between 1.4-1.7 mm thick, perhaps a scapu-la. Bone points, however, were made by grinding and pol-ishing a dense piece of bone into a round, narrow, sym-metrical shaft with a sharply pointed end. A total of six


17/24


Month/Indicator J F M A M J J A O N D

Reddeer antler evelopment

Red eerjuvenile ntogeny

Roedeer antler evelopment

Wild boar ooth eruption

Otter/beaver rime ur

Figure 10. Seasonal indicators at Smakkerup Huse.

were found at Smakkerup Huse of which three were intact.A little larger than bone spikes, intact bone points averaged90 mm in length with a diameter of 7 mm.

The awl of bird bone is an artifact not usually seen on

Zealand; in Jutland, where it is more common, it is nor-mally made of swan bone. The specimen from SmakkerupHuse is bird bone (species indeterminate but not swan),polished to a beveled, hollow point on one end and brokenon the other. The preserved ength is 118 mm, the bone di-ameter is 6 mm, and the point is beveled over 39 mm. A

pin of bone from Smakkerup closely resembles an objectreported from atop the head of a female burial from Ved-

bak (Petersen 1990). Our specimen is 172 mm long and

approximately 7 mm in diameter, polished to straightenand create a point at one end. One of the eight dogfishspines showed clear evidence of use as a fine piercing tool

with its point slightly rounded and reduced from use, per-haps from working skin or leather. Similar specimens areknown from other Mesolithic sites (Larsen 2000; Noe-

Nygaard 1971, 1995).Two fragmentary antler axes, one of indeterminate type,

were found at Smakkerup Huse. One is a small piece ap-proximately 4.5 cm in length and 2 cm wide preservingperhaps one-third of the shaft hole. Two joining fragmentsare from a typical Ertebolle type, made on the main beamof red deer antler with the shaft hole near the burr, or coro-

net, of the antler (Andersen 1995).Tooth pendants, most commonly of red deer, are known

from Mesolithic residential sites in southern Scandinaviaand are also well known from burials (Larsson 1989,

1990; Petersen 1990; Nielsen and Petersen 1993). Such

pendants are either perforated near the tip of the tooth rootor incised with thin lines around the root, presumably to

facilitate binding. Two examples, both of red deer, were re-covered at Smakkerup Huse. A canine tooth is perforatedat the tip of the root with an hourglass-shaped hole ca. 2

mm in diameter. The second, an incisor, is unusual in thatit is both perforated and incised with pairs of lines acrossthe root between the perforation and the enamel; these in-

cisions are likely decoration. A third tooth was heavilyworn, with the root ground on two sides to a point. Itsfunction is unknown.

Other FindsA small amber pendant (ca. 15 x 10 mm) of inverted-T

shape, with a groove for stringing near the top of the neck,was recovered in the excavations. Amber is found occa-

sionally at Mesolithic sites in the Baltic region, often in theform of jewelry. The most unusual find from SmakkerupHuse was an oval, white quartzite pebble painted withblack bands and three dots (FIG. II). The bands range from4-12 mm in width, two running around the pebble, on itsshort axis. A wide line on either side of the pebble connectsthe two bands. Another wide line runs from front to backover the wider end of the oval pebble, connecting one of

the tranverse bands. Two circular dots, approximately 10mm in diameter, were placed on the corners of the wideend of the pebble and a third at the narrow end. The char-coal-based paint has fragments of charcoal visible under a

microscope. There are no comparable examples from Scan-dinavia and the closest parallels known are the painted peb-bles of the Azilian, ca. 4000 years earlier, of southern Ger-

many and France. In fact several illustrated examples ofAzilian pebbles closely resemble the pattern seen on our

piece but are found on smaller, flat pebbles.

Dating

The artifacts at Smakkerup Huseare late

Mesolithic,of

the middle and late Ertebolle period, specifically its Sta-

tionsvej and Alekistebro phases, between 4800 and 3900B.C. There are only a few items from later time periods,such as the polished axe fragments and a projectile point of

the Pitted Ware Culture found on the surface. Eight radio-carbon dates are listed in Table 5. Five dates were obtainedfrom the AMS laboratory at Aarhus University (AAR).Three of these were samples of fauna and two were piecesof wood from geological contexts. Three experimentaldates were also obtained from a NEC accelerator mass

I I t I I I I


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Journal of FieldArchaeology/Vol. 8, 2001 61

Figure 11. Five sides of the painted pebble. The object is 7.7 cm by 5.3 cm by 3.5 cm (drawing by KurtPetersen).

spectrometer in Middleton, Wisconsin, in January 1998

(WG). No stable carbon measurements were made onthese three samples and no corrections for marine reservoireffect have been made for any of these dates. Reported cal-ibrations are highest probability values at ? 1 s.d. (Stuiveret al. 1998).

The dates for the two bones of domesticated cow foundin Layers 7G and 7 are virtually identical. The boundarybetween these two layers was vague in the field and these

layers may have formed at about the same time. The twocow bones are among the earliest in southern Scandinaviaand date from the transition to agriculture n this area. TheNeolithic in western Sjalland begins around 3950 B.C.

(Fischer in press) but the absence of other Neolithic mate-rials in Layer 7G/7 at Smakkerup Huse suggests that thesecattle come from a very late Mesolithic context. The do-mesticated dog bone (see above, "Animal Remains") in

Layer 7G is slightly older than the two cow bones and per-

haps a bit too old.Three dates were obtained on materials from Layer 8, of

which those from a hazel nutshell and a bone point are verysimilar. The third date came from soot residue on a sherdof a ceramic lamp, perhaps from burning oil extracted frommarine mammals, and is several hundred years younger(4466 B.C.) and is thus problematic. The remaining twomeasurements were obtained from natural features at thesite. There were a number of stumps and trunks of oaktrees in Layer 9. One stump at 0.33 m asl yielded a radio-carbon date (5082-4959 B.C.). This date likely marks the

drowning of the tree by the High Atlantic transgression inthis area and corresponds very closely with the latest die-off of oak trees in the Halskov fjord 35 km to the south

(Christensen 1997). Another determination was made ona small fragment of wood from the peat of Layer 11 at anelevation of -0.23 cm asl to obtain an age for the freshwa-

ter marsh. While there were rising sea levels earlier in theAtlantic period, the sea had not, at this time, penetrated theSaltbek Vig.

Discussion

The excavations at Smakkerup Huse document the na-ture of coastal settlement during the late Mesolithic insouthern Scandinavia. Although the actual living area has

disappeared, deposits in the water next to the site preserveda great deal of information regarding the environment, set-tlement and subsistence, technology, and other aspects ofhuman adaptation in the middle Holocene. The stratigra-

phy provides a history of environmental development inthis area from the meltwater drainage of decaying ice at theend of the Pleistocene to the freshwater marsh and river

regime of the Bregninge A in the early mid-Holocene. The

continuing rise of sea level brought the sea into the river

drainage, creating the fjord at around 5000 B.C., when

Smakkerup Huse was first occupied. Subsequently a seriesof marine transgressions and regressions over the next mil-lennium created the rich deposits that are described herewhile the settlement area itself was erased by coastal ero-sion. Specific information on the size and nature of the set-

:. . . : .?

t.


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Table 5. Radiocarbon ates rom Smakkerup use.Labno. Material Layer 3/12C 4C B.P Years B.C. al.

AAR-3316 Cow bone 7G -21.4 5059?68 3945-3789AAR-3318 Dog bone 7G -10.2 5319?65 4174-4044

AAR-3317 Cow bone 7 -21.6 5060?61 3885-3795WG 2573 Hazelnut shell 8 - 6060 ?60 5004-4902WG 2574 Bone point 8 - 6100 60 5069-4935WG2575 Lamp residue 8 - 5650 70 4547-4442

AAR-3782 Oak wood stump 9 -25.4 6140 60 5082-4959AAR-3783 Wood fragment 11 -28.3 6495 ?60 5412-5371

in peat

tlement, and the numbers of dwellings and individuals at

Smakkerup Huse, will never be known. Nevertheless weknow that the site was occupied over a relatively ong spanthroughout much of the 5th millennium B.C., but whetherthis occupation was continuous or recurrent is uncertain.Elsewhere, settlements in the later Mesolithic were oftenlong term, frequently containing material from both the

Stationsvej and Alekistebro phases of the Ertebolle (e.g.,Andersen 1993a; Larsson 1997).

Smakkerup Huse, near the juncture of the freshwaterstream and the salt water inlet, was well situated with re-

spect to a great variety of freshwater and marine resources.The settlement must have been situated directly on thecoast of the Saltbxk Vig. Such coastal location is typical forthe later Mesolithic (Andersen 1993a, 1993b) and provid-ed immediate access to the inlet, good spawning groundfor cod and flatfish, with terrestrial resources nearby. There

is evidence of year-round settlement at Smakkerup Huse inthe plant and animal remains. The terrestrial fauna pointsto residence during summer, fall, and winter, and the ma-

jority of fish remains contain smaller fish and species thatare common along the coast in the summer time. Oysters,on the other hand, are best in the winter and spring before

they spawn and are not eaten much today in the summerand fall. Leafy plants and seeds were likely collected in thesummer and hazelnuts and white hawthorn fruit ripen inthe fall. Growth rings in the hazel stakes indicate that some

cutting was done in the spring, completing the annual cy-cle at the site. Ecologically, coppiced woodlands require a

good bit of year-round attention as they attract deer andother herbivores that, unless discouraged, will eat the

young shoots. Overall, the argument is strong that the sitewas occupied throughout the year.

The terrestrial auna is dominated by the three primarygame animals of the later Mesolithic-red deer, roe deer,and wild boar-along with several fur-bearing species-marten, fox, beaver, otter, wild cat, and domestic dog.Aquatic remains include a variety of salt- and freshwater

fish, along with seal and oyster. The small size of the fish

emphasizes the use of the littoral zone, likely within the

fjord, rather than deeper waters. The importance of marinefoods is reflected in the wide variety of fishing equipment.Plant foods are dominated by the ubiquitous presence ofhazelnuts, which could have been stored for a number ofmonths and may have been an important staple in the diet

(Zvelebil 1995). Acorns were present and probably eatenbut the evidence is not yet sufficient. There is evidence forvarious fruits including the white hawthorn and charred re-mains suggest that roots were also part of the diet.

The technology of the late Mesolithic emphasizeswood, bone, and stone. Because of preservation in water-

logged sediments, parts of the wood and bone technologysurvive to complement stone tools. Hazel stakes, the mostcommon of the wood assemblage, functioned in fishingfences or weirs. What is probably a fish trap of woven

stalks, and the elm bow add to our knowledge of Mesolith-ic lifeways. Several pieces of dugout canoes were found,

and numerous wood chips may be in part a product of theirmanufacture. The fyrvamp fungus, likely used as tinder, iscommon at the site. The fyrsvamp "felt" is reported herefor the first time. Horsetail, phragmites reeds, and limetree bark probably represent raw materials; the reeds mayhave been used for thatch and the lime bark for flooring.Tools of bone and antler, including carefilly crafted bonefish hooks, were used for fishing, hunting, and other pur-poses. Antlers were employed as hammers and flint-knap-ping tools. Most of the stone tools were of good qualityflint available in the region either on beaches or in the

ground moraine. Flint blades are the single most important

component ofthe lithic

assemblage. Manyof these are un-

retouched and often not counted as tools in traditional ty-

pology. Nevertheless, these simple blades were the majorstone tool of the Mesolithic; many types such as scrapers,borers, and burins are uncommon and clearly not a major

part of the Mesolithic assemblage. There is in fact a re-markable rarity of stone tools other than blades, projectilepoints, and axes, but a large quantity of debitage suggeststhat many tools may have been made and used elsewhere.Core axes and flake axes are present throughout the de-

posits and one ground stone axe was recovered.


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The ceramics in the later Ertebolle at the site are almostindistinguishable from the undecorated sherds of EarlyNeolithic pottery in this area. In fact, Ertebolle potteryoutside of a few areas n southern Scandinavia s, commoncharacterizations o the contrary, not particularly hick andis reasonably well made. In addition, there are several dif-ferent forms represented, even in the small assemblage atSmakkerup Huse including small cups, oval lamp bowls,and larger jars.

The perforated teeth, the amber pendant, the paintedpebble, and the hair pin are reflections of aesthetic experi-ence beyond the necessities of subsistence and daily life.Such objects are known elsewhere from Mesolithic gravesas well as isolated finds. While the perforated teeth werelikely sewn on clothing and the amber pendant was prob-ably a piece of jewelry, the painted pebble remains enig-matic.

There is some suggestion of interaction between thefolk at Smakkerup Huse and western Denmark, althoughthe site is on the west coast of the island of Zealand. Someartifact types at the site are more common on the island ofFunen and the peninsula of Jutland than they are in easternZealand and southern Sweden. Trindoxe, for example, aremore common in Jutland than in Zealand. Ertebolle ce-ramics in Zealand are normally thicker and coarser than theexamples from Smakkerup Huse, while those from thewest exhibit thinner walls and finer construction. The birdbone awl from Smakkerup Huse is largely unknown on

Zealand, but more common to the west in Jutland and Fu-nen. Smakkerup Huse is remarkably imilar to the late Er-teb0lle site ofTybrind Vig, submerged off the west coast ofthe island of Funen (FIG. i; Andersen 1985, 1987), and oc-cupied intermittently from the early Ertebolle until the be-ginning of the Neolithic.

What is Neolithic at Smakkerup Huse?The presence of cattle bones in Layer 7/7G at

Smakkerup Huse raise the question of what defines theNeolithic. Domestic cattle are "Neolithic" by definitionand, at Smakkerup Huse, are radiocarbon-dated o the very

beginningof the

EarlyNeolithic

period (3900-3800 B.C.).These bones were found, however, in a layer where all theartifactual materials belong to the Ertebolle period. Thequestion then becomes whether this is a late Mesolithic sitewith domestic cattle or an Early Neolithic site with aMesolithic assemblage.

This problem is present at other late Mesolithic sites insouthern Scandinavia (Petersson 1999; Rowley-Conwy1995a, 1995b; Schwabedissen 1981) where "Neolithic"artifacts have been found in Mesolithic contexts. Pottery,t-shaped antler axes, bone rings, and bone combs represent

ideas or items borrowed from the Neolithic inhabitants ofCentral Europe. Items of source-specific raw material suchas Danubian shafthole axes (Fischer 1982, in press; Fisch-er, Pedersen, and Hald 1997) moved from the Neolithic ofeastern Europe into the Mesolithic of southern Scandi-navia. Antler and bone items were copied in local materialin the Ertebolle and waste from their production is not un-common. Clearly there was contact between contemporaryMesolithic and Neolithic societies. These items began toappear in Mesolithic contexts in the middle and late phas-es of the Ertebolle, more than 500 years before the intro-duction of domesticated plants and animals. It is, in fact,remarkable hat domesticates appear so late in the sequencein northern Europe (Price 2000; Rowley-Conwy 1995b).Reports of cereal pollen in pre-Neolithic contexts (e.g.,Kolstrup 1988; Schiitrumpf 1972) are not generally ac-cepted since pollen may be mobile in sediments and thereare no charred examples. At the sites of Loddesborg andVik in southern Sweden, Jennbert (1984) has document-ed casts of domesticated cereals n Ertebolle pottery datingto ca. 4000 B.C., shortly before the beginning of the Ne-olithic (Koch 1998).

Early domesticated cattle also appear. The late Mesolith-ic site of Rosenhof in Holstein, Germany, (Schwabedissen1972) yielded bone of domesticated cow with a radiocar-bon date of ca. 4850 B.C. (Hedges et al. 1993). It is not im-possible that this cow was stolen from Neolithic farmers tothe south. Other early cattle from Zealand are known from

Early Neolithic contexts at 0garde (3940-3840 B.C.) andSnevret Hegn (3800-3650 B.C.) (Koch 1998).

It is certainly the case that most late Ertebolle coastalsites in northern Germany, Denmark, and southern Swe-den witness a continuation of settlement into the Early Ne-olithic. Bjornsholm, for example, is a huge shell midden inthe central Limfjord area of northern Jutland and dates tothe late Mesolithic and Early Neolithic (Andersen 1993b;Andersen and Johansen 1992). The site is of particular m-portance because of the presence of midden and settlementremains from both periods, along with evidence for anearthen long barrow. The Ertebolle layers at Bjornsholm

date from 5050 to 4050 B.C. and the Early Neolithic from3960 to 3530 B.C. The Ertebolle levels at the shell middenof Norsminde in eastern Jutland date from ca. 4300 to3800 B.C. while the subsequent Early Neolithic layers arefrom ca. 3775 to 3425 B.C. (Andersen 1991). The Ne-olithic layer at Norsminde was characterized by an abun-dance of Funnel Beaker pottery, polished flint axes, and theremains of domesticated animals and plants. In all thesecases Neolithic artifacts accompany the introduction of do-mesticated species.

There are only four pieces of Neolithic material at


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Smakkerup Huse: two small flakes from polished flint axesfound in Layer 4 (the redeposited material from the last

transgression) that lie stratigraphically above the cowbones; and two pieces of reworked pointed-butt polishedflint axes from the site that were collected from the surfacesome years ago. These Neolithic pieces are thus likely laterthan the cattle bones, and we conclude that SmakkerupHuse was essentially a Mesolithic settlement when thecows arrived.

Smakkerup Huse provides striking evidence of prehis-toric life-yet the picture remains ambiguous and puz-zling. The Mesolithic peoples at Smakkerup Huse were

technologically sophisticated foragers living 6000 yearsago in sedentary communities, successfully exploiting theland and the sea. The evidence tells us a great deal abouttechnology and economy but little about organization and

even less about ideology. The relationship between for-agers and early farmers at this critical transition in the pre-history of northern Europe is complex and remains a sig-nificant question for research.

AcknowledgmentsWe owe a great debt to many who participated and as-

sisted in this excavation. The landowners Karl and Bente

Jensen were unstinting in their hospitality and willingnessfor us to dig large holes in their field. The participants inthe excavations, devoting energy and enthusiasm, includedJennifer Derfler, Michael P. Jensen, Kasper Johansen,

Dorthe Pedersen, Lisbeth Pedersen, Erika Price, MichaelStafford, Todd Surovell, and Beth Wormaster. Charlie

Christensen, Soren Andersen, Anders Fischer, and PeterRasmussen visited the excavations and/or provided valuedassistance in various forms.

Trolle Bagger of Kalundborg very kindly identified thestone materials from the excavation. Jan Heinemeier as-sisted with the radiocarbon dates from Aarhus. HelleStrehle and P. H. Mikkelsen pursued the analysis of the

fungus and wicker in the Conservation Department at

Moesgard in Aarhus. Specialized analyses of the fyrsvampand the painted pebble were done by Arne Jensen of the

Department of Protein Chemistry at the University ofCopenhagen and Mads Chr. Christensen of the Depart-ment of Conservation at the National Museum of Den-

mark, respectively.This project was the result of collaboration with the

Kalundborg og Omegns Museum, our base of operationsand the source of much of the logistic and technical assis-tance for the project. The Museum's fostering of interna-tional projects is one of its great strengths. The staff of themuseum was helpful and hospitable beyond all expecta-tions and their kindness is greatly appreciated. We would

particularly ike to thank Finn Petersen, Irene Nielsen, Jor-gen Christensen, Kurt Petersen, and Leif Hammerlev. A

major driving force behind the Saltbak Vig Project and theexcavations at

SmakkerupHuse has been the director of

the Kalundborg og Omegns Museum, Lisbeth Pedersen,who holds a special place in our hearts and deserves ourmost sincere appreciation. The Saltbak Vig ArchaeologicalProject was originally organized by Lisbeth Petersen, Anne

Birgitte Gebauer, Anders Fischer, and T. Douglas Price.The Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin kind-

ly provided the funding for these excavations.

T Douglas Price, Weinstein Professor f European Archaeolo-gy and Director ofLaboratory or Archaeological Chemistry tthe

University f Wisconsin-Madison,s interested n the tran-

sition to agriculture and archaeological hemistry. Current

projects nclude the analysis of strontium isotopes n prehistoricburials for information on migration and field excavations tlate Mesolithic ites n eastern Denmark. Mailing address:

University f Wisconsin-Madison, epartment ofAnthropolo-gy, 1180 Observatory rive, Madison WI 53706. E-mail:

[email protected] Birgitte Gebauer, Honorary Fellow n the Depart-

ment ofAnthropology t the University f Wisconsin-Madi-son, has a degree rom the University ofAarhus, Denmark.Her interests nclude ceramics nd the Neolithic, the transi-tion to agriculture, and archaeological method.

Signe Ulfeldt Hede, a Ph.D. student at the Geological n-stitute at the University f Copenhagen, s interested infaunalanalysis, eomorphology, nd sequence tratigraphy. HerPh.D. project nvolvesHolocene ea level changes n a near-shore ake basin using stratigraphic, iological, nd isotopicvariables or palaeoenvironmental econstruction. -mail:

signeuh @geo.geol. u.dkCharlotte Sedlacek, Ph.D. student at the Geological nsti-

tute at the University f Copenhagen, tudiesfish remains, hy-drology, nd geomorphology. -mail: [email protected]

Nanna Noe-Nygaard, Professor t the Geological nstitute

of the University f Copenhagen, tudies faunal analysis,

taphonomy, equence tratigraphy, sotopicgeochemistry f hu-man beings and animals, lake development, nd the transi-tion to agriculture. Current projects nclude he reconstruction

of lake levelsand environmental hange n the LI. Amosebasin of western Zealand. E-mail: [email protected]

Sarah L.R. Mason, former Research Fellow at the Institute

ofArchaeology, University College London, s interested n the

ethnobotany nd archaeobotany f hunter-gatherers nd wild

plant usefor all periods hroughout he temperate one.

Jens Nielsen, archaeologist t the Kalundborg og OmegnsMuseum in Kalundborg, Denmark, is interested n the Stone


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Age and the recovery f worked wood remains and has exca-vated for many years.

David Perry (Ph.D., New York University) doespaleoeth-nobotany with a specific ocus on wood and nut remains, espe-cially hazel nuts from sites n NwEurope.

Aaris-Sorensen, Kim1980 "Depauperation f the Mammalian Fauna of the Island of

Zealand During the Atlantic Period" Videnskabelige ed-delserfra Dansk Naturhistorisk orening 149: 131-138.

Aaris-Sorensen, Kim, and T. N. Andreasen1993 "Small Mammals rom Danish Mesolithic Sites "Journal of

DanishArchaeology 1: 30-38.

Andersen, Knud1983 Stenalderbebyggelsen den vestsjellandske mose. Copen-

hagen: Fredningsstyrelsen.

Andersen,Soren H.

1981 "Ertebollekunst. Nye ostjyske fund af monstrede Erte-bUlesager," uml 1980: 7-62.

1985 "Tvbrind Vig. A Preliminary Report on a Submerged Erte-bolle Settlement on the West Coast of Fyn,"Journal fDan-ishArchaeology : 52-69.

1987 "Mesolithic Dug-outs and Paddles rom Tybrind Vig, Den-mark," ctaArchaeologica 7: 87-106.

1991 "Norsminde: A 'Kokkenmodding' with Late Mesolithicand Early Neolithic Occupation, Journal ofDanishArchae-ology8: 13-40.

1993a "Mesolithic Coastal Settlement," n S. Hvass and B. Stor-gaard, eds., Digging Into the Past. Aarhus: Aarhus Univer-sitetsforlag, 65-69.

1993b "Bjrnsholm. A Stratifiedk0kkenm0dding

n the CentralLimfjord, North Jutland,Journal ofDanishArchaeology 0:59-96.

1994 "Lystrup Enge," Archaeologiske dgravninger Danmark1993. Copenhagen: National Museum, 177-178, 279.

1995 "Coastal Adaptation and Marine Exploitation in LateMesolithic Denmark-with Special Emphasis on the Lim-fjord Region," n A. Fischer, ed., Man and Sea. Oxford:Oxbow Books, 41-66.

1998 "Ringkloster. rtebolle Trappers nd Wild Boar Hunters nEastern Jutland. A Survey,"Journal fDanishArcheology 2:13-60.

Andersen, Soren H., and Erik Johansen1992 "An Early Neolithic Grave at Bjmrsholm, North Jutland,"

Journal ofDanishArcheology : 38-59.Becker, Carl Johan

1948 "Mosefundne erkar ra yngre stenalder, tudier over Tragt-bager kulturen Danmark, Aarboger or Nordisk Oldkyn-dighed gHistorie 1947: 5-318.

Bennike, Pia, and Klaus Ebbesen1986 "The Bog Find from Sigersdal"Joural ofDanishArchaeol-

ogy 5: 85-115.Bokelmann, K.

1991 "Duvensee Wohnplatz 9. Ein praborealzeitlichen Lager-platz in Schleswig-Holstein, Offa 48: 75-115.

Chapela, I., and P. Lizon1993 "Fungi n the Stone Age," The Mycologist (3): 123.

Christensen, Charlie1990 "Stone Age Dug-out Boats in Denmark: Occurence, Age,

Form and Reconstruction," n D. Robinson, ed., Experi-mentation nd Reconstruction n Environmental rchaeology.Copenhagen: National Museum, 119-142.

1993 "Land og hav" in S. Hvass and B. Storgaard, eds., Daklinger muld. 25 ars arkxologi Danmark. Aarhus: AarhusUniversity Press, 20-23.

1995 "The Littorina Transgressions," n A. Fischer, d., Man andSea. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 15-22.

1997 "Den store havstigning Storebaelt" n L. Pedersen, A. Fis-cher, and B. Aaby, eds., Storebxlt 10.000 ar. Kobenhavn:A/S Storebdltsforbindelsen, 5-54.

Degerbol, Magnus, and B. Fredskild1970 The Urus (Bos primigenius bojanus) and Neolithic Domesti-

cated Cattle in Denmark. Copenhagen: Det KongeligeDanske Videnskabemes Selskab, Biologiske Skrifter.

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smakerrup huse

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