Biological Rhythms& Sleep

A2 Psychology – PSYA3

Name:

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Name: Target Grade:

Class Teacher: Study Buddy’s Name:

TitleWhat you/your

teacher/peer said you did well

What your you/your teacher/peer said you

needed to improve

Your mark/out

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Issues Research Methods

Debates Approaches

How to include synoptic information…This is your ‘synoptic toolbox’. This toolbox will help your to draw links to synoptic material in the exam.

Whenever you see the toolbox on the page, synoptic links can be made

You need to make sure that you put the correct tools in your box…these tools are:

Issues (AO2)o Gender biaso Ethical issueso Culture biaso The role of animals in

research Debates (AO2)

o Free will and determinism

o Nature vs. nurtureo Reductionismo Is psychology a science

Approaches (AO2)o Biologicalo Behaviouralo Cognitiveo Psychodynamic

o Evolutionary Research methodology (AO3)

o How science workso Validityo Reliabilityo Scientific method (e.g.

observation/survey etc)o Demand characteristicso Social desirability biaso Lack of control

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PSYA3 Assessment

1 hr 30 minutes exam = 25% of the total A level marks

Three topics from three different sections will be taught across the year from a total of eight. The sections and topics selected are as follows;

Section a = Biological rhythms and sleep Section c = Relationships Section e = Eating behaviour

QWC will be assessed in each essay

Introduction

We will be working through this booklet in lesson time, it can also be used as a revision aid nearer to the exam. Inside this booklet are resources that have been designed to help you to understand and revise biological rhythms and sleep. Three areas are covered:

Ø Biological rhythms Ø Sleep Ø Disorders of sleep

The booklet also contains a list of the specification requirements which you can use as a checklist to monitor your progress. Past exam questions have also been included so you know what to expect, some of these will be completed during lesson time.

These are useful sites which may help you with your revision, some of them have been used within this booklet. 1. http://www.aqa.org.uk/index.html 2. http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/sleep 3. http://faculty.washimgton.edu/chudler/sleep.html 4. http://www.sleepfoundation.org/site/ 5. http://www.a-levelpsychology.co.uk/online/a2/chapter04/mcqs_ch04.pdf 6. http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/brain_basics/

understanding_sleep.htm#dynamic_activity7. http://sleepinggreat.com/

When_your_Inner_Clock_Hits_the_Snooze_Button__Interrupted_Circadian_Rhythms_Disrupt_Sleep.html

8. http://www.intropsych.com/ch03_states/sleep_deprivation.html

The following textbooks have been used; Ÿ Cardwell, M. & Flanagan, C. (2012) Psychology A2: The Complete Companion. (Third

Edition) Folens Limited.

How is your work assessed?

AO1 – knowledge and understanding of psychology (as a science) and of how science works (8 marks)

AO2 – Application of knowledge and understanding of psychology and of how science works: analysis and evaluation of knowledge and processes; application of scientific

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knowledge and processes to unfamiliar situations, including issues; assessment of the validity, reliability and credibility of scientific information (12 marks)

AO3 – How science works. Psychology candidates should be able to describe ethical, safe and skilful practical techniques and processes; know how to make, record and communicate reliable and valid observations and measurements; analyse, interpret, explain and evaluate methodology, results and impact of their own and others’ investigative activities (4 marks)

It is appropriate and workable to incorporate approaches, issues and debates into your answers. In order for you to reach the higher bands you have to effectively reference such material. The AO3 marks are likely to be accessed through methodological analysis and evaluation of studies.

The assessment for learning cycleTeacher sets task

Student performs task

Teacher / student / peer marks task

Systematised feedback on task

Follow-up work

The systematised feedback will: Relate to how your work will be marked in the external examinations Be a system that you can understand Provide feedback that is developmental

Key Words

Term Definition

Circadian rhythms

Infradian rhythms

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Ultradian rhythms

Endogenous pacemakers

Exogenous zeitgebers

REM

NREM

Restoration theory

Evolutionary theory

Shift work

Jet lag

Lifespan changes

Insomnia

Narcolepsy

Sleep Walking

SleepWe spend about 8 hours a day, 56 hours a week, 240 hours a month and 2,920 hours a year doing it...that's right...SLEEPING. We apparently spend one third of our lives doing nothing. But is sleep really doing nothing? It looks like it...our eyes are closed, our muscles are relaxed, our breathing is regular, and we do not respond to sound or light. If you take a look at what is happening inside of your brain, however, you will find quite a different situation - the brain is very active. This topic will explore some of what may happen inside our brain when we’re asleep.

Sleep occurs in a pattern or rhythm we are awake for a period of time (usually during the day) this is then followed by a period of sleep (usually during the night). This topic starts

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with considering 3 main types of biological rhythms.

Circadian RhythmsCircadian rhythms are rhythms that last about 24 hours, they are regulated by an internal biological ‘clock’ that is readjusted every day according to environment cues. This clock regulates different aspects of our behaviour, like the sleep-wake cycle.

Sleep-wake cycle

The reason we go to sleep and wake up around the same time each day is because of changes in sun light or environmental cues, these remind us what time it is and affect our sleep wake cycle. But what happens when there are no environmental cues, are circadian rhythms affected?

Michel Siffre (1975) was a French cave explorer who was interested in the human internal clock. Outline briefly the three pieces of research he conducted and

what was found. Can you think of any criticisms of the research?

Aschoff and Wever (1976) placed participants in an underground WW11 bunker. It was found that the circadian rhythms of the volunteers were between 24/25 hours some were as long as 29 hours.

Studies therefore appear to suggest that our internal body ‘clock’ (called an ‘endogenous pacemaker’) is based on a 24 hour cycle. But external cues are still important; they help to keep the internal clock accurate.

An interesting study was conducted by Folkard et al (1985). Outline the research in the space below:

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Aim To see if external cues could be used to override the internal clock.

Procedure

Findings

Conclusion Circadian rhythms can only be guided to a limited extent by external cues.

« What’s your daily rhythm find out by accessing this website: http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/sleep

Evaluation of Sleep-Wake Cycle

Research does also show that there are differences between individuals. For example, the cycle length has been found to vary between 13-65 hours (Czeisler et al 1999). There also appears to be individual differences in the onset of the cycle. Duffy et al (2000) found that morning people prefer to rise early and go to bed early (about 6.00am and 10.00pm), whereas evening people prefer to wake and go to bed later (about 10.00am and 1. 00am).

While early research studies isolated participants from clocks, radios and natural day light they failed to isolate them from any artificial light. It was assumed at that time that artificial light didn’t affect circadian rhythms; recent research has suggested that this may not be true. Czeisler et al (1999) altered participants’ circadian rhythms down to 22 hours and up to 28 hours with just dim lighting.

Temperature

Core body temperature can indicate circadian rhythm. It is highest at 6pm and it falls about 2 degrees Celsius over the next 12 hours to its lowest at 4.30am. There is a slight dip in temperature just after lunch (which isn’t due to eating – as the dip remains even when no food is consumed). In some countries an afternoon siesta is common, and coincides with this temperature decrease. These changes in temperature are an example of an ultradian rhythm, which we will soon study.

Evaluation of Temperature

Cognitive behaviour has been found to vary with differences in temperature. Folkard et al (1977) tested memory recall in children aged 12-13. They were read stories at either 9am or 3pm, after one week results showed...

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Gupta (1991) found IQ test results were better at 7pm, than 9am or 2pm. Maybe this should be considered for exams!

Giesbrecht et al (1993) lowered body temperature and found cognitive performance dropped.

However, Hord and Thompson (1983) tested cognitive performance in a field situation (not lab) and found no link between core temperature and cognitive performance.

Hormones

Hormone production follows a circadian rhythm. Cortisol is lowest at midnight and highest at 6am. Cortisol is linked to stress but also to keeping us alert, which explains why when we wake at 4am we struggle to think clearly. Melatonin (induces sleepiness) and growth hormones also have circadian rhythms and these peak at midnight.

Problems with circadian rhythm research:Ø It is biologically based which means that research does not take into account

human behaviour when we try to override biological factors. Ø However overriding biological factors may be impossible, there is the case of a

blind man whose circadian rhythm was 24.9 hours. Even with clocks and social cues he could not adjust his internal pace and used stimulants and sedatives to keep a 24 hour rhythm.

Ultradian and Infradian RhythmsUltradian Rhythms (span less than 1 day)

Sleep Stages

Daily cycles of wakefulness and sleep follow a circadian rhythm (24 hour pattern). Within the sleep portion of this cycle there is another type of rhythm called an ultradian rhythm. There are five stages to sleep; the first four stages are called NREM sleep (non-rapid eye movements) and the fifth stage is called REM sleep (rapid eye movements). One sleep cycle goes through all five stages and lasts 90 minutes. This diagram shows the 90 minutes sleep cycle:

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There are 4 stages to NREM sleep. Stage 1 and 2 are shallow stages of sleep, you then progress into deep or slow wave sleep (SWS) which is stages 3 and 4. The progression through the stages is marked by a decreasing frequency and increasing amplitude (size). This change in frequency and amplitude is measured using a electroencephalograph (EEG) machine.

Copy and complete the table below showing the sleeps stages, as well as the brain waves and characteristics of this sleep stage:Stage of sleep Sleep characteristics and types of waves

Stage 1 & 2

Stage 3 & 4

Stage 5 (REM) REM sleep is characterized by fast desynchronised EEG activity which resembles the awake state.

These cycles continue through the night with the SWS getting shorter and the REM periods getting slightly longer as the night progresses. Each cycle is about 60 minutes in early infancy this increases to 90 minutes during adolescence.

These lines represent the EEG (electroencephalogram) which shows a record of brain activity; the EMG (electromyogram) shows muscle activity; the EOG (electroculogram)

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shows eye movements. Look at the differences in the EEG, EMG and EOG during waking, REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement Sleep) and NREM sleep.

Evaluation of Sleep Stages

One issues with REM studies is the assumption that REM = dreaming. Dement and Kleitman (1957) investigated this link. Outline the study below:

Basic rest-activity cycle

The 90 minute sleep cycle is located within the 24 hour circadian cycle. This 90 minute clock is also ticking throughout the day it’s called the basic rest-activity cycle (BRAC).

Friedman and Fisher (1967) found that there was a clear 90 minute cycle in eating and drinking behaviour in psychiatric patients.

Evaluation of basic rest-activity cycle

The basic rest-activity cycle shows that this 90 minute sleep cycle maybe a form of timing to ensure that the biological processes in the body work in unison.

Infradian Rhythms (span more than one day but less than one year)

Monthly Cycles

The female menstrual cycle is an example of an infradian rhythm. It is driven by fluctuating hormone levels to regulate ovulation. The pituitary gland releases hormones which stimulate a follicle in one ovary to ripen an egg and release the female hormone oestrogen. Once the egg is ripened the ruptured follicle secretes progesterone which causes the lining of the womb to prepare for pregnancy. Two weeks after ovulation if there has been no pregnancy the level of progesterone falls causing the line of the womb to be shed.

But what about males?! Empson (1977) found some evidence for a periodic variation of both body temperature and subjective ratings of morning alertness, with a cycle length of 20 days.

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Evaluation of Monthly Cycles

The menstrual cycle is normally governed by endogenous (internal) cues. But it can be controlled by exogenous cues too. It has been found than women who live together and who do not take oral contraceptives tend to menstruate at the same time each month. Russell et al (1980) carried out an interesting study to investigate this, outline the procedure and findings below:

We now know that PMS is a physiological problem. It is a disorder that affects many women the week before they menstruate. PMS has been found to be caused by hormonal changes related to infradian rhythms and is also associated with lower academic achievement, suicides and crime.

Seasonal Affective Disorder

Infradian rhythms don’t have to be monthly, some behaviours happen once a year. Seasonal affective disorder appears to operate within a seasonal cycle. The person becomes depressed during winter months and recovers during the summer. While we all

may experience a drop in mood during the darker months, for SAD sufferers the symptoms are more severe.

Studies have shown that the hormones serotonin and melatonin are secreted when it’s dark, the darker it is the more hormones are secreted. These hormones may be related to the chronic depression experienced by those with seasonal affective disorder.

Evaluation of Season Affective Disorder

How can SAD be explained in terms of a consequence of disrupted circadian rhythms, rather than an outcome of infradian rhythms?

Research Activity

Research what seasonal affective disorder is and how it can affect people…use the 11

websites at the front of the booklet to help you.

How can SAD be treated? (Use page 13 to help)

Present your findings to the rest of the class.

Practice Questions

1. What is an infradian rhythm? [4 marks]2. What is an ultradian rhythm? [4 marks]3. Outline and evaluate research on infradian and ultradian rhythms. [24 marks]

Endogenous Pacemakers and Exogenous Zeitgebers

Most organisms have an internal biological clock that controls the circadian cycle, this clock is described as endogenous because it’s inside the organism. As seasons change the clock needs to be adjusted, external cues in the environment help to reset our internal clock. These cues are referred to as exogenous (because effects are outside the organism) they include things like the sunset, and eating an evening meal.

By looking at the specification, you can see that you need to know how endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers control circadian rhythms.

In small groups you will create an endogenous and exogenous research map that will include descriptions of research, evaluation points, and synoptic links. o You will create this on the computer and then transfer the research onto an A3

sheet.o Each person will take responsibility for a section of the subtopic.o It may be helpful to have each section colour coded.o Include images to illustrate the research.o REMEMBER: you only need to know how endogenous pacemakers and exogenous

zeitgebers control circadian rhythms.

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The effect of endogenous and exogenous factors

You will be put into pairs or threes to reinforce your understanding of endogenous and exogenous factors. You will also consider the effect these have on the sleep cycle. You will then produce a handout which you will present to the rest of the class (lasting around 5 mins). You will need to be able to; Explain what endogenous or exogenous pacemakers are; Include relevant diagrams to support

explanations Include evidence to support internal or

external factors Produce an assessment task to assess

understanding

Useful websites:http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/sleephttp://www.psyonline.org.uk

Disruption of Biological Rhythms

Unfortunately, many people are unable to keep a steady circadian rhythm due to their current lifestyle. For example some people work at night, others have irregular sleep schedules (due to frequent travel and experience jet lag) and then there are people who simply don’t get enough sleep due to insomnia or other sleep disorders. This section will specifically focus on the effects of jet lag and shift work.

The Sleep Doctor

This assignment will be split into two separate tasks:a) Design a revision grid to outline and evaluate research

investigating what shift work and jet lag are and how they can affect the circadian rhythm (see below for template).

b) In groups of three each of you will be given a role play scenario, one person will play the sleep doctor, one the patient and one the supportive/unsupportive partner depending on the scenario. The patient is having problems sleeping, the doctor needs to identify the problem and use psychological research to support their claim as well as giving advice to help resolve the problem.

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What is it?What are the consequences

?Evaluation

How to reduce harmful effects

Shift work and shift lag

Jet travel and jet lag

Researching Articles

Each group will be given an article that examines other factors that influence circadian rhythms. In pairs you need to read the article outlining and evaluating the main points, presenting it to another pair in the class.

The Nature of Sleep

Sleep normally involves being still, unresponsive yet not unconscious. For example, a parent will wake at the sound of a crying baby. The most distinctive thing about sleep is that it’s accompanied by a pattern of electrical activity in the brain. Animals as well as humans sleep although the length of sleep varies according to animal type. Many factors suggest that sleep is necessary for survival and that sleep is adaptive to each particular species.

Guess the amount of sleep that you think each animal requires.

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Sleep Stages

We have already covered sleep stages. Refer back to your grid that you created for ultradian rhythms.

Lifespan changes

Task: You need to be aware of how sleep patterns change throughout a person’s life. You must create a sleep timeline; this will show you psychological research (and commentary) about how sleep changes across the lifespan.

AO1

AO2Functions of Sleep

Shortly you will learn about the two suggested functions of sleep, these are:Ø Restoration theoryØ Evolutionary explanations

Before this, it may be interesting to investigate what happens when humans are deprived of sleep. How long can you go without sleep for? What is the world record for sleep deprivation? What are the effects?

You need to choose one of the sleep deprivation case studies to investigate further. You should be focusing on the effects of sleep deprivation.

Here are three case studies…but you could also choose Chris Moyles and Comedy Dave’s attempt to break Radio 1’s record for the longest radio show in 2011.

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Tony Wright , 42, from Penzance, was trying to beat the Guinness world record of 264 sleepless

hours set by Randy Gardner in the US in 1964.

He fought off tiredness by drinking tea, playing pool

and keeping a diary.

Peter Tripp, a New York D.J who vowed to stay awake

for 200 hours to raise money for the March of Dimes. He was closely

monitored by sleep researchers and tested in

various ways. By 100 hours he was already hallucinating.

Randy Gardner holds a Guinness world record for

the longest period of time a human being has

intentionally gone without sleep not using stimulants

of any kind. Gardner stayed awake for 264 hours (11

days) with the help of friends, TV reporters, and

playing basketball.

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Functions of Sleep

Restoration TheoryRestoration theories take the view that sleep gives the body time to restore the physical resources used up during the day; which makes sense because you do wake up feeling refreshed. We know already that sleep is divided into different stages; two of these are SWS (slow wave sleep) and REM sleep. Oswald (1980) believed that REM sleep is important for brain recovery and that SWS is important for bodily repair.

Slow Wave Sleep (SWS)

Growth Hormone is secreted during SWS which then stimulates growth – this is very important during childhood. In adults, growth hormone allows proteins to synthesise and cells to grow. Proteins are fragile and must be constantly renewed so this is vital for tissue repair. For growth hormone to be secreted uninterrupted sleep is vital; this constant restoration is the body’s natural recovery process.

What did Sassin et al (1969) find about growth hormones?

van Cauter and Plat (1996) found that amount of growth hormone correlates with the amount of SWS.

Decline in growth hormone in older age has been associated with less SWS (van Cauter et al, 2000)

The immune system is also linked with SWS sleep. How can SWS affect immune system functioning?

REM sleep

Brain growth is linked with REM sleep. REM/active sleep is far higher in babies than adults and even higher in premature babies – this can be explained by their need for rapid brain growth. It has been suggested that the amount of REM sleep needed of any species in correlated to immaturity at birth.

How does Siegel’s research support this?

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Neurotransmitter activity may be affected by REM sleep. Siegel and Rogawski (1988) suggest that REM sleep allows for a break in neurotransmitter release, which allows the neurons to regain their sensitivity and the body to function properly. Is there any support for this?

The link between REM sleep and memory has been investigated. Crick and Mitchinson (1983) proposed that during REM sleep unwanted memories are discarded, making more important memories accessible. What has new evidence found about the link between sleep and memory?

REM sleep is important for…

SWS is important for…

Evaluation of Restoration Theory

If sleep has a restorative effect then sleep deprivation must have consequences. But the findings for this are mixed, suggesting that some kinds of sleep are more important than others. Complete the grid below, showing the consequences of total and partial sleep deprivation.

Total sleep deprivation Partial sleep deprivation Much research has been based on

individual case studies. Seems that lack of sleep does not result

in long-term damage and there is no need to recover all the sleep lost.

What is ‘microsleep’? When does it occur?

‘REM rebound’ can occur after partial sleep deprivation, what is this?

When a person is simply deprived of sleep there is not the same effect, it appears to only be related to SWS and REM.

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What has research on non-human animals found about total sleep deprivation?

How can psychologists achieve REM sleep deprivation in participants?

There is then the tendency to go into REM sleep when they go back to sleep. On recovery nights the proportion of REM sleep increases, this is REM rebound, and is up to 50% higher than normal (Empson, 2002).

How can psychologists achieve SWS deprivation in participants? (Ferrara et al, 1999)

Effects of exercise on sleep

Shapiro et al (1981) found that runners in a marathon slept for an hour more on the two nights following a race. SWS also increased supporting the view that NREM sleep is associated with physical recovery.

However Horne and Minard (1985) found exercise simply makes you fall asleep faster, not for longer.

Evolutionary/Ecological ExplanationsWe know that sleep must be adaptive and serve some biological function. Otherwise why do animals do it when there are risks involved? Evolutionary explanations aim to find the other benefits of sleep.

Back when we studied restoration theory, Young (2008) criticised the theory as not all animals become unconscious when they sleep. For example, dolphins and fur seals sleep one hemisphere of the brain at a time when at sea. Young went on to suggest that the more we know about other animals’ sleep patterns, the more the restoration theory is not the best explanation of sleep.

Energy Conservation

Sleep patterns vary according to our metabolic rate. Metabolic rate refers to the chemical processes that take place in the body. All activities use energy, animals with a high metabolic rate use more energy when foraging or escaping from predators. Sleep is important because it enables species to conserve/use less energy; this approach was described by Webb (1982) as the hibernation theory of sleep.

Foraging Requirements

If sleep is vital, the time spent doing it may be restricted by food intake. Animals

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such as cows and horses have to spend a great deal of time foraging for food (e.g. grass) which is poor in nutrients. They have to eat lots of it which takes a lot of time. Animals such as cats and dogs are carnivores and their food is higher in nutrients, they therefore eat less and can spend more time sleeping. Resting therefore conserves energy.

Predator Avoidance

An animal that is a predator (e.g. fox) sleeps for longer. Prey species need to be vigilant to avoid predators and so sleep time is therefore reduced. As sleep is needed to function they sleep when they are less vulnerable.

Waste of Time

Meddis (1975) suggested that sleep helps prey animals to stay out of harm’s way when they are most vulnerable. For most animals this means sleeping at night or where they are hidden. According to Meddis, sleep may simply ensure that animals stay still when they have nothing better to do. This is referred to as the ‘waste of time’ hypothesis. Siegel agrees with this view, as being awake is riskier than sleeping as the animal is more likely to be injured, and there is the added benefit of energy conservation. Young (2008)

added to this, there is greater likelihood of passing on your genes if you can sleep for as long as you can get away with.

Evaluation of Evolutionary/Ecological Explanations

On page 22 of the textbook there is information on the Phylogeny of Sleep Project. Make some notes about the problems with studying animal sleep patterns and the differences in sleep between species.

Energy, foraging or predation?

Zepelin and Rechtschaffen (1974) found…

Allison and Cicchetti (1976) found that prey species sleep less. But there are some exceptions, e.g. the rabbit, who sleeps as much as the mole (low danger rating).

Why may the energy conservation hypothesis be wrong and foraging and predator avoidance may be correct according to Capellini et al (2008)?

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REM and NREM sleep

Only when the brain is in NREM sleep does energy consumption drop. This means that during REM sleep the brain is still active. Allison and Cicchetti (1976) support the notion that NREM sleep has evolved for energy conservation, they found that larger animals has less NREM (but not less REM) sleep. But the data from Capellini et al found no link between body size and NREM sleep.

There is more evidence for the distinction between REM and NREM sleep. Primitive animals, such as reptiles, have only NREM sleep. REM seems to have evolved 50 millions years ago in birds and mammals. It has been suggested that NREM

evolved for energy conservation, and REM evolved to maintain brain activity – supported by the facts that infants have more REM sleep as their brains are developing.

But again, Cappellini et al’s research does not support this.

A Combined Approach

What does the evolutionary approach fail to address?

What does the combined approach suggest?

Horne (1988) proposed a theory combining restorative and adaptive theories. Outline the theory in the box below:

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Sleep DisordersA sleep disorder is any condition that involves difficulties in sleeping they can be classified as-;

« Problems falling asleep or staying asleep despite having opportunities to do so. E.g. insomnia.

« Problems staying awake e.g. narcolepsy « Problems related to a regular sleep schedule due to shift work or jet lag. « Sleep disruptive behaviours called parasomnias (behaviours that occur

during/around sleep e.g. sleep walking, night terrors and teeth grinding.

Insomnia

Insomnia may involve trouble falling asleep. It is hard to define in terms of the number of hours sleep, because there are individual differences in sleep patterns as well as age-related sleep differences.

Initial insomnia = trouble falling asleep Middle insomnia = trouble remaining

asleep Terminal insomnia = waking up early

Insomnia is classified as transient = short term Intermittent = occasional. Chronic = constant and long term (occurs for 1

month or more).

Causes of insomniaSecondary insomnia: where there is a single underlying medical, psychiatric or environmental cause. Insomnia can be a symptom of a main disorder such as depression, it is therefore secondary. It is typical of people who do shift work or who have circadian rhythm disorders. It can also be the result of environmental factors, e.g. too much caffeine, tea, alcohol or even chocolate. Primary Insomnia: according to the DSM definition is when insomnia occurs on its own with no known cause for more than 1 month. Insomnia is the individual’s primary problem. The individual may be stressed, they may have developed bad sleeping for example staying up to late. Sometimes insomnia may have a cause that has now disappeared but insomnia persists because of an expectation of sleep difficulty.

1. Age and gender - older people and women are more likely to suffer insomnia. In women it may be related to hormonal fluctuations (e.g. menopause). In older people it may be due to an increase in physical problems arthritis and diabetes.

2. Sleep aponea/parasomnias - Apnoea is when people stop breathing while asleep. May last few seconds to minutes and it may occur 5 -30 times an hour! This seriously disrupts sleep. Parasomnias include snoring, sleep walking, and teeth grinding. This increases the likelihood of the person experiencing insomnia.

3. Personality - Kales et al 1976 – found that insomniacs were more likely to internalise psychological disturbances rather than acting out problems. Internalisation leads to higher levels of emotional arousal/anxiety, which is a risk factor for insomnia.

Evaluation of insomnia

Ø Why may it be helpful to treat insomnia regardless of whether it is a primary or secondary effect? (page 25)

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Treatments of insomniaTreatments focus on factors which perpetuate or maintain insomnia.

Relaxation and sleep hygiene (refers to healthiness of sleep habits e.g. reducing caffeine, sleeping in a dark room, increasing exercise and cutting

down on day time naps. Phototherapy this can be used for circadian disruption. Sedatives, anti anxiety drugs and melatonin can be used as a short term treatment although drugs can cause drowsiness in the day. Attribution therapy (a psychological technique) it is thought that the insomniac has learned to attribute their sleep to insomnia. If they are convinced that the source lies elsewhere, this will end their maladaptive attribution. Storms and Nisbett (1970) found that insomniacs told they were taking an arousal pill (actually a placebo) fell asleep faster because they attributed their own arousal to a pill, rather than the ‘primary’ cause.Sleep restriction therapy. This involves restricting sleep to a few hours per night and gradually increasing this until normal sleep is experienced.Reconditioning the insomniac learns to associate their bed with just sleep.

Sleep Doctor!You will be working in a small group. Allocate one person the role of Sleep Doctor, one person a nurse, and one person the role of patient. The patient suffers from insomnia. The doctor needs to advice the patient about possible treatments to help them cope.

Evaluation of Insomnia You need to make evaluation notes on insomnia, using page 25 of the textbook. You should include:

Consequences of insomnia A model to explain insomnia.

NarcolepsyTwo main symptoms;

1. Feeling sleepy all the time2. Episodes of cataplexy (loss of muscular control) during the day.

Episodes can be triggered by different emotional arousals e.g. stress. Individuals can also experience hallucinations, sleep paralysis, these are experienced when feeling asleep or waking up, night time sleep can also be interrupted by frequent waking. Narcolepsy often begins in adolescence/early adulthood it’s estimated that 1 in 2000 people are affected, this number may be larger as many may go undiagnosed since some people only

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experience minor symptoms.

Sleep walkingThis is a disorder that is most common in children, affecting 20% of

children and less than 3% of adults (Hublin et al 1997). In severe cases (one or more episodes a night) it has a considerable effect on a person’s life. There is even a risk of injury. Sleep walking occurs during NREM/SWS

sleep and is related to night terrors which are common in children. A sleep walker is not conscious and has no memory of the events during

sleep.

Explanations of sleep walkingIncomplete arousal: EEG recordings made during sleep walking show a mixture of delta waves (typical in SWS), and higher frequency beta waves (which are characteristic of the awake state). It may be that sleep walking occurs when a person in SWS is awakened but arousal of the brain is incomplete. This abnormal arousal may be genetic.

Sleep deprivation, alcohol, fever, stress, or psychiatric conditions can also lead to sleep walking. Hormonal changes during puberty and menstruation can also trigger sleep walking.Why children? Children have more SWS than adults. Oliviero (2008) suggests that the system which inhibits motor activity in SWS is not sufficiently developed in children, and possibly underdeveloped in some adults. In the study motor

excitability was tested in adult sleep walkers and it was found that compared to controls the sleep walkers showed signs of immaturity in the relevant circuits.

Ø Evaluate sleep walking using page 27.PSYA3 – Sleep Checklist

Use this checklist to ensure that you have covered all the areas needed for success in your exams. The following topics will be covered in class.

However, it will be your responsibility to catch up with any topics you miss and to actively revise the different areas.

Topic AreaCovere

d in Class

Revised

Biological rhythms

Circadian, infradian, and ultradian rhythms, including the role of endogenous pacemakers and of exogenous zeitgebers in the control of circadian rhythms

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ICT task-; Produce an information leaflet on the causes of narcolepsy, this must include possible explanations (REM, HLA, and Hypocretin) and a commentary on these studies; using page 26-27 and other sources.

Disruption of biological rhythms, for example shift work, jet lag

Sleep

The nature of sleep including stages of sleep and lifespan changes in sleep

Functions of sleep, including evolutionary and restoration explanations

Disorders of sleep

Explanations for sleep disorders, including insomnia, sleep walking and narcolepsy

You must also: Develop knowledge, understanding and skills of analysis and evaluation in relation

to relevant theories and studies in each of the three topics studied Develop an understanding of the major approaches in psychology (cognitive,

biological, behavioural and psychodynamic) through their study of the topics Develop an appreciation of issues and debates as relevant to each topic studied:

for example, issues of bias, including gender and culture, the role of animals in research, ethical issues, the nature/nurture debate, free will and determinism and reductionism.

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