soc 463/663 (social psych of education) - goals & motivation

Goals & MotivationMelanie Tannenbaum, Ph.D.SOC 463/663Spring 2015

How and why are students motivated? Linnenbrink & Pintrich (2002)

Defining the Terms

Intrinsic Motivation: Wanting to do something because of interest, enjoyment, or other internal factors.

Extrinsic Motivation: Wanting to do something because of external rewards (like money, praise, or candy).

Four Key Factors

Self-Efficacy

Attributions

Intrinsic Motivation

Goal Orientations

Self-Efficacy

Beliefs about Capabilities to do a task Performance capabilities for

a specific activity/domain

Specific/contextualized Varies based on domain

Self-Efficacy

High Self-Efficacy

Engagement

Persistence

Achievement

Learning

Effort

Four Key Factors

Self-Efficacy

Attributions


Goal Orientations

Attributions

Attribute success to internal factors like ability or effort.

Attribute failure to external factors (like luck) or controllable factors (like strategy use).

Four Key Factors

Self-Efficacy

Attributions


Goal Orientations

Defining the Terms


DispositionalExperiential

Focused task engagement, involvement,

enjoyment, interest, excitement

Desire to continue engaging in the

activities


If students feel interested or engaged in a task for its own sake, they have higher levels

of motivation, persistence, and effort.

Four Key Factors

Self-Efficacy

Attributions


Goal Orientations

Goal Orientations

Mastery goals (aiming to develop competence/learning) are best.

Performance Approach goals (aiming to demonstrate

competence) are OK sometimes.

Performance Avoidance goals (aiming to avoid looking like a

failure) are generally bad.

Factors Influencing Motivation

Extrinsic Rewards: Good or Bad?

Extrinsic Rewards

Tangible rewards, tied to performance/work, that are

external to the task itself.

Things like prizes, money, trophies, candy, gold stars

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Verbal RewardsTangible Rewards

Effects of Rewards On Behavior

Deci, Koestner, & Ryan (1999)

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Verbal RewardsTangible Rewards

Effects of Rewards On Interest


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UnexpectedExpected

Effects of Tangible Rewards On Behavior


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UnexpectedExpected

Effects of Tangible Rewards On Interest


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Task NoncontingentEngagement ContingentCompletion ContingentPerformance Contingent

Effects of Expected Tangible Rewards On Behavior


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Task NoncontingentEngagement ContingentCompletion ContingentPerformance Contingent

Effects of Expected Tangible Rewards On Interest


Extrinsic Rewards

Generally, extrinsic rewards are a

bad idea.

Overjustification Effect

Tendency to devalue activities that we perform in order to get

something else.

Using extrinsic rewards can decrease intrinsic motivation.

Lepper et al., 1973

Example: LEARNING Children are often intrinsically motivated to learn (they find

learning fun in its own right; are naturally curious)

When children are given extrinsic motivation to learn (e.g. good grades, gold stars, chocolate, money, etc.) they might start to attribute their desire to learn to the extrinsic rewards

This leads children to reduce intrinsic motivation (I must be doing this because of gold stars, not because I want to.)

Example: LEARNING

Pay for Grades

Experimenters introduced a set of math games into an elementary school during the free play period

Initially, kids liked the games and played with them because they genuinely wanted to!

Greene et al., 1976

Example: LEARNING

Pay for Grades

Experimenters introduced a token economy for several days. Students were given points every time they played one of

the math games and they could redeem the points for prizes

The token economy was removed but the math games stayed in the classroom; kids could play if they wanted to.

Greene et al., 1976

Example: LEARNING

The token economy did increase how much the kids played with the math games.

However...once the prizes were taken away, participation dropped down significantly!

Greene et al., 1976

Example: LEARNING Before Prizes: Im playing these games because I like them!

During Prizes: I like these games! Im getting prizes to play these games!

Begin to attribute playing time to the prizes...

After Prizes: Where did the prizes go? I was only playing with the games because of the prizes. No more math games!

Greene et al., 1976

Good or Bad? If you want someone to do something right now, external rewards

can be helpful! Remember, the token economy did increase how much the kids

played with the math games! However, if you want someone to do something from now on,

even in the absence of external rewards, use minimal/no rewards. Extrinsic rewards will result in over justification No extrinsic rewards will result in effort justification and/or a

search for internal causes of behavior, which will ultimately increase motivation to pursue the behavior in the future!

Good or Bad? Extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation!

They can be a good motivator for activities for which someone does not already have intrinsic motivation.

However, if someone does genuinely enjoy something, providing extrinsic rewards can be bad.

This is why so many people stop enjoying things once they get paid for doing them (it ruins it).

Good or Bad?

This is one of the arguments often used by alternative school systems (like Montessori) in which children are not given grades and are allowed to learn in a freer context

When you are given multiple possible causes for something (gold stars, grades, enjoyment) you will give less weight to each cause (you will think that you enjoy learning less).

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WFbonVv-bI0 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8s4qTifYWe4

Choice & Intrinsic Motivation Patall, Cooper, & Robinson (2008)

Defining the Terms

Students can have choices between things like Activities (Essay or crossword?) Versions (Anagrams about animals or food?) Rewards (What type of candy do you want?)

Choices can be instructionally Relevant (Which words do you want to learn?) Irrelevant (What color paper do you want to use?)

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Intrinsic MotivationEffortTask PerformanceSubsequent LearningPerceived CompetencePreference for ChallengePressure/TensionCreativitySatisfaction

Effects of Choice On

Patall, Cooper, & Robinson (2008)

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Choice of ActivitiesChoice of VersionsChoice of RewardInstructionally IrrelevantInstructionally Relevant

Type of Choice Effect of Choice on Intrinsic Motivation


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Number of Options Effect of Choice on Intrinsic Motivation


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Number of Choices Effect of Choice on Intrinsic Motivation


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Kids vs. Adults Effect of Choice on Intrinsic Motivation


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No RewardChose RewardNon-Choice Reward

Rewards Effect of Choice on Intrinsic Motivation


Choice is

Good for intrinsic motivation, effort, task performance, perceived competence, and preference for challenge.

Not important for learning, pressure/tension, creativity, or satisfaction.

More effective in kids (vs. adults), when theyre instructionally irrelevant (like picking a pen color), and when you make 2-4 choices (vs. 1 or 5+).

Either dont use a reward or let the students pick the reward that they want, or else it feels manipulative.

Interest Hidi & Harackiewicz (2000)

Why is interest important? Pay closer attention Persist for longer periods of time Learn more Enjoy involvement more Impact attention, recognition, and memory Determine motivation & learning

Ainley, 1994; 1998; Prenzel, 1988 Renninger, 1987; 1990; 1998; Schiefele, 1991; 1996

Dewey (1933)

Teaching may be compared to selling commodities.

No one can sell unless someone buys.

Why is interest important?

Davis (1992)

With the best of intentions, we have created a curriculum of mathematics that has been severed from the real world. It consists of meaningless bits

and pieces, and we ask students to learn it as a large collection of meaningless bits and pieces.

Why is interest important?

How does interest develop? Mitchell (1993)

Personal Interest Situational Interest

What you bring to the classroom

What you get from the classroom

Situational Interest

Involvement

Meaningfulness

Group Work

Puzzles

Computers

CATCH FACTORSGroup Work

The groups we use in class make work easier

Working in groups makes our class more enjoyable

When we work in groups we exchange ideas

Learning is more fun when things can be

discussed

Puzzles

The mind-teasers/logic puzzles we do are fun

The logic puzzles we do make me think

Its good to have a starter in math to get us thinking

Computers

We try to discover things on the computer in class

Computers let me experiment with whats

being taught

We work on computers to actually put problems

together ourselves and see them in reality

HOLD FACTORSMeaningfulness

I see the math weve learned as important in life

Class would be better if math problems related to life problems

Involvement

We learn the material ourselves instead of being preached at

We often do something instead of the teacher just talking

Mitchell (1993)

The more students perceive themselves as active learners rather than as passive absorbers of

knowledge, the more a classroom environment will persist as a mathematics interest holder.

CATCH vs. HOLD

Catch factors spark interest, but fail to maintain it over time

Hold factors are empowering & sustain student interest

OUTGOING

Is the font of this word big or small?

MOODY

Does this rhyme with outgoing?

ADVENTUROUS

Is this a synonym for moody?

FRIENDLY

Does this describe you?

STRUCTURE SOUND SEMANTIC SELF

Participants given a list of 40 trait adjectives Outgoing, moody, adventurous, etc.

For each set of 10, participants told to focus on a different aspect.

The Self-Reference Effect


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Structure Sound Semantic Self

People remembered words significantly better when they processed them in reference to themselves

The more you personalize something,

the better you will remember it

When you learn something, you integrate it into existing knowledge.

Our selves are our favorite topic! Your self knowledge structure is very well-formed. If you integrate new information into your self network, you will process it more deeply and integrate it better.

This can help you!! If you need to remember something important, apply it to yourself. When remembering facts from this class, try relating them to your

upbringing, educational experience, etc.


PERSONAL vs. SITUATIONAL Teachers usually cant do much about individual interest. BUTthe two can influence each other.

Individual interest can sustain students through boring classes/lectures/readings.

Situational interest can spark the desire to develop/expand an individual interest.

Cant cater to the individual interests of every single studentbut making the class as interesting as possible can get those students to develop their own interests.

Achievement Goals Eliot (1999)

Midgley, Kaplan, & Middleton (2001)

The Best Goals Are Challenging & Specific, not Vague (Locke & Latham, 1990)

Run a marathon > Be more fit Proximal, not Distal (Bandura & Schunk, 1981)

Read 2 books each week > Read 8 books this month Learning, not Performance (Dweck, 1996)

Learn all of the material > Get an A on the exam Promotion, not Prevention (Higgins, 1997)

Do well on the exam > Avoid failing the exam

Self-Regulatory Issues/Skills

Shielding goal pursuit from distractions (Kuhl, 1984) Emotion control, environment control

Coping with conflicting goals (Cantor & Blanton, 1996) Creative integrations Success

Performance Approach Performance Avoidance Mastery

Focus Appearing competent compared to othersAvoiding incompetence

compared to othersSelf- or task-related

competence

Sample ItemIt is important to me to do better than the other

students.I just want to avoid doing

poorly in this class.I want to learn as much as possible from this class.

Two Goal TypesMany Different Names

Performance Mastery

AKA

Performance Learning

Ego Involvement Task Involvement

Goal Pursuit: Common Problems Intentions dont always predict behavior!

People might want to boycott a chain store, but then realize it has the only drugstore that carries their prescription at an affordable price.

People might intend to visit the doctor for annual check-ups if asked, but forget to schedule an appointment.

Can you think of a time when your intentions/attitudes didnt perfectly predict your behavior?

Intentions Behavior

1. Other powerful determinants 2. Attitudes can be inconsistent 3. Sometimes based on secondhand information 4. Automatic behavior can bypass conscious attitudes

1. Other Powerful Determinants There are often other factors in our environment that shape

our behavior other than our attitudes/intentions.

Attitudes can be thought of like personality traits (stable)

Social psychology is all about the power of the situation and how situational factors can overwhelm dispositions!

Time Constraints, Social Norms, Other Goals

1. Other Powerful Determinants

2. Inconsistent Attitudes

People can have ambivalent attitudes Both positive and negative aspects.

If these aspects conflict, it can make decisions complicated.

3. Secondhand Information

Attitudes based on firsthand information predict behavior better than attitudes based on secondhand information

You probably have an attitude towards Miley Cyrus, but you also probably havent met her.

If youve actually experienced something before, your attitude/intention will be a better predictor of behavior than if your attitude is not based on personal experience

3. Secondhand Information

Attitudes towards participation in research predict actual rates much

more strongly among previous participants

Attitudes towards flu shots are a better predictor of vaccination behavior in

people who have actually gotten flu shots before

4. Automatic Behavior

Automatic behavior (like habits) often bypasses conscious attitudes, intentions, etc.

You might really mean to go to the gym after work, but your habit of sitting on the couch with a sleeve of Oreos to watch Netflix at that time every night is just so strong

Implementation Intentions Gollwitzer (1999)

Powers, Koestner, & Topciu (2005)

Implementation Intentions

GoalI intend to reach X.

Implementation IntentionWhen Situation X arises, I will

perform Response Y.

Specifies the when, where, and how of goal-directed behavior.

Implementation Intentions

Goal:I want to exercise more.

Implementation Intention:I will go to the gym as soon as my alarm goes off at 5:00 every

afternoon.

Implementation Intentions Plans the actual process of goal

pursuit, not just the goals.

Leads people to initiate behavior immediately in the relevant situation, passing the control of behavior onto the environment.

Action initiation becomes swift, efficient, and does not require conscious intent.

Create instant habits

Implementation Intentions: Examples 66% of participants who formed implementation intentions successfully

completed difficult projects over Christmas break (vs. 25% of those who did not) 75% of participants who formed implementation intentions successfully turned

in a report on time (vs. 33% of those who did not) Implementation Intentions improved

Functional activity levels among joint replacement patients College students participation in vigorous exercise

Especially beneficial in populations that struggle with action control Drug addicts during withdrawal Schizophrenic & Frontal Lobe patients Elderly

Implementation Intentions: Can They Backfire?

If theyre especially good for people who struggle with self-regulation, they might be bad for people with overactive

self-regulation. Like perfectionists.


Self-Oriented Perfectionism AKA Personal Standards Perfectionism Setting high standards & stringently self-evaluating When I am working on something, I cant relax until its perfect.

Socially Prescribed Perfectionism AKA Self-Critical Perfectionism Hypersensitivity to others standards/criticisms/evaluations My family expects me to be perfect.


Self-Oriented Perfectionists Are more committed to their goals Have higher levels of goal progress Implementation intentions are good

Socially Prescribed Perfectionists Have lower levels of self-efficacy for goal pursuit Have lower levels of goal progress Feel more negative emotions (anxiety, depression, etc.) Implementation intentions backfire - feel judged, self-conscious

How should teachers raise motivation among students? How do you think we can change college teaching practices to

avoid the test and purge mentality [of forgetting information immediately after an exam]?

With flexibility do people tend to fail more? Is it structure that many people need in order to complete their goal? If so, then as a teacher or educator is it your job to give them the structure?

Would a more motivated teacher create a different classroom environment, or is motivation not the issue with bad teachers?

Discussion Questions: Teaching Practices

Do you think teachers take into consideration the interests of the students when developing a lesson plan? Do you think teaching would be more effective if teachers made it more fun?

Is there a way that college professors can incorporate different tasks aside from readings and lectures in their classroom in order to give the students more of a variety or possibly spark their interest in learning?

How do you find the balance between allowing children enough autonomy to value their own contributions to a task and ensuring the activity stays meaningful?

Discussion Questions: Teaching Practices

What would cause someone to not try to reach a goal they set? Would more realistic goal setting help people actually achieve them or would they just underachieve?

Do you think we train boys and girls to view goals and motivation differently? What role do you think culture plays in goal formation and motivation?

How do you think we can better encourage students to develop mastery goals?

Discussion Questions: Goals

Would it be possible to find an intervention to turn socially prescribed perfectionist into self-oriented perfectionists?

What other personality traits might impact the success of implementation intentions? What, for instance, would an addictive personality do with an implementation intention?

Discussion Questions: Goal Pursuit

Breaking goals down into specific steps is a habit I think we can easily teach our children in schools or at home. Id be interested to see how our class thinks we can implement this in real life.

How do we identify those who are not [forming implementation intentions] and how can we teach it to them so they are able to successfully obtain their goals?

Discussion Questions: Goal Pursuit

soc 463/663 (social psych of education) - goals & motivation

Education

extrinsic motivation

external rewards

external factors

internal factors

motivationextrinsic

terms intrinsic motivation

controllable factors

higher levels of motivation