social cohesion: the secret weapon in the fight for equitable climate resilience

8/21/2019 Social Cohesion: The Secret Weapon in the Fight for Equitable Climate Resilience

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Social CohesionThe Secret Weapon in the Fight

for Equitable Climate Resilience

By Danielle Baussan May 2015


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Social CohesionThe Secret Weapon in the Fight

for Equitable Climate Resilience

By Danielle Baussan May 2015


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1 Introduction and summary

4 The vulnerability of low-income communities

8 Integrating community resilience into climate resilience

21 Recommendations to foster climate and social resilience

23 Conclusion

25 Endnotes

Contents


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1 Center for American Progress | Social Cohesion

Introduction and summary

In July 1995, Chicago experienced he deadlies weaher even in he ciy’s hisory:

a susained hea wave ha included a hea indexa measure o he hea experi-

enced by a ypical individualo 120 degrees Fahrenhei.1 Te exreme weaher o

ha summer 20 years ago led o a leas 465 hea-relaed deahs over a roughly wo-

week period.2 While all Chicagoans el he hea, hey did no suffer equally. Te

pars o he Windy Ciy wih higher concenraions o low-income people, elderly

people, and Arican Americans experienced some o he highes hea-relaed deah

raes.3 Pinpoining he locaions o hese deahs revealed a map o climae vulner-abiliy ha spoke o sark racial divisions and inequaliy wihin Chicago.

Weaher is ofen reerred o as “he grea equalizer,” bu as Chicago’s experience

shows, exreme weaher such as flooding, sorms, unusually cold spells, and hea

waves disproporionaely affec low-income communiies. Tere are several

explanaions or his dispariy. Low-income housingwhich is ypically older and

o poor qualiyends o provide less proecion rom exreme weaher.4 Afer

desrucive weaher evens, people in low-income communiies are no able o

recover as quickly or compleely as individuals who live in more financially secure

communiies.5 Moreover, people who choose o leave or are orced o move rom

a climae-affeced area become “climae displaced,” which resuls in disrupions o

heir lives and a poenial burden o hos communiies.

Since he Chicago hea wave o 1995, he world’s changing climae has conrib-

ued o an increase in he srengh and requency o exreme weaher evens, wih

he resuling allou more likely o be acuely el by low-income households. 6 In

order o curb climae change, a number o ciies are esing sraegies o cu carbon

polluion, such as expanding public ransporaion, improving energy efficiency,

and increasing access o renewable energy. Tese sraegies also have he added benefi o improving public healh, paricularly in low-income areas where raes o

ashma and oher environmen-relaed illness are high.7 Climae change adapaion

effors ha are currenly underway o figh coasal flooding,8 reduce excessive hea

in urban areas, and limi drough effecs9such as planing rees, resoring naural

areas, and improving waer-use efficiencycan help residens o all income levels.


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In addiion o hese measures, promoing social cohesionin which a sociey’s

members cooperae o achieve shared well-beingin communiies is an addi-

ional and overlooked ool or srenghening climae resilience, wih paricularly

good oucomes in low-income communiies. Jus as he Chicago hea wave dis-

played he vulnerabiliy o low-income communiies during exreme hea evens,

i also spolighed he resilience o socially cohesive communiies in he ace oexreme weaher. esearchers ound ha 3 o he 10 Chicago neighborhoods

wih he lowes raes o hea-relaed deahs were low-income, Arican American

communiies.10 Te reason ha communiies wih similar demographics ared

so differenly was high levels o communiy ineracion and organizaion ha

decreased isolaion among residens. Pu differenly, socially cohesive commu-

niies in which people are engaged in social or civic evens enjoyed increased

resilience agains exreme weaher evens.

While here is no singularly acceped definiion o social cohesion, he concep

has been used by social scieniss and inernaional governmen organizaions. TeOrganisaion or Economic Co-operaion and Developmen uses his definiion:

A cohesive society works towards the well-being of all its members, fights exclu-

sion and marginalisation, creates a sense of belonging, promotes trust, and offers

its members the opportunity of upward social mobility.11

Sociologis Dick Sanley, who direced research and analysis a he Deparmen

o Canadian Heriage or he Canadian governmen, elaboraes ha social

cohesion includes sociey’s willingness and capaciy o cooperae. He also

noed, “Social cohesion should no be conused wih social order [or] common

values.”12 Social cohesion is no mean o sraiy communiies bu o increase

cooperaion. Addiionally, socieies may lack social cohesion because hey do

no have he communicaion, unding, or organizaional ools needed o oser

cooperaive neworks in a communiy.

Tese definiions can provide imporan policy conex or effors o develop commu-

niy resilience agains he exreme weaher effecs o climae change. Social cohesion

can help serve as a resilience ool beore, during, and afer an exreme weaher even:

• Before an extreme weather event: Mapping low-income, climae-vulnerable

communiies can arge weaherizaion, energy-efficiency measures, and oher

resources o preven he wors impacs o exreme weaher. Ideniying hese

communiies can also assis governmen effors o oser social cohesiveness

wihin hose areas in order o improve climae resilience during and afer

exreme weaher.


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• During an extreme weather event: esidens and organizaions in more con-

neced communiies can assis wih supplies and help preven displacemen

while ideniying local needs or governmen officials.

• After an extreme weather event: Cohesive communiies may have a shorer

duraion o climae displacemen. Cohesive communiies paricipaing in volunary coasal buyback programs may receive greaer compensaion han

individual residens.

For hese benefis o be realized, however, governmen policies mus oser com-

muniy cohesion and incorporae communiy inpu in climae resilience and

miigaion plans. O course, social cohesion and oher resilience sraegies benefi

all communiies, no jus low-income areas. However, since low-income neighbor-

hoods are he mos vulnerable o climae change effecs, hese sraegies are par-

icularly beneficial in hose communiies. Moreover, social cohesion is a vial ool

or low-income communiies because hey ypically experience unique housing,economic, and healh disadvanages even beore exreme weaher srikes.

Incorporaing social cohesion ino climae resilience planning is a difficul ask

ha requires improving he level o ineracion and rus beween low-income

communiies and climae resilience planners. I is crucial ha resilience plans no

only ocus on physical inrasrucure, bu also consider he human elemen and

he long-erm healh o vulnerable communiies. Despie he complexiy o he

ask, building social cohesion is a worhy goal.


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The vulnerability of

low-income communities

Beore examining how social cohesion can improve resilience in low-income

communiies, i is worh examining how low-income communiies are affeced

by climae change.

Housing vulnerability

Housing vulnerabiliy is more exreme in low-income communiies, whereresidens are more likely o live in neighborhoods wih poor-qualiy housing and

inrasrucure.13 Low-income households are also more likely o be affeced by

exreme weaher: Te majoriy o counies ha experienced muliple exreme

weaher evens over he pas ew years were home o a majoriy o middle- and

lower-income households.14 Tis double whammy o increased exposure o

exreme weaher and inadequae proecions agains flooding and hazardous

emperaures requires unique atenion in climae resilience planning. Developing

exhausive resilience plans is especially imporan considering ha daa indicae

exreme weaher evens will coninue o increase going orward. Specifically, in he

firs hal o his decade alone, he Unied Saes experienced 347 exreme weaher

evensalmos as many exreme weaher evens as he enire decade o he 1970s

and more han he 1960s and 1980s combined.15

Housing vulnerabiliy is a op concern or governmen officials. Shorly afer

Supersorm Sandy hi New York Ciy, Gov. Andrew Cuomo (D-NY) correcly

prediced, “Tis is going o be a massive housing problem.”16 Te governor’s words

rang especially rue or he ciy ’s low-income residens. More han one-hird o he

individuals in he sorm’s surge area lived in some orm o governmen-assised

housing and roughly hal o he ciy’s 40,000 public housing residens were dis-placed.17 Tose who could no afford or find habiable emporary sheler aced he

challenge o living wihou elecriciy and ho waer or weeksi hey were able

o say in heir homes a all.


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When low-income housing is los o exreme weaher, i can ake years or afford-

able housing o reurn. In 2008, Hurricane Ike desroyed nearly 70 percen o he

srucures on Galveson Island, exas, including more han 500 low-income hous-

ing unis.18 Nearly five years laer, only 40 public housing unis had been rebuil.19

In 2014, he ciy held a groundbreaking ceremony o rebuild he 569-uni build-

ing.20

Te projec is scheduled o be compleed in 2016, eigh years afer he hur-ricane.21 Afer so many years, i is unclear wheher low-income residens, displaced

by Ike and a subsequen lack o affordable housing, will reurn.22

Low-income housing was also slow o reurn o New Orleans afer Hurricane

Karina. Beore he sorm devasaed New Orleans in 2005, he ciy had 5,146

households living in public housing.23 Eigh years laer in 2013, he ciy had less

han hal ha number o public housing unis.24

Even when low-income housing is rebuil, communiies ha exised prior o he

weaher even, once uprooed, may never reurn. For example, o he 3,077 am-ilies living in New Orleans’ our larges public housing developmens prior o

Karina, only 11 percen reurned o he rebuil complexes.25 Many low-income

residens moved o oher areas, noably o Houson, exas, which received an

esimaed 250,000 displaced residens.26 Making low-income housing more

climae resilien can help low-income communiies preven mass displacemen

and is associaed difficulies.

Low-income housing is more vulnerable o exreme weaher, is locaed in areas

ha are more likely o experience exreme weaher, and is slow o be rebuil.

Wihou srenghening he resilience o low-income housing along wih he asso-

ciaed communiies, resilience planners ignore prevenable damage and ragedy.

Economic vulnerability

Low-income communiies endure a disproporionae burden o energy coss,

which is only exacerbaed by exreme weaher. Muliamily renal housing unis,

which house almos hal o very-low-income reners,27 conain one-hird o he

energy-efficiency eaures ha oher ypes o housing ypically have.28

In fiscal year 2014, low-income households spen an esimaed mean o 16.3 percen o

heir household income on energy coss, compared wih 3.5 percen or wealhier

households.29 Wihou increasing ederal assisance or low-income amilies o

efficienly hea and cool heir homes and expanding and beter argeing weaher-

izaion programs o proec amilies rom exreme weaher, households wih he

leas money will coninue o pay he mos or heaing and cooling.


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Exreme weaher evens, such as severe sorms and hurricanes, can jeopardize he

economic healh o low-income workers and hose on public assisance. During

hese evens, businesses close and ransporaion is sopped or limied, which can

cause hourly workers o lose income and risk losing heir jobs. Addiionally, exreme

weaher can pu people in he posiion o having o rely on emergency ood assis-

ance in he orm o Elecronic Benefi ransers, or EBs.30

However, i an elecricouage persiss, which is common in he afermah o exreme weaher evens, hese

needed benefis can be difficul o access.31 Furhermore, cenralized vendors issue

EBs, so a power loss experienced by one vendor can affec people hroughou he

enire counry. For example, when an EB vendor’s compuer server los power in

2013, i affeced people in 17 saes.32 Likewise, wihou reliable elecriciy, social

services are ofen suspended, leaving people wihou access o ood or unable o cash

Social Securiy checks.33 Consequenly, residens in low-income communiies can

lose much more han power and bus connecions during exreme weaherhey

can lose heir jobs, miss criical paymens, and be unable o pu ood on he able.

In addiion o sorms and floods, exreme drough also exacerbaes economic di-

ficulies or low-income communiies in he orm o job losses, ood scarciy, and

ood affordabiliy. Caliornia’s hree years o drough have cos he sae’s agriculural

indusry $2.2 billion and resuled in 17,100 ull- and par-ime job losses in 2014

alone.34 Mos o hese jobs are seasonal or par-ime work, he ype o employmen

ha can suppor low-income households.35 Exreme weaher in agriculural areas

also affecs affordable ood opions or low-income communiies. While he curren

Caliornia drough has no been linked o significan ood price increases,36 droughs

in oher areas o he Unied Saes have made i harder or low-income communiies

o afford paricular ood iems. For insance, bee prices rose 12.1 percen in 2014

due o he effecs o a muliyear drough in exas and Oklahoma ha orced catle

producers o reduce he size o herds.37 Exreme weaher’s oll on wages, prices, and

saey ne programs places burdens on low-income communiies ha should be

accouned or in climae resilience and emergency planning.

Health vulnerability

Beore an exreme weaher even occurs, he climae change acors ha presage suchevens already adversely affec low-income communiies. A Yale Universiy sudy

ound ha fine pariculae materor he condensaion o polluans rom indus-

ry, raffic, and oher man-made sources known as PM 2.5was more prevalen in


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communiies o color. Ta same sudy also ound ha people wih low educaional

atainmen who ace high povery and unemploymen are a greaer healh risks.38

PM 2.5 has been ound o diminish lung uncion, cause greaer use o ashma medi-

caions, and cause hear problems, even wih shor periods o exposure.39

During summer hea waves, urban low-income areas can suffer rom surace hea,known as he “urban hea island” effec, ha resuls when asphal reains empera-

ures ha are up o 50 degrees o 90 degrees Fahrenhei higher han he surround-

ing air emperaure.40 A leas one sudy has ound ha a higher level o surace

hea relaes o a higher risk o deah rom hea-relaed illnesses in low-income and

high-povery neighborhoods.41

Exreme weaher evens ha affec elecriciy availabiliy can also damage he healh

o low-income communiy members by making i difficul or people o operae air

condiioners or home medical devices. Addiionally, many low-income amilies may

no be able o afford he purchase or energy coss o air-condiioning unis.

As climae change increases he number and severiy o exreme weaher evens,

low-income communiies will ace even greaer hardships. Undersanding hese

disinc housing, economic, and healh vulnerabiliies enables policymakers o

boh beter address hisoric inequiies beore disaser srikes and srenghen social

cohesion and implemen oher effecive climae resilience sraegies.


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Integrating community resilience

into climate resilience

Wihou acion, no sae or localiy will be proeced rom he human and fiscal

impacs o drough, floods, and oher exreme weaher evens ha are exacerbaed

by climae change. According o he Whie House Office o Managemen and

Budge, exreme weaher and wildfires alone have cos axpayers $300 billion dur-

ing he pas decade.42 A changing climae and he associaed increase in exreme

weaher evens will only drive up ha cos. Effors o make buildings and inra-

srucure more resilien o exreme weaher can avoid he penny-wise, pound-

oolish approach o 2010 o 2013, a ime when U.S. axpayers spen nearly $6 ordisaser recovery or every $1 spen o increase general communiy resilience.43

Officials are now realizing ha miigaion measures are no enough o preven he

wors impacs o climae change44 and ha communiies also need o adap o he

exreme weaher impacs ha are already occurring.45

Tus, naional and local adapaion plans are being developed o adjus o a new

or changing environmen.46 Tese effors also include resilience planning. Te

Naional esearch Council has defined resilience as “a capabiliy o anicipae,

prepare or, respond o, and recover rom significan muli-hazard hreas wih

minimum damage o social well-being, he economy, and he environmen.”47

Elaboraing on his definiion in he conex o low-income communiies, he

Pahways o esilience Parnership says ha is “vision o climae resilience is no

abou ‘bouncing back.’ Insead, i is abou bouncing orward o eradicae he ineq-

uiies and unsusainable resource use a he hear o climae crisis.”48 ransorming

decades o underunded iniiaives and inrasrucure in low-income areas would

help increase climae resiliency. Invesing in he people wihin hese areas rein-

orces resiliency and improves fiscal and human healh.

Adapaion measures ofen ocus on improving he effecs o climae changeon so-called hard inrasrucuresuch as roads, buildings, or oher permanen

insallaions49o he derimen o sof inrasrucure, which includes insiuions

ha are crucial o mainaining he healh, culural, and social sandards o a com-

muniy.50 Socially cohesive communiies are a key elemen o sof inrasrucure.


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I plans or resilien communiies exclude effors o oser social neworks, hey

overlook he imporance o social cohesion o help proec he mos vulnerable

communiies rom climae displacemen, healh complicaions, and oher impacs

o climae change.

Before an extreme weather event

Identifying vulnerable communities

In order o alleviae he impacs o climae disasers wihin low-income communi-

ies, a cohesive communiy mus exis beore disaser srikes. And in order o os-

er ha cohesive communiy, i is necessary o know where he climae-vulnerable,

low-income communiies are locaed.

Social scieniss, policymakers, and he ederal governmen offer research and daa

o help ideniy such communiies. Geographer Susan Cuter developed he idea

o a couny-specific “social vulnerabiliy index” ha examines he indicaors or

wha she called “disaser risks.”51 Tese risk indicaors include:

• Personal wealh• Age• Densiy o he buil environmen• Single-secor economic dependence• Housing sock and enancy • ace

However, his lis o indicaors only reflecs social vulnerabiliy. Te Naional

Associaion or he Advancemen o Colored People, or NAACP, has developed a

more exensive lis o indicaors or climae-vulnerable, low-income communiies,

noing ha effecive and equiable resilience plans mus be ailored o each com-

muniy’s unique, pre-exising vulnerabiliies.52 Tese indicaors include vulnerabili-

ies ha exis beore a climae even, such as income, lieracy, housing securiy, and

mobiliy. Tey also include “oucome indicaors” ha will deermine he successo climae-adapaion planning, such as inrasrucure, economic developmen,

and educaion. By including prediced and known climae vulnerabiliy in hese

risk acors, resilience plans can develop a more complee and equiable vision o

where exreme weaher will hi and how low-income communiies may be affeced.


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Ideniying and osering communiy cohesiveness in climae-vulnerable, low-

income communiies areas can help reduce he impacs o exreme weaher and

improve climae resilience plans.

Forunaely, governmen resources exis ha can help creae a map o socio-

climae vulnerabiliy. Unorunaely, he resources span agencies, and here islitle evidence ha hey have been used collaboraively. For example, he U.S.

Deparmen o Healh and Human Services has developed a Social Vulnerabiliy

Index o help ideniy and map communiies ha are “may need suppor in prepar-

ing or hazards, or recovering rom disaser,” defined as anyhing rom a ornado

o he leak o a hazardous maerial.53 Tis analysis includes socioeconomic saus.

However, his inormaion does no include projeced changes o climae or sea-

level rise, which can be accessed hrough he Naional Ocean and Amospheric

Adminisraion, or NOAA, 54 or he Federal Emergency Managemen Agency’s, or

FEMA’s, Flood Map Service Cener.55

Te Ceners or Disease Conrol and Prevenion developed a limied bu promis-

ing model o ideniy climae-vulnerable, low-income communiies. Is Building

esilience Agains Climae Effecs, or BRCE, ramework analyzes and com-

pounds socioeconomic daa and climae projecions o improve public healh

resilience in a changing climae.56 Tese daa underscore he imporance o social

cohesiveness in communiies. For example, he program ound ha when vacan

households in a Philadelphia neighborhood increased 10 percen, he odds o

exreme-hea moraliy grew o 40 percen.57 Tis kind o knowledge can help

local resilience planners undersand he imporance o communiy neworks

during exreme weaher evens. Te program is only available or 18 public healh

agencies, bu i expanded, i could help provide a naional map o climae and

communiy vulnerabiliy o exreme weaher.

Mapping climae and social vulnerabiliy also allows sae and local offices o plan

appropriaely or evacuaions, cooling ceners, or oher exreme weaher disaser

planning. A cohesive communiy can hen help spread he word abou hese lie-

saving disaser plans. Beter ye, i cohesive communiies are included in disaser

planning, i can inorm disaser planners o unique, localized challenges. For

example, i appears ha emergency planners or New Orleans did no realize howmany people could no evacuae in personal vehicles during Hurricane Karina.

Tey have since idenified arge groups and developed specialized evacuaion

plans and ransi opions.58 Mapping economic and climae vulnerable areas and

incorporaing he inpu o hose communiies could help ciies and saes prepare

or calamious climae evens.


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Fostering equity and community resilience

One canno change wha one canno measure. Knowing he geography o income

and climae vulnerabiliy enables governmens o srenghen climae resilience in

boh hard and sof inrasrucure. Improvemens o mass ransporaion, afford-

able housing, and more energy-efficien housing can help buildings and businesses wihsand exreme weaher. Effors o improve he lives o people who live and

work among he hard inrasrucure can help he economic and climae resilience

o an enire communiy. Tese effors should include governmen-suppored social

cohesion hrough building relaionships wih local communiy groups. Tis can

improve rus and communicaion beween governmen eniies and low-income

communiies, which may have experienced hisorical misreamen and disrus

rom auhoriies. Tis improved communicaion can resul in more effecive evacu-

aion communicaions or warnings abou an exreme weaher even. For example,

here are an esimaed 800 differen languages spoken in New York Ciy.59 Te ciy

may no be able o ranslae exreme weaher warnings ino 800 languages. I can,however, work wih culural-based communiy organizaions o disseminae weaher

warnings o non-English-speaking communiies as a orm o climae resilience.

Exising ederal programs work o srenghen communiy resilience as a climae

resilience sraegy, bu hese programs lack srong leverage. For example, FEMA

direcly engages wih communiies hough “PreparAhons,” local evens o help

individuals prepare or climae and oher disasers.60 For maximum impac,

PreparAhons should ideniy obsacles o low-income communiies preparing

or disaser, such as financial and space limiaions ha make i hard or people

o have he money or space o keep exra ood and waer supplies in heir homes.

FEMA should also ensure ha low-income communiies have easy access o he

PreparAhon even hrough public or ree ransi. Finally, he program ocuses on

individuals, bu i should also parner wih low-income communiy organizaions

o develop a cohesive nework or climae and disaser resilience.

In addiion o FEMA’s effors o oser individual climae resilience in low-income

communiies, he U.S. Environmenal Proecion Agency, or EPA, has devel-

oped and is updaing is Environmenal Jusice Acion Agenda, which ocuses on

empowering communiies o improve heir healh and incorporaing environmen-al jusice ino rulemakings and oher ederal acions.61 Curiously, he agenda does

no ocus on climae resilience bu on he EPA’s work o inegrae he needs o low-

income and climae-vulnerable communiies ino ederal planning. Tis acion is a

posiive sep oward increased communiy resilience or low-income areas.


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On a local level, New York Ciy’s recenly released “One New York” susainabil-

iy and resilience plan careully inegraes engaging civic leadership, improving

povery condiions, and srenghening he buil environmen ino is climae

resilience planning.62 Te plan is currenly more o a ramework han a deailed

implemenaion effor, bu i serves as a road map or oher localiies seeking a

vision or climae resilience ha ocuses on boh hard and sof inrasrucure.

Nongovernmen organizaions have also parnered wih low-income communiies

o improve climae resilience. Uiliies in Caliornia have worked wih communiy-

based organizaions or he insallaion o weaherizaion measures in low-income

areas.63 In Minneapolis, a uiliy-sponsored nonprofi worked wih communiy orga-

nizaions, he ederal governmen, and local housing auhoriies o und, insall, and

mainain energy-conserving rerofis. Tis parnership allowed he uiliy o ideniy

he greaes areas o need and maximize unds o improve climae resilience.64

Fosering communiy cohesion in low-income, climae-vulnerable areas can creaeargeed sraegies or climae resilience beore an exreme weaher even. Tis

cohesion can also improve healh and economic oucomes in low-income com-

muniies during an exreme weaher even.

During an extreme weather event: Filling

gaps in the absence of government support

During an exreme weaher even, governmen agencies mus respond o he

emergency needs o a diverse range o affeced areas and communiies. Low-

income communiies are ofen in paricular need o assisance, given he hisoric

inequiies described above. Ideally, communiy leaders will work closely wih

governmens beore an exreme weaher even his o creae a cohesive regional

nework o improve assisance and communicaion, wih a primary ocus on low-

income communiy needs.

Communiy organizaions may be he firs responders o a climae even. Following

Supersorm Sandy, many communiies did no see relie workers or governmen offi-

cials unil days afer he sorm.65

In he absence o governmen officials, communiygroups helped fill he gaps and played a criical supporing role, including locaing

space o disribue supplies and assessing he needs o heir communiies.66 While

some people are orunae o have neighbors who check on one anoher, many are

no as lucky. Organizaions ha build cohesive communiies can help develop per-

sonal relaionships o ideniy hose in need during a climae even.


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Afer he deadly 1995 Chicago hea wave, Pauline Jankowiz, an elderly, mobiliy-

challenged woman who was living alone, noed ha she survived due in par o

her paricipaion wih Litle Brohers - Friends o he Elderly, a communiy-based

nonprofi.67 Te group helps isolaed senior ciizens orm neworks, including

“phone buddies.” 68 When Jankowiz el ill during he hea wave, she called a

phone buddy, who sayed wih her on he phone unil he illness passed.

While communiy-based organizaions can improve he climae resilience o a

low-income communiy, governmens can also help o srenghen social cohesion.

For example, Balimore has held preparedness meeings in 25 o he ciy’s neigh-

borhoods ha are mos vulnerable o hea and flooding.69 A hose meeings, ciy

officials asked residens o ideniy wha hey would need during an emergency.

Officials also provided placards o residens ha can be placed in windows o

indicae he need or help o neighbors and passers-by during an exreme weaher

even. Simple, cos-effecive measures such as hese can reduce aaliies and

encourage communiy members o help each oher. Alice Kennedy, Balimore’ssusainabiliy coordinaor, noed, “Building communiy cohesion … is going o

prepare us or anyhing we ace.”70

After an extreme weather event

Benefits and strategies to retain low-income communities

Afer an exreme weaher even, i is imporan o reain and oser cohesion in

climae and economically vulnerable areas in order o avoid he climae-promped

scatering o a communiy. Tis scatering, also known as climae displacemen,

can have acuely negaive impacs or low-income communiies. Evidence suggess

ha low-income, climae-displaced residens may have a more difficul ime finding

employmen han low-income residens who remain in heir region.71 Displacemen

can exacerbae pre-exising housing and economic insabiliy: One sudy noed ha

severe climae evens end o concenrae low-income communiies ino less desir-

able areas.72 Wihou rused communiy neworks o help negoiae he bureau-

cracy o disaser recovery, low-income vicims o exreme weaher may also receiveewer benefis.73 Social isolaion ollowing displacemen may accoun or increased

levels o menal illness and depression linked o naural disasers.74 Domesic climae

migraion can also creae civic ension as hos communiies inegrae hose who are

climae displaced ino schools, neighborhoods, and ciy services.


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Climae displacemen is no o be conused wih evacuaion. Evacuaion affecs

people o all demographics and consiss o a emporary removal o people.

Climae-displaced people, paricularly hose wihou srong social neworks, can

find hemselves living ar rom homeand saying here.75 Climae displace-

men ears he social abric o communiies, depriving residens o he benefis o

low-income-communiy cohesion. Tus, long-erm displacemen should be a lasopion or low-income communiies.

Communiy-based organizaions can help srenghen he low-income-communiy

resilience needed o avoid displacemen. For example, ollowing Supersorm

Sandy, local housing and youh empowermen organizaions were able o survey

needs, communicae hose needs o governmen saff, and coordinae wih oher

organizaions.76 Tese acions helped serve low-income areas in he communiy,

reducing he need or climae displacemen. Faih-based organizaions can also

help low-income communiies o recover and residens o remain in heir general

area by offering a nework o assisance. Caholic Chariies o he Archdioceseo New York housed more han 1,000 homeless people and organized voluneer

effors wihin days o he sorm.77 By relying on cohesive neworks and ideniying

needs wihin low-income communiies, hese organizaions helped improve he

cohesiveness and resilience o low-income residens.

Tere are ederal programs o srenghen he cohesiveness o low-income com-

muniies afer an exreme weaher even. Much o FEMA’s suppor is direced o

individuals or public services and inrasrucure,78 bu he agency also developed a

whole-communiy approach o emergency managemen policies ha osers com-

muniy involvemen.79 I has resuled in engagemen wih communiy nongovern-

menal leaders and sae agencies o deermine he unique needs o communiies

in emergency siuaions, wih promising resuls. Tis ineracion wih local

communiies allows FEMA o ailor is responsiveness o minimize disrupions o

low-income and oher communiies.

FEMA is no he only ederal agency o oser pos-disaser communiy cohesion

as climae resilience. Presiden Barack Obama creaed he Whie House Office o

Faih-based and Neighborhood Parnerships80 and coninued he U.S. Deparmen

o Homeland Securiy, or DHS, Cener or Faih-based and NeighborhoodParnerships,81 which links he DHS wih communiy-based groups o address

disaser response. Tese policies could reduce risks in low-income, climae-vulner-

able neighborhoods by offering localized soluions o communiy needs. However,


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hese effors can be improved. Te whole-communiy approach asks localiies o

ake he firs seps in ineracing wih he ederal governmen. Tis may no be a pri-

oriy in low-income communiies, so or bes resuls, FEMA should work wih sae

agencies o ideniy and conduc oureach o vulnerable populaions.

Tere are also ciy and sae effors o minimize climae displacemen and improveclimae resilience. Afer Supersorm Sandy, New York Ciy began a program called

apid epairs. Te program was mean o help people remain in heir homes by

hiring conracors o resore hea, elecriciy, and ho waer o housands o homes

quickly.82 I also helped avoid spending resources on emporary housing. apid

epairs had some success. In less han 100 days, he program resored hea, power,

and ho waer service o more han 11,700 buildings.83 Te program also priori-

ized low-income applicans afer discovering ha previous aid-based assisance

programs ofen disproporionaely rewarded higher-income households because

hey ended o have beter documenaion.84 Te ederally unded sae program

New York ising also sough o rehabiliae low-income communiies aferSupersorm Sandy by offering echnical assisance and working wih local com-

muniy groups.85 New York ising engages communiies o help hem reain heir

social bonds in he even o exreme weaher. Te program developed an exensive

planning process wih voluneers and civic leaders and solicied public engage-

men direcly wihin communiies in a leas wo languages.86 Tese programs

offer some guidance or saes and ciies ha wish o promoe climae resilience by

resoring low-income communiies.

Afer an exreme weaher even, i is imporan o resore he cohesiveness o low-

income communiies. Tis can avoid he negaive aspecs o climae displacemen

such as reduced income or los benefis. Saes and localiies should develop pos-

disaser policies argeed oward low-income communiies in order o improve

climae resilience plans and he lives o low-income residens.

Assisting climate displaced communities

Climae displacemen has specifically negaive implicaions or low-income

communiies. Ye here may be insances in which low-income residens mayhave litle choice bu o leave. And as he number and inensiy o exreme

weaher evens increase,87 low-income communiies will progressively sruggle

wih he hrea o displacemen.


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Climae displacemen has long been considered an imporan issue in he inerna-

ional climae communiy. Te U.N. High Commissioner or eugees repored

ha 36 million people were displaced by naural disasers in 2008 alone.88 Te

U.N. Framework Convenion on Climae Change predics ha he number o cli-

mae migrans will climb o 200 million by he year 2050.89 Ye litle has been done

o predic or sudy he climae displacemen wihin he Unied Saes. However,here is one insance o domesic climae migraion ha illusraes he policy

implicaions o communiy cohesiveness and climae displacemen: he massive

displacemen o people in he wake o Hurricane Karina.

Hurricane Karina spurred a hasy exodus o approximaely 1.5 million people

rom Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana.90 Tis move was likened o he enire

Dus Bowl migraion o he 1930sbu compressed rom eigh years ino 14

days.91 People migraed ar and wide. Only 25 percen o Karina evacuees relo-

caed wihin a 10-mile radius rom heir previous couny o residence; anoher 25

percen relocaed more han 450 miles away; and 10 percen relocaed o areas aleas 830 miles away.92 Afer Hurricane Karina, exas ook in an esimaed 250,000

evacuees; he populaion o Baon ouge, Louisiana, nearly doubled; and 100,000

evacuees arrived in Alanamany o whom sayed in heir new locaions.93

Despie his widespread movemen, one lower-income, Karina-displaced com-

muniy managed o reain is cohesion and urn communiy resilience ino climae

resilience. An esimaed 9,000 people o Vienamese heriagea lower-income

bu highly cohesive communiywere displaced in Houson, exas, afer he

hurricane.94 When hey arrived, he Houson Vienamese communiy largely

absorbed he needs o hose who were displaced.95

Te cohesive Houson Vienamese communiy was able o organize oureach,

relie, and supplies. A Houson shopping mall ha caered o he Vienamese

communiy served as a saging area and cooling cener or hose who were cli-

mae displaced, and a Vienamese radio saion began organizing relie effors.96

Vienamese Caholic churches in exas ook in roughly 400 people.97 Tis social

cohesion also enabled many Vienamese people rom New Orleans o reurn

home. wo years afer he hurricane, an esimaed 90 percen o New Orleans’

Vienamese populaion reurned.98

Te resilience o he Vienamese communiy was made possible by is pre-exising cohesiveness and improved by regional ne-

works o similarly cohesive communiies.


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Social cohesion also exised in oher low-income communiies in New Orleans

beore Karina.99 Upon arrival in Houson, however, some local residens per-

ceived he evacuees as a cause o social srain. Houson Mayor Annise Parker

noed, “Te lowes social sraa here el he evacuees cu in line. Tere was he

percepion o an increase in crime and a big increase in homicides among evacu-

ees.”100

One sudy o Houson atiudes oward evacuees showed disinc hosiliyand racism oward people who were displaced by Hurricane Karina.101

Developing srong communiy cohesion beore an exreme weaher even can

help improve climae resilience, even when communiies are hreaened by

climae displacemen. Saes and ederal agencies should work wih local lead-

ers o creae and suppor naional neworks o socially cohesive communiies in

order o improve he oucomes and coss o climae displacemen. Tese coss

can run high: Houson, which ook in he highes number o Karina evacuees,102

experienced an increased need or healh services.103 Te ciy received almos $14

million in addiional educaion unding104 and $429 million in emergency undingor low-income housing.105 Direcing unds ino communiy cohesion policies can

improve climae resilience and reduce he public coss o exreme weaher.

Karina evacuees may be one o he larges climae-displaced groups in modern

U.S. hisory, bu evacuaions ha can lead o climae displacemen are no unusual.

In he pas five years, exreme weaher has affeced he ollowing communiies:

• 10,000 people in ennessee were displaced by flooding in 2010.106 • More han 12,000 people in Mino, Norh Dakoa, were orced o evacuae due

o flooding in 2011.107

• Supersorm Sandy displaced an esimaed 10,000 people o 40,000 people in

New York and New Jersey alone in 2012.108 • More han 11,000 people were evacuaed due o flooding in Colorado in 2013.109

• Tousands o people were orced o evacuae rom wildfires in Caliornia110 and

Washingon111 in 2014.

Tese and oher climae displacemens have especially adverse effecs or low-

income communiies, bu hey also affec a wide range o socioeconomic groups

hroughou he counry. Proecing hese communiies by supporing socialcohesion can help preven long-erm displacemen and improve resilience agains

exreme weaher or everyone and every place.


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Social cohesion maximizes post-extreme-weather buyouts and relocation

Social cohesiveness helps low-income communiies reurn home afer climae

displacemen. I also helps hem become whole i communiy members choose o

demolish heir homes in exchange or volunary governmen-sponsored buy-

ous. Some communiies are repeaedly exposed o desrucive flooding or areso vulnerable o sea-level rise ha hey may need o reurn o heir naural orm.

Volunary coasal buyou programs have emerged as a soluion o his dilemma.

Te programsalso called coasal rerea measures, managed rerea, or cosal

buybacksare bes defined as governmen compensaion or privae propery in

exchange or he righ o mainain he land in an undeveloped sae in perpeu-

iy.112 As a resul, volunary buyou programs can improve he climae resilience

o a greaer coasal area by allowing naural land o absorb he brun o flooding.

Boh he U.S. Deparmen o Agriculure and FEMA enable owners o flood-

prone propery o paricipae in buyou programs.113 While volunary buyous

may no be a climae resilience policy or he affeced homeowners, hey ensureregional climae resilience agains rising waers.

Ye volunary buyous can be an imperec ool or climae resilience. I applied

only o upscale coasal areas, hey can direc limied unds o luxury or vacaion

housing and leave lower-income areas wihou a lieline o escape a reoccurring

flood zone. On he oher hand, direcing volunary buyous oward low-income

areas can break apar communiies by weakening relaionships wih neighbors

and reducing paricipaion in area-based civic and social aciviies such as rec-

reaion ceners, youh or housing ceners, and aih-based organizaions. People

who mus begin a new lie elsewhere wihou hese known social suppors can

find hemselves sruggling, making communiies less resilien overall. However,

volunary buyou programs can be designed o enhance communiy cohesiveness.

For example, New York ising offers ull reimbursemen o a home’s air marke

value.114 Tis offer can give flood vicims an opporuniy o live elsewhere wih-

ou grea financial burden. Te program also includes a communiy inegraion

incenivea 5 percen incenive paymeni program beneficiaries permanenly

relocae in New York Ciy. Tis provision can preven ar-flung climae displace-

men and signals governmen suppor o reain local communiies.

Communiy cohesiveness also benefis hose seeking buyous. Volunary buyou

programs are more effecive i hey are coniguous. Tus, i a group o home-

owners agrees o paricipae in a volunary buyou program, hey may be more

likely o receive ederal buyou unds han a pachwork array o individuals.115


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Te New York ising program incenivizes collecive buyou agreemens; he

program offers a 10 percen enhanced buyou incenive or a maximum level

o homeowner paricipaion and a 10 percen incenive or coniguous groups

ha apply or buyous.116 Tese provisions benefi cohesive communiies. For

example, communiy cohesiveness helped he residens o Oak Beach, New

York, receive buyou unds. Te area was home o he Flood Vicims o 1992Commitee, which was able o mobilize he communiy o accep buyous afer

Supersorm Sandy.117

Buyou programs can ail i hey do no have cohesive communiy suppor. Afer

Hurricane Karina, he Army Corps o Engineers proposed a volunary buyou

program or 17,000 residenial properies wo years afer he sorm. Objecions

rom local officials and residens reduced he number o properies o 3,000. Al

Naomi, a projec manager or he program, noed ha hey sill mus work wih

local sakeholders “o ge a sense o wha’s implemenable and wha isn’.” 118 I he

Army Corps o Engineers had buil relaionships wih communiy-based organiza-ions ocused on cohesiveness beore announcing is plan, he buyou program

may have had greaer success.

Relocating entire communities

As exreme weaher and sea-level rise begin o hreaen enire communiies

in Alaska, communiy relocaion has emerged as a poenial mehod o com-

muniy and climae resilience or Alaska Naive communiies, many o which

are low income and lack basic waer and saniaion services.119 epors by he

Governmen Accounabiliy Office, or GAO, ound ha 86 percen o he 213

Alaska Naive villages and owns are experiencing erosion and flooding due o

rising emperaures and 15 percen, or 31 owns, are imminenly hreaened by

climae change.120 Federal and sae governmens have begun o consider he

implicaions o moving enire communiies, bu here are considerable coss and

land-use planning issues. Te cos o relocaing Alaska Naive owns, which have

populaions ranging rom 354 people in Newok o 96 people in Koyukuk,121

could be beween $130 million122 and $180 million or each own.123 I is no

simple, or hisorically jus, o ask hese communiies o move hemselves. Many ohese areas are home o Alaska Naive communiies because he ederal govern-

men insiued policies o consolidae Alaska Naive groups in cerain places

along he coas.124 Te expense o relocaion is high, paricularly on a per-person

basis, bu i would preserve Alaska Naive communiies, heir culure, and heir

resilience o a changing climae.


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While he hisory o Alaska Naive communiies may be unique, eroding coasline

communiies are no. ide measuremens aken by NOAA show ha sea levels

along he Easern Seaboard range rom 10 inches o 15 inches higher oday ha

hey were 100 years ago.125 Tese areas represen 39 percen o he U.S. popula-

ion,126 and coasline counies conribued 45 percen o he counry ’s enire gross

domesic produc in 2011.127

As exreme weaher hreaens communiies hrough-ou he Unied Saes, here is an increased risk o climae displacemen among all

economic levels. Tis risk urher limis he climae resilience o low-income com-

muniies, which may find hemselves in greaer compeiion or affordable housing

and employmen. Supporing communiy cohesion srenghens he resilience o

all communiies, bu i is paricularly imporan wihin low-income areas and can

improve he climae resilience oucomes o displacemen or relocaion.


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Recommendations to foster

climate and social resilience

• Sae, local, and ederal governmens can address hisoric inequiies beore

disaser srikes by improving he qualiy and availabiliy o affordable housing,

invesing in urban inrasrucure improvemens, and expanding access o public

ransporaion ha helps people escape exreme weaher evens and improve

access o employmen.

• Policymakers canno change wha is no measured. o reduce vulnerabiliy and

increase resilience in low-income communiies, he ederal governmen shoulduse is cross-agency daa o creae a social and climae vulnerabiliy index. Tis

daa would also help climae resilience and emergency preparedness planners

undersand where and how o ocus resources.

• Once climae and economically vulnerable communiies are locaed, ederal, sae,

and local governmens should seek o ideniy and build rus wih eleced and

civic leaders o hese areas hrough he social and climae vulnerabiliy index.

• Saes and local agencies should oser leadership wihin low-income com-

muniies by supporing communiy engagemen programs. Tis suppor could

be financial or simply open a line o communicaion o help share inormaion

abou exreme weaher evens. Tese relaionships can help inorm low-income

communiies abou preparedness beore exreme weaher occurs.

• In order o increase climae resilience, ederal and sae governmens can expand

he resources available o weaherize low-income housing o preven he wors

impacs o exreme weaher.

• Governmen policies should atemp o reduce climae displacemen andincrease economic sabiliy in low-income areas by developing policies ha

prioriize pos-exreme-weaher repairs in low-income areas and work wih local

communiies o undersand where repairs may have he greaes impac.


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• Te ederal governmen should sudy domesic climae migraion o improve

disaser planning and minimize he economic and social impacs o climae

displacemen on low-income displaced people and heir hos communiies.

Fosering social cohesion beore an exreme weaher even may help reduce he

risksand cosso mass climae migraion.

• I exreme weaher orces people or communiies o relocae, volunary buyou

programs should include incenives o keep communiies wihin a geographic

radius in order o promoe social cohesion. Communiy relocaion programs

should be designed wih communiies, no simply or hem, and should have a

goal o improving boh economic and climae resilience.

Federal execuive acion could implemen some o hese recommendaions.

Specifically, he presiden’s November 2014 Execuive Order on Preparing he

Unied Saes or he Impacs o Climae Change acknowledges low-income

amilies’ vulnerabiliy o he effecs o climae change.128 Te presiden could issuea policy direcive calling on agencies o help increase climae resilience by promo-

ing communiy parnerships in low-income areas. Such a direcive should also

ensure ha agencies are conducing oureach o low-income communiies abou

he impacs o exreme weaher using communicaion mehods, languages, and

ools ha are accessible o diverse racial, ehnic, and geographic communiies.

Finally, he ederal governmen should incenivize organizaion or ciy neworks

ha can oser cohesiveness wihin and beween low-income communiies. Tese

acions canno supplan he need or ederal acion on climae change or ederal

unding or disaser relie. However, by creaing communiy cohesion, hese

acions would srenghen communiy resilience.


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Conclusion

Low-income communiies are paricularly vulnerable o he economic, healh,

and housing deprivaions o increasing exreme weaher. Promoing social

cohesion in hese communiies is an imporan bu ofen overlooked ool in

improving heir climae resilience. Mapping climae and socioeconomic vulner-

abiliy can help direc resources oward oureach effors, nework building, and

communiy-based iniiaives ha promoe social cohesion in communiies,

which in urn osers climae resilience.

Encouraging social cohesion in low-income communiies can help hem be beter

inormed abou climae readiness and allow hem o more ably advocae or ben-

eficial weaherizaion and preparedness measures beore exreme weaher srikes.

During exreme weaher evens, socially cohesive communiies are beter able o

relay needs and ideniy risks o he appropriae agencies or larger organizaions.

Afer exreme weaher evens, socially cohesive communiies are beter posiioned

o advocae or relie and reurn o heir pre-disaser lives.

Governmen agencies should suppor communiy cohesion as an equiable

climae resilience sraegy. Agencies can do his by developing relaionships

wih low-income communiies and helping o build neworks ha connec

hese communiies wih exising low-income cohesive communiies. Agencies

should sudy and minimize low-income climae displacemen o undersand is

requency, is geography, and bes pracices o lessen he negaive impacs on

displaced people and hos communiies.

Finally, agencies should develop equiable pos-disaser unding programs ha

improve oucomes or low-income communiies. Trough hese acions, social

cohesion can creae climae resilience ha benefis he hard inrasrucure o buildings and he sof inrasrucure o he people ha live in hem.


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About the author

Danielle Baussan is he Managing Direcor o Energy Policy a he Cener or

American Progress. Prior o his role, she was majoriy counsel on he U.S. House

o epresenaives Selec Commitee on Energy Independence and Global

Warming. She also served he Disric o Columbia Governmen as a capial ciyellow, a policy analys in he Execuive Office o he Mayor, and as direcor o

governmen relaions or he Anacosia Waerron Corporaion, a susainable

economic developmen organizaion commited o underserved areas. She is a

graduae o ugers Universiy and he Universiy o Virginia School o Law.

Acknowledgments

Special hanks o Cahleen Kelly, Senior Fellow wih he Energy Policy eam a

he Cener or American Progress; Miranda Peerson, esearch Associae wih heEnergy Policy eam; and Alex Fields, inern wih he Energy Policy eam.


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Endnotes

1 National Weather Service, Heat: A Major Killer (U.S.Department of Commerce, 2014).

2 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,Natural Disaster Survey Report: July 1995 Heat Wave (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1995). Epidemiologists

estimated the number of people who died due to theweather was higher than during a typical week forthat month—739 more Chicagoans died during theweeks of July 14 and July 20. See Eric Klinenberg, HeatWave: A Social Autopsy of Disaster in Chicago (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2002).

3 Klinenberg, Heat Wave; Eric Klinenberg, “Adaptation:How can cities be ‘climate-proofed’?”, The New Yorker,January 7, 2013, available at http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/01/07/adaptation-2.

4 Tracey Ross, “The Three Factors That Put Lower-Income Americans At Risk From Extreme Weather,”

ThinkProgress, August 19, 2013, available at http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2013/08/19/2491681/low-income-extreme-weather.

5 Jeffrey A. Groen and Anne E. Polivka, “Going Home after

Hurricane Katrina: Determinants of Return Migrationand Change in Affected Areas,” Demography 47 (4)(2010): 821–844.

6 U.S. Global Change Research Program, “National Cli-mate Assessment” (2014), available at http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report; Tracey Ross, “A Disaster in theMaking” (Washington: Center for American Progress,2013).

7 Environmental Protection Agency, “Reducing UrbanHeat Islands: Compendium of Strategies” (2008); TheWhite House, “Fact Sheet: 16 Communities RecognizedAs Climate Action Champions for Leadership onClimate Change,” Press release, December 3, 2014,available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/12/03/fact-sheet-16-us-communities-recognized-climate-action-champions-leaders.

8 Henry Goldman, “Bloomberg Proposes $20 BillionFlood Plan Af ter Sandy,” Bloomberg, June 11, 2013,available at http://www.bloomberg.com/news/ar-ticles/2013-06-11/bloomberg-proposes-20-billion-new-york-flood-plan-after-sandy.

9 Agence France-Presse, “California unveils historic waterrestrictions over drought crisis,” Philippine Daily Inquirer ,April 2, 2015, available at http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/683001/california-unveils-historic-water-restric-tions-over-drought-crisis.

10 Klinenberg, “Adaptation.”

11 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-ment, “Perspectives on Global Development 2012:Social Cohesion in a Shif ting World” (2012).

12 Dick Stanley, “What Do We Know about Social

Cohesion: The Research Perspective of the FederalGovernment’s Social Cohesion Research Network,” TheCanadian Journal of Sociology 28 (1) (2003): 5–17.

13 The Urban Institute, “Low-Income Working Families:Facts and Figures” (2005).

14 Daniel J. Weiss, Jackie Weidman, and Mackenzie Bron-son, “Heavy Weather: How Climate Destruction HarmsMiddle- and Lower-Income Americans” (Washington:Center for American Progress, 2012).

15 Miranda Peterson and Alexander Fields, “ExtremeWeather on the Rise,” Center for American Progress,April 2, 2015.

16 Ken Lovett, “Mayor Bloomberg and Gov. Cuomo:Housing Issues Next Step in Storm Recovery,” New York

Daily News, November 4, 2012, available at http://www.nydailynews.com/blogs/dailypolitics/mayor-bloom-berg-gov-cuomo-housing-issues-step-storm-recovery-blog-entry-1.1692674.

17 Furman Center and The Moelis Institute for AffordableHousing Policy, “Sandy’s Effects on Housin g in NewYork City” (2013); The Week , “Hurricane Sandy: NewYork’s ‘massive, massive housing problem’,” November 5,2012, available at http://theweek.com/articles/470750/hurricane-sandy-new-yorks-massive-massive-housing-problem.

18 Harvey Rice, “Rebuilding begins for Galveston publichousing 6 years after Ike,” Houston Chronicle, September10, 2014, available at http://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/texas/article/Rebuilding-be-gins-for-Galveston-public-housing-6-5746823.php#/0.

19 Audrey White, “Five Years After Ike, Galveston isStill Picking Up the Pieces,” The New York Times,April 25, 2013, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/26/us/galveston-tex-picking-up-the-pieces-5-years-after-hurricane-ike.html?_r=0.

20 Rice, “Rebuilding begins for Galveston public housing 6years after Ike.”

21 Amber Willis, “Galveston breaks ground on new publichousing,” Click2Houston, September 10, 2014, availableat http://www.click2houston.com/news/galveston-breaks-ground-on-new-public-housing/27990816.

22 Forrest Wilder, “The Castaways: Can Galveston’s blackcommunity survive the island’s comeback?”, The TexasObserver , December 12, 2008, available at http://www.texasobserver.org/2918-the-castaways-can-galvestons-black-community-survive-the-islands-comeback.

23 Katy Reckdahl, “NOLA Public Housing’s Slow Slog Backfrom Hurricane Katrina,” Next City , August 29, 2013,available at http://nextcity.org/daily/entry/nola-public-housings-slow-slog-back-from-hurricane-katrina.

24 Ibid.

25 Ibid.

26 Thom Patterson, “Katrina evacuees shift Houston’sidentity,” CNN, August 12 , 2011, available at http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/08/12/katrina.houston.

27 Gary Pivo, “Energy Efficiency and its Relationship toHousehold Income in Multifamily R ental Housing”(Washington: Fannie Mae, 2012), available at https://www.fanniemae.com/content/fact_sheet/energy-efficiency-rental-housing.pdf.

28 Ibid.

29 Joel F. Eisenberg, “Weatherization Assistance Program Technical Memorandum Background Data and Sta-tistics on Low-Income Energy Use and Burdens” (OakRidge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2014).

30 MassLegalHelp, “Disaster SNAP Benefits (D-SNAP),” avail-able at http://www.masslegalhelp.org/disaster-snap/-food-stamp-benefits-d-snap- (last accessed April 2015).

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ver.org/2918-the-castaways-can-galvestons-black-community-survive-the-islands-comebackhttp://www.click2houston.com/news/galveston-breaks-ground-on-new-public-housing/27990816http://www.click2houston.com/news/galveston-breaks-ground-on-new-public-housing/27990816http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/26/us/galveston-tex-picking-up-the-pieces-5-years-after-hurricane-ike.html?_r=0http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/26/us/galveston-tex-picking-up-the-pieces-5-years-after-hurricane-ike.html?_r=0http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/26/us/galveston-tex-picking-up-the-pieces-5-years-after-hurricane-ike.html?_r=0http://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/texas/article/Rebuilding-begins-for-Galveston-public-housing-6-5746823.php#/0http://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/texas/article/Rebuilding-begins-for-Galveston-public-housing-6-5746823.php#/0http://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/texas/article/Rebuilding-begins-for-Galveston-public-housing-6-5746823.php#/0http://theweek.com/articles/470750/hurricane-sandy-new-yorks-massive-massive-housing-problemhttp://theweek.com/articles/470750/hurricane-sandy-new-yorks-massive-massive-housing-problemhttp://theweek.com/articles/470750/hurricane-sandy-new-yorks-massive-massive-housing-problemhttp://www.nydailynews.com/blogs/dailypolitics/mayor-bloomberg-gov-cuomo-housing-issues-step-storm-recovery-blog-entry-1.1692674http://www.nydailynews.com/blogs/dailypolitics/mayor-bloomberg-gov-cuomo-housing-issues-step-storm-recovery-blog-entry-1.1692674http://www.nydailynews.com/blogs/dailypolitics/mayor-bloomberg-gov-cuomo-housing-issues-step-storm-recovery-blog-entry-1.1692674http://www.nydailynews.com/blogs/dailypolitics/mayor-bloomberg-gov-cuomo-housing-issues-step-storm-recovery-blog-entry-1.1692674http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/683001/california-unveils-historic-water-restrictions-over-drought-crisishttp://newsinfo.inquirer.net/683001/california-unveils-historic-water-restrictions-over-drought-crisishttp://newsinfo.inquirer.net/683001/california-unveils-historic-water-restrictions-over-drought-crisishttp://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-06-11/bloomberg-proposes-20-billion-new-york-flood-plan-after-sandyhttp://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-06-11/bloomberg-proposes-20-billion-new-york-flood-plan-after-sandyhttp://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-06-11/bloomberg-proposes-20-billion-new-york-flood-plan-after-sandyhttps://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/12/03/fact-sheet-16-us-communities-recognized-climate-action-champions-leadershttps://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/12/03/fact-sheet-16-us-communities-recognized-climate-action-champions-leadershttps://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/12/03/fact-sheet-16-us-communities-recognized-climate-action-champions-leadershttp://nca2014.globalchange.gov/reporthttp://nca2014.globalchange.gov/reporthttp://thinkprogress.org/climate/2013/08/19/2491681/low-income-extreme-weatherhttp://thinkprogress.org/climate/2013/08/19/2491681/low-income-extreme-weatherhttp://thinkprogress.org/climate/2013/08/19/2491681/low-income-extreme-weatherhttp://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/01/07/adaptation-2http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/01/07/adaptation-2


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31 Stacy Vanek Smith, “Sandy outages hit food stampsrecipients,” Marketplace, November 5, 2012, available athttp://www.marketplace.org/topics/economy/weather-economy/sandy-outages-hit-food-stamp-recipients.

32 USA Today , “Access restored for food stamp users,Xerox says,” October 12, 2013, available at http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2013/10/12/food-stamp-debit-cards/2972713/. Note that the server did not godown.

33 Cathleen Kelly and Tracey Ross, “One Storm Shy of

Despair,” (Washington: Center for American Progress,2014).

34 Richard Howitt and others, “Economic Analysis ofthe 2014 Drought for California Agriculture” (Davis,CA: University of California, Davis, 2014), availableat https://watershed.ucdavis.edu/files/biblio/DroughtReport_23July2014_0.pdf.

35 Brian Clark Howard, “California Report Warns ofWorsening Economic I mpacts of Drought,” NationalGeographic, July 17, 2014, available at http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/07/140715-california-drought-economic-impacts.

36 Economic Research Service, Food Price Outlook (U.S.Department of Agriculture, 2015).

37 Philip Brasher, “Food inflation less than average in 2014,

USDA says,” Agri-Pulse, January 23, 201 5, available athttp://www.agri-pulse.com/Food-inflation-less-than-average-012315.asp.

38 Cheryl Katz, “Unequal exposures: People in poor, non-white neighborhoods breathe more hazardous par-ticles,” Environmental Health News, November 1, 2012,available at http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/news/2012/unequal-exposures.

39 American Lung Association, “State of the Air 2014:Particle Pollution,” available at http://www.stateoftheair.org/2014/health-risks/health-risks-particle.html (lastaccessed May 2015).

40 Environmental Protection Agency, “Reducing UrbanHeat Islands.”

41 Joyce Klein Rosenthal, “Evaluating the impact of the

urban heat island on public health: Spatial and socialdeterminants of heat-related mortality in New YorkCity,” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 2010,available at http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/catalog/ac%3A148820.

42 White House Office of Management and Budget, “FiscalYear 2016 Budget of the U.S. Government” (2015), pp.23–24, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/budget/fy2016/assets/budget.pdf .

43 Daniel J. Weiss and Jackie Weidman, “Pound Foolish”(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2013).

44 Bente Pretlove, “Mitigation is not enough: time foradaptation,” DNV GL, May 30, 2014, available at http://blogs.dnvgl.com/sustainability/2014/05/mitigation-enough-time-adaptation/.

45 Alexander Saltarin, “Act on climate change issuenow before it’s too late: UN,” Tech Times, April 14,2014, available at http://www.techtimes.com/ar-ticles/5558/20140414/act-on-climate-change-issue-now-before-its-too-late-un.htm.

46 National Research Council, “Adapting to the Impactsof Climate Change” (Washington: National AcademiesPress, 2010).

47 Ibid.

48 Lois DeBacker and others, eds., “Pathways to Resilience”(Oakland, CA: Movement Strategy Center, 2015).

49 Environmental Protection Agency, “Adaptation Over-view,” available at http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/impacts-adaptation/adapt-overview.html (last accessedApril 2015).

50 Urbano Fra.Paleo, Risk Governance: The Articulation ofPolitics, Hazard and Ecology (Netherlands: Springer,

2015).

51 Susan Cutter and others, “Social Vulnerability toEnvironmental Hazards,” Social Science Quarterly 84 (2)(2003).

52 NAACP, “Equity in Building Resilience in AdaptationPlanning,” available at http://action.naacp.org/page/-/Climate/Equity_in_Resilience_Building_Climate_Adap-tation_Indicators_FINAL.pdf (last accessed April 2015).

53 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “The SocialVulnerability Index (SV I),” available at http://svi.cdc.gov/(last accessed April 2015).

54 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “SeaLevel Rise Viewer,” available at http://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/tools/slr (last accessed April 2015).

55 Federal Emergency Management Agency, “Welcome toFEMA’s Flood Map Service Center,” available at https://msc.fema.gov/portal (last accessed April 2015).

56 Gino D. Marinucci and others, “Building ResilienceAgainst Climate Effects: A Novel Framework to FacilitateClimate Readiness in Public Health Agencies,” Inter-national Journal of Environmental Research and PublicHealth 11 (6) (2014): 6,433–6,458.

57 Christopher K. Uejio and others, “Intra-urban societalvulnerability to extreme heat: The role of heat exposureand the built environment, socioeconomics, and neigh-borhood stability,” Health & Place 17 (2) (2011): 498–507.

58 Federal Highway Administration, “Catastrophic Hur-ricane Evacuation Plan Evaluation,” available at http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/hurricanevacuation/exec-summ.htm (last accessed April 2015).

59 Endangered Language Alliance, “Home,” available athttp://elalliance.org/ (last accessed April 2015).

60 Federal Emergency Management Agency, “America’sPrepareAthon,” available at http://www.community.fema.gov/connect.ti/AmericasPrepareathon (last ac-cessed April 2015).

61 Environmental Protection Agency, “Draft EJ 2020 ActionAgenda,” available at http://www.epa.gov/environmen-taljustice/ej2020/ (last accessed May 2015).

62 City of New York, “#ONENYC,” available at http://www1.nyc.gov/html/onenyc/index.html#future (last accessedApril 2015).

63 Andrew McAllister, “Energy Costs, Conservation, andthe Poor” (Oakland, CA: Race, Poverty, and the Environ-

ment).

64 Ibid.

65 Eric Williams, “Social Resilience and Superstorm Sandy:Lessons from New York City Community Organizations”(New York: Association for Neighborhood and HousingDevelopment, 2011).

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66 Ibid.

67 Klinenberg, Heat Wave.

68 WBEZ Afternoon Shift, “Heat Wave: Protecting seniorsfrom harsh weather,” available at https://soundcloud.com/afternoonshiftwbez/heat-wave-protecting-seniors-from-harsh-weather (last accessed April 2015).

69 Timothy B. Wheeler, “Get ready for disasters, Baltimoreresidents urged,” The Baltimore Sun, November 13, 2014,available at http://www.baltimoresun.com/features/

green/blog/bal-get-ready-for-disaster-baltimore-residents-urged-20141111-story.html.

70 Ibid.

71 Elizabeth Fussell, Narayan Sastry, and Mark VanLand-ingham, “Race, socioeconomic status, and return migra-tion to New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina,” Populationand Environment 31 (1–3) (2010): 20–42.

72 Groen and Polivka, “Going Home after HurricaneKatrina.”

73 Michel Masozera, Melissa Bailey, and Charles Kerchner,“Distribution of impacts of natural disasters acrossincome groups: A case study of New Orleans,” EcologicalEconomics 63 (2007): 299–306.

74 Harvard Medical School, “Katrina Victims Increas-

ingly Depressed, Traumatized, And Suicidal As ReliefEfforts Drag On,” Science Daily, November 1, 2007,available at http://www.sciencedaily.com/releas-es/2007/10/071031172821.htm.

75 Reuters, “Hurricane Sandy Hit Poor Residents TheHardest, Studies Show,” The Huffington Post, March6, 2013, available at http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/06/hurricane-sandy-poor_n_2815782.html.

76 Williams, “Social Resilience and Superstorm Sandy.”

77 Catholic Charities Archdiocese of Washington,“Weathering Sandy - How Catholic Charities helped themost vulnerable through Superstorm Sandy,” availableat http://www.catholiccharitiesdc.org/sandy(last ac-cessed April 2015).

78 Federal Emergency Management Agency, “The DisasterProcess & Disaster Aid Programs,” available at https://www.fema.gov/disaster-process-disaster-aid-programs(last accessed April 2015).

79 Federal Emergency Management Agency, A WholeCommunity Approach to Emergency Management:Principles, Themes, and Pathways for Action (U.S. Depart-ment of Homeland Security, 2011).

80 The White House, “Obama Announces White HouseOffice of Faith-based and Neighborhood Partnerships,”Press release, February 5, 2009, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/ObamaAn-nouncesWhiteHouseOfficeofFaith-basedandNeighbor-hoodPartnerships/.

81 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “DHS Center forFaith-based and Neighborhood Partnerships,” available

at http://www.dhs.gov/dhs-center-faith-based-neigh-borhood-partnerships (last accessed May 2015).

82 Russ Buettner and David W. Chen, “Hurricane SandyRecovery Program in New York City Was Mired byIts Design,” The New York Times, September 4, 2014,available at http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/05/nyregion/after-hurricane-sandy-a-rebuilding-program-is-hindered-by-its-own-construction.html.

83 Ibid.

84 Ibid.

85 Governor ’s Office of Storm Recovery, “Home,” availableat http://stormrecovery.ny.gov(last accessed April2015).

86 New York Rising, “Red Hook: NY Rising CommunityReconstruction Plan” (2014).

87 Michael Finneran, “More Extreme Weather Events Fore-

cast,” National Aeronautics and Space Administration,January 16, 2013, available at http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/science/climate_assessment_2012.html.

88 United Nations, “Next Steps: New dynamics fordisplacement,” available at http://www.un.org/en/glo-balissues/briefingpapers/refugees/nextsteps.html (lastaccessed April 2015).

89 International Organization for Migration, “Migrationand Climate Change” (2008).

90 Jeffrey A. Groen and Anne E. Polivka, “Hurricane Katrinaevacuees: who they are, where they are, and how theyare faring” (Washington: Bureau of Labor Statistics,2008).

91 Peter Grier, “The great Katrina migration,”The Christian

Science Monitor , September 12, 2005, available athttp://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0912/p01

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